A8 Circuit Protection

Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Tsing Yi) AASS I
HD in Aircraft Maintenance Engineering
A8
Circuit protection
Circuit Controlling Devices
In aircraft electrical installations the function of initiating, and subsequently controlling the
operating sequences of constituent circuits is performed principally by switches and relays,
and the construction and operation of some typical devices form the subject of this section.
Switches and relays are constructed in a variety of forms, and although not exhaustive, the
details given in Table A8.1 may be considered a fairly representative summary of the types
and the actuating methods commonly employed.
Table A8.1
Switches
In its simplest form, a switch consists of two contacting surfaces which can be isolated from
each other or brought together as required by a movable connecting link. This connecting link
is referred to as a pole and when it provides a single path for a flow of current as shown in
Fig. A8.1(a), the switch is designated as a single-pole, single-throw switch. The term throw
thus indicates the number of circuits each pole can complete through the switch. In many
circuits, various switching combinations are usually required, and in order to facilitate the
make and break operations, the contact assemblies of switches (and certain relays) may be
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Last Updated:04-2022
constructed as integrated units. For example, the switch at (b) of Fig. A8.1 can control two
circuits in one single make or break operation, and is therefore known as a double-pole,
single-throw switch, the poles being suitably insulated from each other. Two further
examples are illustrated in diagrams (c) and (d) and are designated single-pole, double-throw
and double-pole, double-throw respectively.
Fig A8.1 Switch contact arrangements
In addition to the number of poles and throws, switches (toggle types in particular) are also
designated by the number of positions they have. Thus, a toggle switch which is spring-
loaded to one position and must be held at the second to complete a circuit, is called a single-
position switch. If the switch can be set at either of two positions, e.g. opening the circuit in
one position and completing it in another, it is then called a two-position switch. A switch
which can be set at any one of three positions, e.g. a centre "off and two "on" positions, is a
three-position switch, also known as a selector switch.
TOGGLE SWITCHES
Toggle or tumbler-type switches, as they are sometimes called, perform what may be
regarded as "general-purpose" switching functions and are used extensively in the various
circuits. A typical switch is illustrated in Fig. A8.2.
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Fig A8.2 Toggle switch
In some applications it may be necessary for the switches in several independent circuits to
be actuated simultaneously. This is accomplished by "ganging" the switches together by
means of a bar linking each toggle as shown in Fig. A8.3(a). A variation of this method is
used in certain types of aircraft for simultaneous action of switch toggles in one direction
only (usually to a "system off" position). This is accomplished by a separate gang-bar
mounted on the control panel in such a way that it can be pulled down to bear against the
toggles of the switches to push them in the required direction. When the bar is released if is
returned under the action of a spring.
A further variation is one in which the operation of a particular switch, or all in a series, may
be constrained A typical application to a triple generator system is shown in Fig. A8.3(b), the
switches being used for the alternative disposition of busbar loads in the event of failure of
any of the three generators.
A locking bar is free to rotate in mounting brackets anchored by the locking nuts of the No. 1
and No. 2 switches. The radiused cut-outs, at 90 degrees to each other, are provided along the
length of the bar at positions coincident with the toggles of each switch. A steel spring
provides for tensioning of the bar at each selected position, and is inserted around the
circumference at the right-hand end. Markings 1, 2, 3 and "N" correspond to the positions of
the cut-outs on the bar relative to the switch toggles. If, for example, there is a failure of No.
1 generator the bar is rotated to the position 1 permitting operation of failure switch No. 1,
but constraining the toggles of the other two switches. The action for switch operation at
positions 2 and 3 is similar. Thus, the busbar loads of a failed generator can be distributed
between remaining serviceable generators at the same time avoiding inadvertent switch
operation. When the letter "N" is evident the bar and the cut-outs are positioned so that none
of the switches can be operated.
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Fig A8.3 "Ganging" and locking of switches
PUSH-SWITCHES
Push-switches are used primarily for operations of short duration, i.e. when a circuit is to be
completed or interrupted momentarily, or when an alternative path is to be made available for
brief periods. Other variants are designed to close one or more circuits (through separate
contacts) while opening another circuit, and in these types, provision may be made for
contact-action in the individual circuits to occur in sequence instead of simultaneously. In
basic form a push-switch consists of a button-operated spring loaded plunger carrying one or
more contact plates which serve to establish electrical connection between fixed contact
surfaces. Switches may be designed as independent units for either "push-to-make" or "push-
to-break" operation, or designed to be double-acting. For certain warning and indicating
purposes, some types contain miniature lamps positioned behind a small translucent screen in
the push-button. When illuminated, legends such as "on", "closed" or "fail" are displayed on
the screen and in the appropriate colours.
The construction of a simple type of "push-to-make" switch and the arrangement of an
illuminated type are shown in Fig. A8.4.
Fig A8.4 Push switches
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In some circuits, for example in a turbo-propeller engine starting circuit, switches are
designed to be both manual and electromagnetic in operation. A typical example, normally
referred to as a "push-in solenoid switch", is shown in Fig. A8.5. The components are
contained within a casing comprising an aluminium housing having an integral mounting
flange, a sleeve and an end cover. The solenoid coil is located at the flange-end of the
housing, and has a plunger passing through it. One end of the plunger extends beyond the
housing flange and has a knob secured to it, while the other end terminates in a spring-loaded
contact assembly. A combined terminal and fixed contact block is attached to the end of the
housing and is held in place by a knurled end cover nut.
Fig A8.5 Push-in solenoid switch
When the plunger is depressed and held, the spring loaded contact assembly bears against the
fixed contacts and connects a d.c. supply to the starter motor. The commencement of the
