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Introduction to Programming
structures II: The Four Logic
Structures:
Sequential logic, Decision logic, Case logic, Loop logic

Lecture Note (Week 7)

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 Learning Objectives
 At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
– Have mastered the art of Problem Solving using
algorithm, Flowchart and Pseudocode
– Use the Solution Development tools in Problem
Solving.
– Develop Solutions using the logic structure types
(Sequential, Decision, Case and Loop).

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 Lecture Outline
 Sequential Logic Structure
 Decision Logic Structure
 Case Logic Structure
 Loop Logic Structure

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 Sequential Logic Structure
 The Sequential logic structure is the simplest of
all logic structures.
 A programmer who writes the algorithm (set of
instructions) sequentially, wants the computer
to process the instruction from top to bottom.
 One instruction does not execute before the
previous one is executed.
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 Basic Flowchart symbols for the
Sequential Structure
 Start

 I/O

 Processing

 End/Stop/Exit
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 Sequential Logic Format
 Generally, it has the form:

ModuleName (list of parameters)

Note: The form of the flowchart must correspond to the form of the algorithm.
The instructions in the algorithm are numbered.
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 Example: The Interest Problem
Mary Smith is looking for the bank that will give the most return on her
money over the next five years. She has $2,000 to put into a savings
account. The standard equation to calculate principal plus interest at the
end of a period of time is
Amount = P * (1 + I/M)^(N * M)
Where:
– P= Principal (amount of money to invest, in this case $2,000)
– I= Interest (percentage rate the bank pays to the investor)
– N Number of Years (time for which the principal is invested)
– M = Compound Interval (the number of times per year the interest is
calculated and added to the principal)

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 Algorithm
InterestControl
1. Input Principal (P), Interest (I), Years (N), Time(M)
2. Calculate resulting amount after a given period
Amount = P * (1 + I/M)^(N * M)
3. Print Amount
4. End

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 Flowchart
Start

Input P, I, N, M

Amount = P * (1 + I/M)^(N * M)

Print
Amount

Stop
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 Pseudocode
Input Principal (P), Interest (I), Years (N), Time(M)
Calculate resulting amount after a given period:
Amount = P * (1 + I/M)^(N * M)
Print Amount
End

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 Lecture Outline
 Sequential Logic Structure
 Decision Logic Structure
 Case Logic
 Loop Logic

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 Decision Logic Structure
 The decision logic structure uses the
if/then/else instruction.
 The computer executes a set of instructions
if a condition is true or Else another set of
instructions will be executed.
 The Else part is optional
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 Decision Logic Structure

The decision logic structure Flowchart for the decision logic structure

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 Decision Logic Structure
 It is very powerful
 It allows the computer to choose between
two or more sets of actions.

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 Conditions in Decision Logic
 There are four(4) types of conditions:
– Logical expression that uses logical operators like
AND, OR, NOT, etc.
– An expression that uses relational operators like <=,
<, >, >=, etc.
– A variable of the logical data type (True or False)
– An expression with the combination of logical,
relational and mathematical operators.
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Decision Logic with a single condition
 A decision logic with only one condition to
be fulfilled for the True part is relatively
simple.

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 Example 1
 If a decision is to be made in a program to
give two spoons of syrup to children not
more than 10 years old but give three spoons
to children more than 10 years old.

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 Pseudocode for Example 1
If age <= 10 Then From the pseudocode, we can identify
two numeric variables: age and
no_of_spoons = 2 no_of_spoons. If age is less than or equal
to 10, the value 2 is assigned to
Else no_of_spoons otherwise no_of_spoons is
no_of_spoons = 3 assigned the value 3.

