PSYCHOLINGUISTIC RESEARCH PAPER

”TASK-BASED LANGUAGE LEARNING”

Lecturer

Artipah SS., M.Pd.

Arranged By :

Mazaya Khofifah Ramadhani

English Study Program

Semester V

Faculty of Teacher Training and Education

Tama Jagakarsa University

Academic Year 2021/2022

First of all, the author expresses gratitude to Allah SWT for being able to

complete the paper entitled "Task-Based Language Learning". The author also thanks

all those who helped write this paper.

The purpose of writing this paper is to fulfill the task given by Mrs. Artipah

SS., M.Pd. as a lecturer in Psycholinguistics And in the preparation of this paper, the

author faced many challenges and obstacles but with the help of various parties these

challenges could be overcome. The author realizes that there are still many

shortcomings in the writing of this paper.

Therefore, the author would like to thank profusely to all those who have

helped in the preparation of this paper, hopefully their help will receive a worthy

reply from Allah swt and all of us will be blessed by Allah. The author realizes that

this paper is still far from perfect, both in terms of form and material. Therefore, the

author hopes that criticism from readers can help the author in perfecting his next

paper. Finally, I hope this paper can be useful to add to the development of insight

into the science of samantics.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE......................................................................................................................1

TABLE OF CONTENTS..............................................................................................2

Task-Based Language Learning....................................................................................3

Definition of Task..........................................................................................................3

Historical Background...................................................................................................5

Characteristics of Task-Based Language Teaching...................................................6

Theory of language and learning...............................................................................7

WHAT IS TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING?..........................................8

Criteria for tasks in TBLT.......................................................................................10

Typical procedure....................................................................................................11

Advantages of TBLT...............................................................................................13

Disadvantages of TBLT...........................................................................................14

References....................................................................................................................15

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 Task-Based Language Learning

Definition of Task

Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is yet another offspring of

Communicative Language Teaching. Unlike other approaches, TBLT focuses more

directly on the instructional factor, stressing the importance of specially designed

instructional tasks as the basis of learning. The main idea is that learners learn the

target language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in

the activities (Feez, 1998). Task definitions vary, however (see Nunan, 1989; Pica,

1994; Skehan, 1998). Most often a task is defined as an activity or goal that is carried

out using language, such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map and giving

directions, making a telephone call, writing a letter, or reading a set of instructions

and assembling a toy. The task should also involve a communicative act on its own,

that is, the task should provide a sense of completeness.

A concept, earlier known as the "communicative activity" in 1970s and 80’s

was later replaced by the term task has since been defined differently by different

scholars. David Nunan (2004) draws upon the definitions given by other experts, of

two types of tasks: target tasks and pedagogical tasks. Targets tasks refer to doing

something outside the classroom and in the real world; whereas pedagogical tasks

refer to the tasks students perform inside the classroom and in response to target

language input or processing. Nunan concludes that target tasks may be non-

linguistic. He defines pedagogical task as a classroom activity that involves a student

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to understand and produce the target language while focusing on conveying the

meaning and not being too concerned with form.

According to Rod Ellis , a task has four main characteristics:

1. A task involves a primary focus on (pragmatic) meaning.

2. A task has some kind of ‘gap’. (Prabhu identified the three main types as

information gap, reasoning gap, and opinion gap.)

3. The participants choose the linguistic resources needed to complete the task.

4. A task has a clearly defined, non-linguistic outcome.

According to Plews and Zhao, task-based language learning can suffer in practice

from poorly informed implementation and adaptations that alter its fundamental

nature. They say that lessons are frequently changed to be more like traditional

teacher-led presentation-practice-production lessons than task-based lessons

Task-based language teaching (TBLT), also known as task-based

instruction (TBI),focuses on the use of authentic language to complete meaningful

tasks in the target language. Such tasks can include visiting a doctor, conducting an

interview, or calling customer service for help. Assessment is primarily based on task

outcome (the appropriate completion of real-world tasks) rather than on accuracy of

prescribed language forms. This makes TBLT especially popular for developing

target language fluency and student confidence. As such, TBLT can be considered a

branch of communicative language teaching (CLT).

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Historical Background

TBLT was popularized by N. S. Prabhu while working in Bangalore, India,

according to Jeremy Harmer. Prabhu noticed that his students could learn language

just as easily with a non-linguistic problem as when they were concentrating on

linguistic questions. Major scholars who have done research in this area include

Teresa P. Pica, Martin East, and Michael Long.