starting cycle provides a current flow through the hold-in coil of the switch, thereby
energizing it and obviating the necessity for further manual control. The switch remains in
the "on" position until the starting cycle is completed. At this stage, the current through the
solenoid coil will have dropped sufficiently to permit the spring to return the plunger and
contacts to the "off' position.
ROTARY SWITCHES
These are manually operated, and for certain operating requirements they offer an advantage
over toggle switches in that they are less prone to accidental operation. Furthermore, the
rotary principle and positive engagement of contacts made possible by the constructional
features make these switches more adaptable to multi-circuit selection than toggle type
switches. A typical application is the selection of a single voltmeter to read the voltages at
several busbars. In the basic form a rotary switch consists of a central spindle carrying one or
more contact plates or blades which engage with corresponding fixed contacts mounted on
the switch base. The movement is usually spring-loaded and equipped with some form of
eccentric device to give a snap action and positive engagement of the contact surfaces.
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MICRO-SWITCHES
Micro-switches are a special category of switch and are one of the most extensively applied
electrical devices in aircraft, performing a wide range of operations to ensure safe control of a
variety of systems and components. The term "micro-switch" designates a switching device
in which the differential travel between "make" and "break" of the operating mechanism is of
the order of a few thousandths of an inch. Magnification and snap action of contact
mechanism movements are derived from a pre-tensioned mechanically biased spring. The
principle is shown in Fig. A8.6.
Fig A8.6 Micro-switches
The long member of the one-piece spring is cantilever supported and the operating button or
plunger bears against the spring. Two shorter side members are anchored in such a way that
they are bowed in compression. In the inoperative position the contact mounted on the free
end of the spring is held against the upper fixed contact by the couple resulting from both
tension and compression force. Depression of the operating button deflects the long member
downwards thereby causing a reversal of the couple which "snaps" the spring and contact
downward. Upon removal of the operating force, cantilever action restores the spring and
contact system to its initial position with a snap action.
The method of actuating micro-switches depends largely on the system to which it is applied
but usually it is either by means of a lever, roller or cam, these in turn being operated either
manually or electrically. The operating cycle of a micro-switch is defined in terms of
movement of the operating plunger. This has a specified amount of pre-travel, or free
movement before the switch snaps over. Following the operating point, there is some over-
travel, while on the return stroke some differential travel beyond the operating point is
provided before the release action of the switch takes place. The contacts of the switches
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shown in Fig. A8.6 operate within sealed evacuated chambers filled with an inert gas, e.g.
nitrogen.
RHEOSTATS
These are controlling devices containing a resistance the magnitude of which can be varied,
thereby adjusting the current in the circuit in which it is connected. A typical example of this
method of control is the one adopted for varying the intensity of instrument panel and certain
cockpit lighting.
Rheostats normally adjust circuit resistance without opening the circuit, although in some
cases, they are constructed to serve as a combined on-off switch and variable resistor.
TIME SWITCHES
Certain consumer services are required to operate on a pre-determined controlled time
sequence basis and as this involves the switching on and off of various components or
sections of circuit, switches automatically operated by timing mechanisms are necessary. The
principle of time switch operation varies, but in general it is based on the one in which a
contact assembly is actuated by a cam driven at constant speed by either a speed-controlled
electric motor or a spring-driven escapement mechanism. In some specialized consumer
services, switches which operate on a thermal principle are used. In these the contact
assembly is operated by the distortion of a thermal element when the latter has been carrying
a designed current for a pre-determined period.
An example of a motor-driven time switch unit is shown in Fig. A8.7. It is designed to
actuate relays which, in turn, control the supply of alternating current to the heating elements
of a power unit de-icing system. Signals to the relays are given in repeated time cycles which
can be of short or long duration corresponding respectively to "fast" and "slow" selections
made on the appropriate system control switch.
Fig A8.7 Time switch unit
The unit comprises an assembly of five cam and lever-actuated micro-switches driven by an
a.c. motor through a reduction gearbox.
The motor runs at constant speed and drives the camshaft at one revolution per 240 seconds.
Two of the cams are of the three-lobed type and they switch on two micro-switches three
times during one revolution, each "on" period corresponding to 20 seconds. Two other cams
are of the single-lobed type and they switch on two associated micro-switches once during
one revolution, the "on" periods in this case corresponding to 60 seconds. Thus the foregoing
cam and micro-switch operations correspond respectively to "fast" and "slow" selections of
power to the heating elements, which are accordingly heated for short or long periods. The
fifth cam and its micro-switch constitute what is termed a "homing" control circuit, the
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purpose of which is to re-set the time switch after use so that it will always re-commence at
the beginning of an operating cycle.
When the "homing" micro-switch closes, it completes an external relay circuit whose
function is to continue operation of the motor whenever the deicing system is switched off.
On completion of the full revolution of the camshaft, the homing micro-switch is opened,
thereby stopping the motor and resetting the timer for the next cycle of operation.
MERCURY SWITCHES
Mercury switches are glass tubes into which stationary contacts, or electrodes, and a pool of
loose mercury are hermetically sealed. Tilting the tube causes the mercury to flow in a
direction to close or open a gap between the electrodes to "make" or "break" the circuit in
which the switch is connected,
The rapidity of "make" and "break" depends on the surface tension of the mercury rather than
on externally applied forces. Thus, mercury switches are applied to systems in which the
angular position of a component must be controlled within a narrow band of operation, and in
which the mechanical force required to tilt a switch is very low. A typical application is in