Endif
The pseudocode above accomplishes the task on the previous slide using a decision logic

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Flowchart for Example 1

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 Example 2
 Assume you are calculating pay at an hourly rate and
overtime pay (over 40 hours) at 1.5 times the hourly
rate.
 The decision to calculate pay would be stated in the
following way:
– If the hours are greater than 40,
• Then the pay is calculated for overtime, or
– Else
• the pay is calculated in the usual way

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Algorithm, Flowchart & Pseudocode for
Example 2

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Decision Logic with multiple conditions
 Decisions can also have multiple conditions to
be met before a/some set(s) of instructions can
be executed.
 In this case, such conditions are connected with
logical operators (AND, OR).
 The resultant Boolean value (True or False)
determines if the true part of the logic will
execute or not.
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Decision Logic with multiple conditions
(2)
 Extending the Example 1, let us assume that adults
can also be given that syrup and therefore we want
adults more than fifty years of age to have two
spoons.
 In this new decision problem, we have two conditions
before two spoons of syrup can be given:
– A child must not be more than 10 years
– An adult must be more than 50 years

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 Pseudocode 2
1 2
If age <= 10 OR age > 50 Then 1 Condition 1

no_of_spoons = 2
Else
no_of_spoons = 3 2 Condition 2
Endif
Can the AND logical operator be used?

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 Multiple If/Then/Else Instructions
 A programmer may be faced with the problem
of making multiple decisions in a program,
three sub-categories of the decision logic
structure are employed in this scenario, they
include the following:
– Straight-through logic
– Positive logic
– Negative logic

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 Straight-Through Logic
 All the decisions are processed sequentially
 There is no else part
 When the condition is not met, then execution
goes to the next decision
 When the condition is met, the machine
executes the True branch of the logic before
moving on to another decision.
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 Straight-Through Logic (2)
 Often used when the conditions are
independent of each other
 It is the least efficient of all types of decision
logic because all decisions must be
processed
 An example is illustrated on the next slide
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 Example 3
 Given a problem where an amount is to be
charged on people of varying ages for a
concert ticket.
– When the person is under 16, the charge is $7; when
the person is 65 or over, the charge is $5; all others
are charged $10.
 Write a pseudocode to find the amount to
charge each age group.
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Straight Through Logic Solution for
Example 3

Attempt drawing the

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 Positive Logic
 Positive logic allows the flow of the processing to continue
through the module instead of processing succeeding
decisions, once the resultant of a decision is True.
 Whenever the resultant is False, another decision in the
sequence is processed until the resultant is True, or there
are no more decisions to process.
– At that time, the False branch processes the remaining instructions.
 It models the way we humans think and therefore easy to
understand
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Positive Logic Solution for Example 3

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 Negative Logic
 Negative logic is similar to positive logic except
that the flow of the processing continues through
the module when the resultant of a decision is False
 It is the hardest logic for most people to
comprehend
 The positive side of this logic is that it can be used
to reduce the number of tests and also to improve
the readability of a program.
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Negative Logic Solution for Example 3

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 Logic Conversion
 A programmer may want to transform a positive
logic to negative logic or vice-versa to improve
the efficiency or readability of a solution.
 In a decision, there must always be instructions
for a True section, but not always for a False
section.
– If there are no instructions for the True section of a
decision instruction, then it is better to convert the
logic type.
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 Logic Conversion (2)
 To perform logic type conversion, do the following:
– Change all < to >=
– Change all <= to >
– Change all > to <=
– Change all >= to <
– Change all = to <>
– Change all <> to =
– Interchange all of the Then set of instructions with the
corresponding Else set of instructions.

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 Choosing a decision logic
 The following questions should be answered before
a selecting a particular decision logic:
– Which type would make the solution most readable?
– Which type would make the solution the easiest to
maintain or change?
– Which would require the fewest tests when you don’t
know anything about the data?
– Which would require the fewest tests when you’re given
some data?

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 Nested If/Then/Else Statement
 It should be noted that only the positive and
negative logic decisions use nested
if/Then/Else statements and not straight-through
logic decisions.
 Nested If/Then/Else instructions are sets of
instructions in which each level of a decision is
embedded in a level before it; like nesting
baskets, one goes inside the next
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Nested vs. Non-Nested If/Then/Else
Logic

Non-nested If/Then Nested If/Then

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 Lecture Outline
 Sequential Logic Structure
 Decision Logic Structure
 Case Logic
 Loop Logic

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 Case Logic Structure
 The case logic structure is used when one
needs to select one action from a set of
actions.
 It performs almost the same action as the
decision logic structure only that it has a
different structure of its own.