Task-based language learning has its origins in communicative language teaching,

and is a subcategory of it. Educators adopted task-based language learning for a

variety of reasons. Some moved to a task-based syllabus in an attempt to develop

learner capacity to express meaning, while others wanted to make language in the

classroom truly communicative, rather than the pseudo-communication that results

from classroom activities with no direct connection to real-life situations. Others, like

Prabhu in the Bangalore Project, thought that tasks were a way of tapping into

learners' natural mechanisms for second-language acquisition, and weren't concerned

with real-life communication.

Task-based learning benefits students because it is more student-centered, allows

for more meaningful communication, and often provides for practical extra-linguistic

skill building. As the tasks are likely to be familiar to the students (e.g.: visiting the

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doctor), students are more likely to be engaged, which may further motivate them in

their language learning.

Characteristics of Task-Based Language Teaching

Feez 1998 as quoted by Richards and Rodgers 2001: 224 summarizes the key

assumptions of Task-Based Instruction.

 First, the focus of Task-Based Instruction is on the process rather than the

product.

 Second, its basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize

communication and meaning.

 Third, the learners learn language by interacting communicatively and

purposefully while engaging in the activities and tasks.

 Fourth, the activities and tasks can be either those that learners might need to

achieve in real life or those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the

classroom.

 Fifth, the activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according

to difficulty.

Task-based learning focuses on the use of authentic language through meaningful

tasks such as visiting the doctor or a telephone call. This method encourages

meaningful communication and is student-centered.

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 The Characteristics of TBLT are as follows:

 Students are encouraged to use language creatively and spontaneously

through tasks and problem.

 Students focus on a relationship that is comparable to real world activities.

 The conveyance of some sort of meaning is central to this method.

Assessment is primarily based on task outcome.

Theory of language and learning

The following are some of the most important theoretical premises of TBL according

to Richards & Rodgers (2001, p. 227-229).

Teory of language

 Language is primarily a means of making meaning: TBLT considers meaning

as a central focal point in language teaching. The approach is concerned with

the outcome of tasks.

 Multiple models of language inform task-based instruction: Structural,

functional and interactional models influence TBLT adherents.

 Lexical units are central in language use and language learning: TBLT

considers vocabulary items to include not only individual words but also

phrases, sentence frames, collocations and prefabricated routines.

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  “Conversation” is the central focus of language and the keystone of language

acquisition: Learners are required to produce and understand communicative

messages. That is exchanging information is crucial to language acquisition.

Teory of lerning

 Tasks provide both the input and output processing necessary for language

acquisition: If Krashen stresses the importance of comprehensible input, TBLT

advocates have argued that comprehensible output is also of equal importance.

 Task activity and achievement are motivational: Tasks appeal to learners’

learning styles and may involve physical activity, collaboration, and

partnership.

 Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for a particular

pedagogical purpose: Tasks may be designed in such a way that they meet

learners’ level of proficiency. That is, providing the appropriate target input is

crucial to facilitate language acquisition.

WHAT IS TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING?

A Task-based approach is one where tasks are used as the main key element of

planning and instruction in language teaching. Nunan (as cited in Richards and

Rodgers, 2001) provides the following definition. the communicative task [is] a piece

of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating,

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producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is primarily

focused on meaning rather than form. The task should also have a sense of

completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right.

According to Jeremy Harmer, tasks promote language acquisition through the

types of language and interaction they require. Harmer says that although the teacher

may present language in the pre-task, the students are ultimately free to use what

grammar constructs and vocabulary they want. This allows them, he says, to use all

the language they know and are learning, rather than just the 'target language' of the

lesson.On the other hand, according to Loschky and Bley-Vroman, tasks can also be

designed to make certain target forms 'task-essential,' thus making it

communicatively necessary for students to practice using them.In terms of

interaction, information gap tasks in particular have been shows to promote

negotiation of meaning and output modification.

Definition what is the task by prabhu

Examples of tasks include:

 Preparing a meal.

 Ordering food in a restaurant.

 Making an appointment with a doctor on the phone.

 Solving a problem.

 Designing a brochure.

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  Making a list of the qualities of a good husband/wife.

Criteria for tasks in TBLT

Rod Ellis defines tasks in terms of four key criteria:

1. Meaning

Tasks are language teaching activities where meaning is central. Tasks require

learners to produce and understand communicative messages.