torque motor circuits of gyro horizons in which the gyros must be precessed to, and
maintained in, the vertical position.
Mercury switches are essentially single-pole, single-throw devices but, as will be noted from
Fig. A8.8, some variations in switching arrangements can be utilized.
Fig A8.8 Mercury switches
PRESSURE SWITCHES
In many of the aircraft systems in which pressure measurement is involved, it is necessary
that a warning be given of either low or high pressures which might constitute hazardous
operating conditions. In some systems also, the frequency of operation may be such that the
use of a pressure-measuring instrument is not justified since it is only necessary for some
indication that an operating pressure has been attained for the period during which the system
is in operation. To meet this requirement, pressure switches are installed in the relevant
systems and are connected to warning or indicator lights located on the cockpit panels.
A typical switch is illustrated in Fig. A8.9. It consists of a metal diaphragm bolted between
the flanges of the two sections of the switch body. As may be seen, a chamber is formed on
one side of the diaphragm and is open to the pressure source. On the other side of the
diaphragm a push rod, working through a sealed guide, bears against contacts fitted in a
terminal block connected to the warning or indicator light assembly. The contacts may be
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arranged to "make" on either decreasing or increasing pressure, and their gap settings may be
pre-adjusted in accordance with the pressures at which warning or indication is required.
Pressure switches may also be applied to systems requiring that warning or indication be
given of changes in pressure with respect to a certain datum pressure; in other words, as a
differential pressure warning device. The construction and operation are basically the same as
the standard type, with the exception that the diaphragm is subjected to a pressure on each
side.
Fig A8.9 Typical pressure switch unit
THERMAL SWITCHES
Thermal switches are applied to systems in which a visual warning of excessive temperature
conditions, automatic temperature control and automatic operation of protection devices are
required. Examples of such applications are, respectively, overheating of a generator, control
of valves in a thermal de-icing system and the automatic operation of fire extinguishers.
A principle commonly adopted for thermal switch operation is based on the effects of
differences of expansion between two metals, usually invar and steel. In some cases mercury
contact switches may be employed.
An example of a differential expansion switch employed in some cases as a fire detecting
device, is shown in Fig. A8.10. The heat-sensitive element is an alloy steel barrel containing
a spring bow assembly of low coefficient of expansion. Each limb of the bow carries a silver-
rhodium contact connected by fire-resistant cable to a terminal block located within a steel
case.
In the event of afire or sufficient rise in temperature at the switch location (a typical
temperature is 300°C) the barrel will expand and remove the compressive force from the bow
assembly, permitting the contacts to close the circuit to its relevant warning lamp. When the
temperature drops, the barrel contracts, thus compressing the bow assembly and reopening
the contacts.
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Fig A8.10 Fire detector switch
PROXIMITY SWITCHES
These switches are used in several types of aircraft as part of circuits required to give warning
of whether or not passenger entrance doors, freight doors, etc. are fully closed and locked.
Since they have no moving parts they offer certain advantages over micro-switches which are
also applied to such warning circuits.
A typical switch shown in Fig. A8.11 consists of two main components, one of which is an
hermetically sealed permanent magnet actuator, and the other a switch unit comprising two
reeds, each having rhodium-plated contacts connected to the warning circuit. The two
components are mounted in such a manner that when they contact each other, the field from
the permanent magnet closes the reeds and contacts together, to complete a circuit to the
"door closed" indicator.
Fig A8.11 Proximity switch
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Relays
Relays are in effect, electromagnetic switching devices by means of which one electrical
circuit can be indirectly controlled by a change in the same or another electrical circuit.
Various types of relay are in use, their construction, operation, power ratings, etc., being
governed by their applications, which are also varied and numerous. In the basic form,
however, a relay may be considered as being made up of two principal elements, one for
sensing the electrical changes and for operating the relay mechanism, and the other for
controlling the changes. The sensing and operating element is a solenoid and armature, and
the controlling element is one or more pairs or contacts.
As in the case of switches, relays are also designated by their "pole" and "throw"
arrangements and these can range from the simple single-pole, single-throw type to complex
multiple contact assemblies controlling a variety of circuits and operated by the one solenoid.
In many applications the solenoid is energized directly from the aircraft power supply, while
in others it may be energized by signals from an automatic device such as an amplifier in a
cabin temperature-control system, or a fire detector unit. When the solenoid coil is energized
a magnetic field is set up and at a pre-determined voltage level (called the "pull-in" voltage)
the armature is attracted to a pole piece against spring restraint, and actuates the contact
assembly, this in turn either completing or interrupting the circuit being controlled. When the
solenoid coil circuit is interrupted at what is termed the "dropout" voltage, the spring returns
the armature and contact assembly to the inoperative condition.
In addition to the contact assembly designations mentioned earlier, relays are also classified
by the order of making and breaking of contacts, whether normally open ("NO") or normally
closed ("NC") in the de-energized position, rating of the contacts in amperes and the voltage
of the energizing supply. The design of a relay is dictated by the function it is required to
perform in a particular system or component, and as a result many types are available,
making it difficult to group them neatly into specific classes. On a very broad basis, however,
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grouping is usually related to the basic form of construction, e.g. attracted core, attracted-
armature, polarized armature, and "slugged", and the current-carrying ratings of the
controlling element contacts, i.e. whether heavy-duty or light-duty. The descriptions given in
the following paragraphs are therefore set out on this basis and the relays selected are typical
and generally representative of applications to aircraft systems.
ATTRACTED-CORE, HEAVY-DUTY RELAY