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 Format of a case logic structure
CaseOf
<condition1>
Actions for <condition1>
<condition2>
Actions for <condition2>
…
Otherwise:
actions when all other conditions are False
EndOfCase

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Case Logic Structure Format

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 Case Logic Structure Example
 Consider a problem where each student in Covenant
University has a bank account.
 The lecturing team of CSC121 decides to pay the
amount of ₦2,000.00 times the weight (unit) given to
a program to the account of each student in the class.
 Write a case logic in form of an algorithm that will
solve this problem such that students not offering the
course are not reckoned with.
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 Solution Process
 The first step to solving the problem is identifying the
students offering CSC121.
 The students we are concerned with are in the following
programmes:
– Computer Science, MIS: Weight = 2
– Industrial Physics, Industrial Chemistry: Weight = 2
– Biochemistry, Microbiology: Weight = 1.5
– Applied Biology and Biotechnology: Weight = 1.5
– Industrial Mathematics: Weight = 1.0

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 Solution Process (2)
 To determine if a student will receive the
amount, we check if s/he is in any of these
programmes.
 We set up the following variables:
– prog: stores the programme of the concerned
student
– amount: stores the amount to be deposited into
student’s account

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 Solution
CaseOf
Prog = “Computer Science”
amount = amount + (2000 * 2)
Prog = “MIS”
amount = amount + (2000 * 2)
Prog = “Industrial Physics”
amount = amount + (2000 * 2)
Prog = “Industrial Chemistry”
amount = amount + (2000 * 2)
Prog = “Biochemistry”
amount = amount + (2000 * 1.5)
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 Solution
Prog = “Microbiology”
amount = amount + (2000 * 1.5)
Prog = “Applied Biology and Biotechnology”
amount = amount + (2000 * 1.5)
Prog = “Industrial Mathematics”
amount = amount + (2000 * 1.0)
Otherwise:
amount = amount + 0.00
EndOfCase
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 Lecture Outline
 Sequential Logic Structure
 Decision Logic Structure
 Case Logic
 Loop Logic

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 Loop Logic Structure
 Is usually for repetitive tasks.
 Example: Arranging the names of CSC 121 students
alphabetically.
 Looping tasks include counting (incrementally or
decrementally), accumulating/adding and
Multiplying.
 In a looping task, a number is added or subtracted
from a variable, and the result is then stored back
into the same variable.
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Loop Logic Structure

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 Looping Task: Incrementing
 Also known as counting.
 The value of a variable is increased by
adding a constant.
 Example:
Counter = Counter +1; //incrementing
Counter = Counter – 1; //decrementing
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 Looping Task: Accumulating
 Is usually used for summing up.
 It is initialized to 0
 Instead of adding a constant to the value of a
variable, you add a variable.
 Example:
– Sum = Sum + Variable
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 Looping Task: Product
 Similar to Sum
 Initialized to 1
 Example:
Product = 1
Product = Product * Number

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 Types of Loop Logic Structure
 There are three(3) loop types:
– While/WhileEnd
– Repeat/Until
– Automatic counter

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 Types of Loop Logic Structure:
While/WhileEnd
 It repeats a set of instructions while a condition is
True and stops when False.

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Types of Loop Logic Structure: Algorithm
and Flowchart for While/WhileEnd

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 Types of Loop Logic Structure:
Repeat/Until
 It repeats instructions while a condition is
False and stops when it is True.
 The condition is processed at the end.

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Types of Loop Logic Structure:
Repeat/Until

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Types of Loop Logic Structure: Automatic
Counter
 The initial variable value is increased by an
equal increment till it is greater than the
ending number.
 The beginning value, the ending value, and
the increment value may be constants,
variables, or expressions (calculations).

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Types of Loop Logic Structure: Automatic
Counter

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 Assignment 1:
 Design and write the pseudo code, flowchart
and C program to find the average age of all
the students in a class using at least (2)
Looping techniques.
– Solution should be written inside your lecture
Note.

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 Assignment 2:
 Give a minimum of 3 pages summary on
Chapter 5,6,7 of the Problem Solving
Techniques and Programming Concept by
Maureen Sprankle and Jim Hubbard.
– Lifeline.

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