2. Gaps

Tasks should involve gaps. There are three types of gaps:

a. Information gap: one person has information that another person does not

have.

b. Opinion gap: learners have the same shared information but they use that

information to try to convey their feeling about a particular situation.

c. Reasoning gap: learners are asked to use reason and logic to decide what

information to convey and what resolution to make for the problem at

hand. Like information gap, the activity necessarily involves understanding

and communicating information. Where the information and reasoning

gaps differ is in the information conveyed. The latter is not identical with

the one initially understood. It changes through reasoning.

3. Use of learners’ own resources

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 Learners have to use their own linguistic and nonlinguistic resources to

complete the task. That is, they have to use whatever knowledge of the

language they have in order to participate in the task. Learners may also use

nonlinguistic resources such as gestures. This criterion is what makes TBLT

unique. In traditional language teaching, the teacher provides the language

resources and the students have to master these resources when they do a task.

They are not asked to produce communicative messages using their own

linguistic resources.

4. Communicative outcome

Tasks must involve some sort of nonlinguistic outcome such as drawing a

route on a map or agreeing on a plan to solve the problem of pollution in the

learners’ neighborhood.

Typical procedure

a) Pre-task

At this stage, the topic is introduced through activities such as:

 Prior knowledge activation

 Brainstorming

 Visual Aids

 Games

 Discussions

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  Vocabulary activities

 Reading

b) Task activity (cycle)

The teacher gives clear instructions about the task.

 The learners do the task, in pairs or in groups, using their own linguistic

and nonlinguistic resources.

 The teacher’s role at this stage is to monitor, support, and encourage the

learners.

 The teacher does not have to intervene to correct accuracy mistakes.

 The emphasis is more on meaningful communication, fluency and

confidence building than on accuracy.

 The learners draft or rehearse what they want to say or write.

 They report briefly to the whole class to compare findings.

c) Post-task

This stage provides an opportunity for learners to compare their

products with a similar product by a native/ fluent speaker.

 The learners listen to a recording by a native/fluent speaker.

 Comparison between the two versions constitutes a chance for learners

to learn from their mistakes.

 Based on the analysis of the learners’ products, more work on specific

language points may follow

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Advantages of TBLT

 Implicit learning

The aim of TBLT is to help learners develop implicit knowledge of the

language that will enable them to participate easily and naturally in

communication. The learners get the form and use of the target language without

being explicitly being taught. The role of the teacher is to design tasks by

replicating and creating the conditions for language learning and for

communication that exists outside the confines of the classroom. The aim is that

the learners’ interlanguage will gain implicit language knowledge while doing

tasks.

 Incidental learning

Much of our everyday learning is incidental. TBLT provides opportunities for

unplanned learning. Completing a real-world task allows the acquisition to take

place without any deliberate intention on the part of the learner or the teacher.

 Meaningful learning

TBLT allows meaningful communication to occur during the accomplishment of

tasks.

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 Another large advantage of PBL is that it encourages students to gain a deeper

sense of understanding. Superficial learning is often a problem in language

education, for example when students, instead of acquiring a sense of when and

how to use which vocabulary, learn all the words they will need for the exam next

week and then promptly forget them.

Disadvantages of TBLT

 Some teachers criticize TBLT for focusing mainly on fluency at the expense

of accuracy.

 TBLT requires a high level of creativity and initiative on the part of the

teacher.

 TBLT requires resources beyond the textbooks and related materials usually

found in language classrooms.

 Evaluation of task-based instruction can be difficult. The nature of task-based

learning does not allow it to be objectively measurable.

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 References

Littlewood, 2004. ‘The task–based approach: some questions and suggestions‘ in

ELT Journal Volume 58/4:319-326. O U P. Retrieved

from http://www.lenguasvivas.org/campus/files/0_28/tbl.pdf . Accessed on Sunday ,

January 9, 2021 at 14:00 P.M

Prabhu, N.S. (1987). Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Accessed on Sunday 9, 2021 at 14:00 P.M

Richards, J.C. & Rodgers, T.S 2001. Approaches and Methods in Language

Teaching, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Accessed on Monday ,

January 10, 2021 at 18:00 P.M

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taskbased_language_learning#:~:text=According%20to

%20Jon,conference%20in%20Japan. Accessed on Monday , January 10, 2021 at

19:13 P.M

Jakarta, 9 January 2021

(Mazaya Khofifah R)

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