The designation "heavy-duty" refers specifically to the amount of current to be carried by the
contacts. These relays are therefore applied to circuits involving the use of heavy-duty motors
which may take starting currents over a range from 100 A to 1500 A, either short-term, as for
starter motors for example, or continuous operation.
A relay of the type used for the control of a typical turbo-propeller engine starter motor
circuit is illustrated in Fig. A8.12. The contact assembly consists of a thick contact plate and
two suitably insulated fixed contact studs connected to the main terminals.
Fig A8.12 Attracted core heavy-duty relay
The contact plate is mounted on a supporting spindle and this also carries a soft inner core
located inside the solenoid coil. The complete moving component is spring-loaded to hold the
contact plate from the fixed contacts and to retain the core at the upper end of the coil. When
the coil is energized the polarities of the magnetic fields established in the coil and core are
such that the core moves downwards against spring pressure, until movement is stopped by
the contact plate bridging across the fixed contacts, thus completing the main circuit. Carbon
contacts are provided to absorb the initial heavy current and thereby reduce arcing to a
minimum before positive connection with the main contacts is made.
ATTRACTED-ARMATURE, LIGHT-DUTY RELAY

A relay designed for use in a 28-volt d.c. circuit and having a contact rating of 3 A is shown
in Fig. A8.13.
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Fig A8.13 Attracted armature light-duty relay (sealed)
The contacts are of a silver alloy and are actuated in the manner shown in the inset diagram,
by a pivoted armature. In accordance with the practice adopted for many currently used
relays, the principal elements are enclosed in an hermetically-sealed case filled with dry
nitrogen and the connection in the circuit is made via a plug-in type base. Fig. A8.14
illustrates another example of attracted armature relay. This is of the unsealed type and is
connected into the relevant circuit by means of terminal screws in the base of the relay.
Fig A8.14 Attracted armature relay (unsealed type)
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BREAKERS
These devices sometimes referred to as contactors, an commonly used in power generation
systems for the connection of feeder lines to busbars, and also for interconnecting or "tying"
of busbars. The internal arrangement of one such breaker is shown in Fig. A8.15.
It consists of main heavy-duty contacts for connecting the a.c. feeder lines, and a number of
smaller auxiliary contacts which carry d.c. for the control of other breakers, relays, indicating
lights as appropriate to the overall system. All contacts are closed and/or tripped by a d.c:
operated electromagnetic coil; a permanent magnet serves to assist the coil in closing, and
also to latch the breaker in the closed position. The coil is also assisted in tripping by means
of a spring. Two zener diodes are connected across the coil to suppress arcing of the coil
circuit contacts during closing and tripping.
When say, a main generator switch is placed in its "on" position, a d.c. "closing" signal will
flow through the relaxed contacts "A" and then through the coil to ground via relaxed
contacts "B". With the coil energized, the main and other auxiliary contacts will therefore be
closed and the spring will be compressed. The changeover of the coil contacts "A" completes
a hold-in circuit to ground, and with the assistance of the permanent magnet the breaker
remains latched.
A tripping signal resulting from either the generator switch being placed to "off", or from a
fault condition sensed by a protection unit, will flow to ground in the opposite direction to
that when closing, and via the second set of the "close" contacts. The spring assists the
reversed electromagnetic field of the coil in breaking the permanent magnetic latch.
Breakers of this type are installed with their opening-closing axis in the horizontal position.
Fig A8.15 Breaker
Circuit Protection Devices and Systems

In the event of a short circuit, an overload or other fault condition occurring in the circuit
formed by cables and components of an electrical system, it is possible for extensive damage
and failure to result. For example, if the excessive current flow caused by a short circuit at
some section of a cable is left unchecked, the heat generated in the cable will continue to
increase until something gives way. A portion of the cable may melt, thereby opening the
circuit so that the only damage done would be to the cable involved. The probability exists,
however, that much greater damage would result; the heat could char and burn the cable
insulation and that of other cables forming a loom, and so causing more short circuits and
setting the stage for an electrical fire. It is essential therefore to provide devices in the
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network of power distribution to systems, and having the common purpose of protecting their
circuits, cables and components. The devices normally employed are fuses, circuit breakers
and current limiters. In addition, other devices are provided to serve as protection against
such fault conditions as reverse current, overvoltage, undervoltage, overfrequency,
underfrequency, phase unbalance, etc. These devices may generally be considered as part of
main generating systems, and those associated with d.c power generation, in particular, are
normally integrated with the generator control units.
FUSES
A fuse is a thermal device designed primarily to protect the cables of a circuit against the
flow of shortcircuit and overload currents. In its basic form, a fuse consists of a low melting
point fusible element or link, enclosed in a glass or ceramic casing which not only protects
the element, but also localizes any flash which may occur when "fusing". The element is
joined to end caps on the casing, the caps in turn, providing the connection of the element
with the circuit it is designed to protect. Under short-circuit or overload current conditions,
heating occurs, but before this can affect the circuit cables or other elements, the fusible
element, which has a much lower current carrying capacity, melts and interrupts the circuit.
The materials most commonly used for the elements are tin, lead, alloy of tin and bismuth,
silver or copper in either the pure or alloyed state.
The construction and current ratings of fuses vary, to permit a suitable choice for specific
electrical installations and proper protection of individual circuits. Fuses are, in general,
selected on the basis of the lowest rating consistent with reliable system operation, thermal
characteristics of cables, and without resulting "nuisance tripping". For emergency circuits,
i.e., circuits the failure of which may result in the inability of an aircraft to maintain
controlled flight and effect a safe landing, fuses are of the highest rating possible consistent
with cable protection. For these circuits it is also necessary that the cable and fuse
combination supplying the power be carefully engineered taking into account short-term
transients in order to ensure maximum utilization of the vital equipment without circuit
interruption.
Being thermal devices, fuses are also influenced by ambient temperature variations. These
can affect to some extent the minimum "blowing" current, as well as "blowing" time at higher
currents, and so must also be taken in account. Typical examples of fuses currently in use in
light and heavy-duty circuits, are shown in Fig. A8.16(a)-(b) respectively. The light-duty fuse
is screwed into its holder (in some types a bayonet cap fitting is used) which is secured to the
fuse panel by a fixing nut. The circuit cable is connected to terminals located in the holder,
the terminals making contact with corresponding connections on the element cartridge. A
small hole is drilled through the centre of the cap to permit the insertion of a fuse test probe.
Fuses are located accessible for replacement, and as close to a power distribution point as
possible so as to achieve the minimum of unprotected cable.
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The heavy-duty or high rupturing capacity fuse (Fig. A8.16 (b)) is designed for installation at
main power distribution points (by means of mounting lugs and bolts). It consists of a tubular
ceramic cartridge within which a number of identical fuse elements in parallel are connected
to end contacts. Fire-clay cement and metallic end caps effectively seal the ends of the
cartridge, which is completely filled with a packing medium to damp down the explosive
effect of the arc set up on rupture of the fusible elements. The material used for packing of
the fuse illustrated is granular quartz; other materials suitable for this purpose are magnesite
(magnesium oxide), kieselguhr, and calcium carbonate (chalk). When an overload current
condition arises and each element is close to fusing point, the element to go first immediately
transfers its load to the remaining elements and they, now being well overloaded, fail in quick
succession.
Fig A8.16 Typical fuses

(a) Light-duty circuit fuse
(b) High-rupturing capacity fuse
In some transport aircraft, the fuseholders are of the self-indicating type incorporating a lamp
and a resistor, connected in such a way that the lamp lights when the fusible element ruptures.
CURRENT LIMITERS
Current limiters, as the name suggests, are designed to limit the current to some pre-
determined amperage value. They are also thermal devices, but unlike ordinary fuses they
have a high melting point, so that their time/current characteristics permit them to carry a
considerable overload current before rupturing. For this reason their application is confined to
the protection of heavy-duty power distribution circuits.
A typical current limiter (manufactured under the name of "Airfuse") is illustrated in Fig.
A8.17. It incorporates a fusible element which is, in effect, a single strip of tinned copper,
drilled and shaped at each end to form lug type connections, with the central portion
"waisted" to the required width to form the fusing area. The central portion is enclosed by a
rectangular ceramic housing, one side of which is furnished with an inspection window
which, depending on the type, may be of glass or mica.
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Fig A8.17 Typical current limiter ("Airfuse")
LIMITING RESISTORS
These provide another form of protection particularly in d.c. circuits in which the initial
current surge is very high, e.g. starter motor and inverter circuits, circuits containing highly-
capacitive loads. When such circuits are switched on they impose current surges of such a
magnitude as to lower the voltage of the complete system for a time period, the length of
which is a function of the time response of the generating and voltage regulating system. In
order therefore to keep the current surges within limits, the starting sections of the
appropriate circuits incorporate a resistance element which is automatically connected in
series and then shorted out when the current has fallen to a safe value.
Fig A8.18 Application of a limiting resistor
Figure A8.18 illustrates the application of a limiting resistor to a turbine engine starter motor
circuit incorporating a time switch; the initial current flow may be as high as 1500 A. The
resistor is shunted across the contacts of a shorting relay which is controlled by the time
switch. When the starter push switch is operated, current from the busbar flows through the
coil of the main starting relay, thus energizing it. Closing of the relay contacts completes a
circuit to the time switch motor, and also to the starter motor via the limiting resistor which
thus reduces the peak current and initial starting torque of the motor. After a pre-determined
time interval, which allows for a build-up of engine motoring speed, the torque load on the
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starter motor decreases and the time switch operates a set of contacts which complete a
circuit to the shorting relay. As will be clear from Fig. A8.18, with the relay energized the
current from the busbar passes direct to the starter motor, and the limiting resistor is shorted
out. When ignition takes place and the engine reaches what is termed "self-sustaining speed",
the power supply to the starter motor circuit is then switched off.
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Circuit breakers, unlike fuses or current limiters, isolate faulted circuits and equipment by
means of a mechanical trip device actuated by the heating of a bi-metallic element through
which the current passes to a switch unit. We may therefore consider them as being a
combined fuse and switch device. They are used for the protection of cables and components
and, since they can be reset after clearance of a fault, they avoid some of the replacement
problems associated with fuses and current limiters. Furthermore, close tolerance trip time
characteristics are possible, because the linkage between the bi-metal element and trip
mechanism may be adjusted by the manufacturer to suit the current ratings of the element.
The mechanism is of the "trip-free" type, i.e. it will not allow the contacts of the switch unit
to be held closed while a fault current exists in the circuit.
The factors governing the selection of circuit breaker ratings and locations, are similar to
those already described for fuses.
The design and construction of circuit breakers varies, but in general they consist of three
main assemblies; a bi-metal thermal element, a contact type switch unit and a mechanical
latching mechanism. A push-pull button is also provided for manual resetting after thermal
tripping has occurred, and for manual tripping when it is required to switch off the supply to
the circuit of a system. The construction and operation is illustrated schematically in Fig.
A8.19.
Fig A8.19 Schematic diagram of circuit breaker operation

(a) Closed
(b) Tripped condition
AASS Page 18 of 29
The circuit breaker is shown in its normal operating position; current passes through the
switch unit contacts and the thermal element, which thus carries the full current supplied to
the load being protected. At normal current values heat is produced in the thermal element,
but is radiated away fairly quickly, and after an initial rise the temperature remains constant.
If the current should exceed the normal operating value due to a short circuit, the temperature
of the element begins to build up, and since metals comprising the thermal element have
different coefficients of expansion, the element becomes distorted as indicated in Fig. A8.19
(b). The distortion eventually becomes sufficient to release the latch mechanism and allows
the control spring to open the switch unit contacts, thus isolating the load from the supply. At
the same time, the push-pull button extends and in many types of circuit breaker a white band
on the button is exposed to provide a visual indication of the tripped condition.
The temperature rise and degree of distortion produced in the thermal element are
proportional to the value of the current and the time for which it is applied. The ambient
temperature under which the circuit breaker operates also has an influence on circuit breaker
operation and this, together with operating current values and tripping times, is derived from
characteristic curves supplied by the manufacturer. A set of curves for a typical 6 A circuit
breaker is shown in Fig. A8.20.
The current values are expressed as a percentage of the continuous rating of the circuit
breaker, and the curves are plotted to cover specified tolerance bands of current and time for
three ambient temperatures. If, for example, the breaker was operating at an ambient
temperature of +57°C, then in say 30 seconds it would trip when the load current reached a
value between 140 and 160 per cent of the normal rating, i.e. between 8.4 and 9.6 A. At an
ambient temperature of +20°C it would trip in 30 seconds at between 160 and 190 per cent of
the normal rating (between 9.6 and 11.4 A) while at -40°C the load current would have to
reach a value between 195 and 215 per cent of the normal rating (between 11.7 and 12.9 A)
in order to trip in the same time interval.
AASS Page 19 of 29
Fig A8.20Characteristic curves of a typical circuit breaker tripping times
After a circuit breaker has tripped, the distorted element begins to cool down and reverts
itself and the latch mechanism back to normal, and once the fault which caused tripping has
been cleared, the circuit can again be completed by pushing in the circuit breaker button. This
"resetting" action closes the main contacts and re-engages the push-button with the latch
mechanism. If it is required to isolate the power supply to a circuit due to a suspected fault, or
during testing, a circuit breaker may be used as a switch simply by pulling out the button. In
some designs a separate button is provided for this purpose.
The external appearance of two typical single-pole, single-throw "trip-free" circuit breakers is
illustrated in Fig. A8.21. The circuit breaker shown at (b) incorporates a separate manual trip
push button. A cover may sometimes be fitted to prevent inadvertent operation of the button.
In three-phase a.c. circuits, triple-pole circuit breakers are used, and their mechanisms are so
arranged that in the event of a fault current in any one or all three of the phases, all three
poles will trip simultaneously. Similar tripping will take place should an unbalanced phase
condition develop as a result of a phase becoming "open-circuited". The three trip
mechanisms actuate a common push-pull button.
AASS Page 20 of 29
Fig A8.21 Circuit breakers

(a) Typical
(b) Circuit breaker with a "manual trip" button
PROTECTION AGAINST REVERSE CURRENT

In all types of electrical systems the current flow is, of course, from the power source to the
distribution busbar system and finally to the power consuming equipment; the
interconnection throughout being made by such automatic devices as voltage regulators and
control units, and by manually controlled switches. Under fault conditions, however, it. is
possible for the current flow to reverse direction, and as this would be of detriment to a
circuit and associated equipment, it is therefore necessary to provide some automatic means
of protection. In order to illustrate the fundamental principles we may consider two
commonly used methods, namely reverse current relays and reverse current circuit breakers.
Reverse Current Cut-Out Relay

A reverse current cut-out relay is used principally in a d.c. generating system either as a
separate unit or as part of a voltage regulator. The circuit arrangement, as applied to the
generating system typical of several types of small aircraft, is shown in Fig. A8.22.
The relay consists of two coils wound on a core and a spring-controlled armature and contact
assembly. The shunt winding is made up of many turns of fine wire connected across the
generator so that voltage is impressed on it at all times. The series winding, of a few turns of
heavy wire, is in series with the main supply line and is designed to carry the entire line
current. The winding is also connected to the contact assembly, which under static conditions
is held in the open position by means of a spring.
When the generator starts operating and the voltage builds up to a value which exceeds that
of the battery, the shunt winding of the relay produces sufficient magnetism in the core to
attract the armature and so close the contacts. Thus the relay acts as an automatic switch to
connect the generator to the busbar, and also to the battery so that it is supplied with charging
current. The field produced by the series winding aids the shunt-winding field in keeping the
contacts firmly closed.
AASS Page 21 of 29
Fig A8.22 Reverse current cut-out operation
When the generator is being shut down or, say, a failure in its output occurs, then the output
falls below the battery voltage and there is a momentary discharge of current from the
battery; in other words, a condition of reverse current through the cut-out relay series winding
is set up. As this also causes a reversal of its magnetic field, the shunt winding-field will be
opposed, thereby reducing core magnetization until the armature spring opens the contacts.
The generator is therefore switched to the "off-line" condition to protect it from damaging
effects which would otherwise result from "motoring" current discharging from the battery.
Switched Reverse Current Relay
This relay is adopted in the d.c. generator systems of some types of small aircraft, its purpose
being to permit switching of a generator on to the main busbar, and at the same time retain
the disconnect function in the event of reverse current. .The circuit arrangement is shown in
Fig. A8.23.
In addition to a current coil the relay has a voltage coil, and a pair of contacts actuated via a
contactor coil. When the voltage output is at a regulated value, the current through the
voltage coil is sufficient to actuate its contacts which then connect the generator switch and
contactor coil to ground. The contactor coil is thus energized from the A+ output of the
generator and so the auxiliary and main contacts close to connect the generator output to the
battery and main busbar. The magnetic effect of the current passing through the current coil
assists that of the voltage coil in keeping the pilot contacts closed.
During engine shut-down, the generator output voltage decreases thereby initiating a reverse
current condition, and because the magnetic effect of the current through the current coil now
opposes that of the voltage coil, the pilot contacts open to de-energize the contactor coil; thus,
the main and auxiliary contacts are opened to disconnect the generator from the battery and
main busbar.
AASS Page 22 of 29
Fig A8.23 Switched reverse current relay
Reverse Current Circuit Breakers

These circuit breakers are designed to protect power supply systems and associated circuits
against fault currents of a magnitude greater than those at which cut-outs normally operate.
Furthermore, they are designed to remain in a "locked-out" condition to ensure complete
isolation of a circuit until a fault has been cleared.
An example of a circuit breaker designed for use in a d.c. generating system is shown in Fig.
A8.24. It consists of a magnetic unit, the field strength and direction of which are controlled
by a single-turn coil connected between the generator positive output and the busbar via a
main contact assembly. An auxiliary contact assembly is also provided for connection in
series with the shunt-field winding of the generator. The opening of both contact assemblies
is controlled by a latching mechanism actuated by the magnet unit under heavy reverse
current conditions. In common with other circuit breakers, resetting after a tripping operation
has to be done manually, and is accomplished by a lever which is also actuated by the
latching mechanism. Visual indication of a tripped condition is provided by a coloured
indicator flag which appears behind a window in the circuit breaker cover. Manual tripping of
the unit is effected by a push-button adjacent to the resetting lever.
Figure A8.25 is based on the circuit arrangement of a d.c. generating system used in a
particular type of aircraft, and is an example of the application of a reverse current circuit
breaker in conjunction with a cut-out relay. Unlike the circuit shown in Fig. A8.22, the relay
controls the operation of a line contactor connected in series with the coil of the reverse
current circuit breaker. Under normal current flow conditions closing of the relay energizes
the line contactor, the heavyduty contacts of which connect the generator output to the busbar
via the coil and main contacts of the normally closed reverse current circuit breaker. The
magnetic field set up by the current flow assists that of the magnet unit, thus maintaining the
breaker contacts in the closed position. The generator shunt field circuit is supplied via the
auxiliary contacts.
AASS Page 23 of 29
Fig A8.24 Reverse current circuit breaker
When the generator is being shut down, or a failure of its output occurs, the reverse current
resulting from the drop in output to a value below that of the battery flows through the circuit
as indicated, and the cut-out relay is operated to de-energize the line contactor which takes
the generator "off line". Under these conditions the reverse current circuit breaker will remain
closed, since the current magnitude is much lower than that at which a specific type of
breaker is normally rated (some typical ranges are 200-250 A and 850-950 A).
Fig A8.25 Reverse current circuit breaker operation
Let us consider now what would happen in the event of either the cut-out relay or the line
contactor failing to open under the above low magnitude reverse current conditions, e.g.
contacts have welded due to wear and excessive arcing. The reverse current would feed back
to the generator, and in addition to its motoring effect on the generator, it would also reverse
the generator field polarity. The reverse current passing through the circuit breaker coil would
continue to increase in trying to overcome mechanical loads due to the engine and generator
coupling, and so the increasing reverse field reduces the strength of the magnet unit. When
AASS Page 24 of 29
the reverse current reaches the pre-set trip value of the circuit breaker, the field of the magnet
unit is neutralized and repelled, causing the latch mechanism to release the main and
auxiliary contacts to completely isolate the generator from the busbar. The breaker must be
reset after the circuit fault has been cleared.
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
Over-voltage is a condition which could arise in a generating system in the event of a fault in
the field excitation circuit, e.g. internal grounding of the field windings or an open-circuit in
the voltage regulator sensing lines. Devices are therefore necessary to protect consumer
equipment against voltages higher than those at which they are normally designed to operate.
The methods adopted vary between aircraft systems and also on whether they supply d.c. or
a.c. An example of an overvoltage relay method applied to one type of d.c. system is shown
in Fig. A8.26.
Fig A8.26 Overvoltage protection d.c. generating system
The relay consists of a number of contacts connected in all essential circuits of the generator
system, and mechanically coupled to a latching mechanism. This mechanism is
electromagnetically controlled by a sensing coil and armature assembly, the coil being
connected in the generator shunt-field circuit and in series with a resistor, the resistance of
which decreases as the current through it is increased. Under normal regulated voltage
conditions, the sensing coil circuit resistance is high enough to prevent generator shunt-field
current from releasing the relay latch mechanism, and so the contacts remain closed and the
generator remains connected to the busbar. If, however, an open circuit occurs in the
regulator voltage coil sensing line, shunt-field current increases and, because of the inverse
characteristics of the relay sensing coil resistor, the electromagnetic field set up by the coil
causes the latch mechanism to release all the relay contacts to the open position, thereby
isolating the system from the busbar. After the fault has been cleared, the contacts are reset
by depressing the push button.
Figure A8.27 illustrates a method employed in a frequency-wild a.c. generating system, the
full control of which is provided by magnetic amplifiers. The output of the overvoltage
AASS Page 25 of 29
protection magnetic amplifier is fed to a bridge rectifier and to the coil of a relay, via a
feedback winding. The main contacts of the relay are connected in the normal d.c. supply
switching circuit to the line contactor.
Under normal voltage output conditions the impedance of the magnetic amplifier is such that
its a.c. output, and the rectified a.c. through the relay coil, maintain the relay in the de-
energized condition. When an overvoltage condition is produced the current through the relay
coil increases to a pre-determined energizing value, and the opening of the relay contacts
interrupts the d.c. supply to the line contactor, which then disconnects the generator from the
busbar. At the same time, the main control unit interrupts the supply of self-excitation current
to the generator, causing its a.c. output to collapse to zero. The relay resets itself and after the
fault has been cleared the generator output may be restored and connected to the busbar by
carrying out the normal starting cycle.
Fig A8.27 Overvoltage protection a.c..generating system (frequency wild)
An overvoltage protection system adopted in one example of a constant frequency (non-

paralleled) a.c. generating system is shown in basic form in Fig. A8.28.
The detector utilizes solid-state circuit elements which sense all three phases of the generator
output, and is set to operate at a level greater than 130 ± 3 volts. An overvoltage condition is
an excitation-type fault probably resulting from loss of sensing to, or control of, the voltage
regulator such that excessive field excitation of a generator is provided.
The signal resulting from an overvoltage is supplied through an inverse time delay to two
solid-state switches. When switch S1 is made it completes a circuit through the coil of the
generator control relay, one contact of which opens to interrupt the generator excitation field
circuit. The other contact closes and completes a circuit to the generator breaker trip relay,
this in turn, de-energizing the generator breaker to disconnect the generator from the busbar.
The making of solid-state switch S2 energizes the light relay causing it to illuminate the
annunciator light which is a white one in the actual system on which Fig. A8.28 is based. The
purpose of the inverse time delay is to prevent nuisance tripping under transient conditions.
AASS Page 26 of 29
Fig A8.28 Overvoltage protection (constant frequency system)
UNDERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
Undervoltage occurs in the course of operation when a generator is being shut down, and the
flow of reverse current from the system to the generator is a normal indication of this
condition. In a single d.c. generator system undervoltage protection is not essential since the
reverse current is sensed and checked by the reverse current cut-out. It is, however, essential
in a multi-generator system with an equalizing method of load-sharing, and since a load-
sharing circuit always acts to raise the voltage of a lagging generator, then an undervoltage
protection circuit is integrated with that of load-sharing. A typical circuit normally comprises
a polarized relay which disconnects the loadsharing circuit and then allows the reverse
current cut-out to disconnect the generator from the busbar.
In a constant frequency a.c. system, and considering the case of circuit arrangement for
undervoltage protection is similar in many respects to that shown in Fig. A8.28, since it must
also trip the generator control relay, the generator breaker, and must also annunciate the
condition. The voltage level at which the circuit operates is less than 100 ± 3 volts. A time
delay is also included and is set at 7 ± 2 seconds; its purpose being to prevent tripping due to
transient voltages, and also to allow the CSD to slow down to an underfrequency condition
on engine shutdown and so inhibit tripping of the generator control relay.
When generators are operating in parallel, undervoltage protection circuits are allied to
reactive load-sharing circuits.
OVER-EXCITATION AND UNDER-EXCITATION PROTECTION

Over-excitation and under-excitation are conditions which are closely associated with those
of overvoltage and undervoltage, and when generators are operating in parallel, the
conditions are also associated with reactive current. Protection is therefore afforded by a
mixing circuit. If the reactive current is the same in the generators paralleled, there will be no
output from the circuit. When an unbalance occurs, e.g. a generator is over-excited, voltages
will be produced in both over-excitation and underexcitation sections of the circuit, and these
voltages will be fed to the overvoltage and undervoltage circuits. As a result, the overvoltage
circuit will be biased down so that it will trip the generator breaker at a lower level. The
AASS Page 27 of 29
undervoltage circuit will also be biased down so that it will trip the breaker at a lower
voltage. Since the overall effect of overexcitation is to raise the busbar voltage then the
overvoltage circuit provides the protective function.
With an under-excited generator, the voltages fed to the overvoltage and undervoltage
circuits cause the biasing to have the opposite effect to over-excitation. Since under-
excitation lowers the busbar voltage, then the undervoltage circuit provides the protective
function.
UNDERFREQUENCY AND OVERFREQUENCY PROTECTION

Protection against these faults applies only to a.c. generating systems and is effected by the
real loadsharing circuit of a generating system.
DIFFERENTIAL CURRENT PROTECTION

The purpose of a differential current protection system is to detect a short-circuited feeder
line or generator busbar which would result in a very high current demand on a generator,
and possibly result in an electrical fire. Under these conditions, the difference between the
current leaving the generator and the current arriving at the busbar is called a differential fault
or a feeder fault. In an a.c. system, current comparisons are made phase for phase, by two
three-phase current transformers, one on the ground or neutral side of the generator (ground
DPCT) and the other (the load DPCT) on the downstream side of the busbar. Figure A8.29
illustrates the arrangement and principle of a system as applied to a single-phase line.
Two current transformers (CTs) are located at each end of the feeder distribution line:
- CT 1 monitors the current output from the generator
- CT 2 monitors the current into the distribution system.
Secondary windings of each current transformer are connected via two relay coils; these
windings are formed in the opposite direction. When current flows through the feeder, there
is equal current in both coils; the induced EMF is balanced, so no current flows. If a fault
develops in the feeder line, current CT 1 flows (but not CT 2 ), thereby creating an
unbalanced condition.
Fig A8.29 Differential current protection
AASS Page 28 of 29
If the current from the generator is I, and the fault current between the generator and busbar
equals If, then the net current at the busbar will be equal to I - If. The fault current will flow
through the aircraft structure and back to the generator through the ground DPCT. The
remainder of the current I - If, will flow through the load DPCT, the loads, the aircraft
structure, and then back to the generator via the ground DPCT. Thus, the ground DPCT will
detect the generator's total current (I - If) + (If) which is equal to I, and the load DPCT will
detect I - If.
If the difference in current (i.e. the fault current) between the two current transformers on the
phase line is sensed to be greater than the specified limit (20 or 30 amperes are typical
values) a protector circuit within a generator control unit will trip the generator control relay.
AASS Page 29 of 29

A8 Circuit Protection

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Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Tsing Yi) AASS I

HD in Aircraft Maintenance Engineering

Fig A8.1 Switch contact arrangements

Fig A8.2 Toggle switch

Fig A8.3 "Ganging" and locking of switches

Fig A8.4 Push switches

Fig A8.5 Push-in solenoid switch

Fig A8.6 Micro-switches

Fig A8.7 Time switch unit

Fig A8.8 Mercury switches

Fig A8.9 Typical pressure switch unit

Fig A8.10 Fire detector switch

Fig A8.11 Proximity switch

ATTRACTED-CORE, HEAVY-DUTY RELAY

Fig A8.12 Attracted core heavy-duty relay

ATTRACTED-ARMATURE, LIGHT-DUTY RELAY

Fig A8.13 Attracted armature light-duty relay (sealed)

Fig A8.14 Attracted armature relay (unsealed type)

Fig A8.15 Breaker

Circuit Protection Devices and Systems

Fig A8.16 Typical fuses

Fig A8.17 Typical current limiter ("Airfuse")

Fig A8.18 Application of a limiting resistor

Fig A8.19 Schematic diagram of circuit breaker operation

Fig A8.20Characteristic curves of a typical circuit breaker tripping times

Fig A8.21 Circuit breakers

PROTECTION AGAINST REVERSE CURRENT

Reverse Current Cut-Out Relay

Fig A8.22 Reverse current cut-out operation

Switched Reverse Current Relay

Fig A8.23 Switched reverse current relay

Reverse Current Circuit Breakers

Fig A8.24 Reverse current circuit breaker

Fig A8.25 Reverse current circuit breaker operation

Fig A8.26 Overvoltage protection d.c. generating system

Fig A8.27 Overvoltage protection a.c..generating system (frequency wild)

An overvoltage protection system adopted in one example of a constant frequency (non-

Fig A8.28 Overvoltage protection (constant frequency system)

OVER-EXCITATION AND UNDER-EXCITATION PROTECTION

UNDERFREQUENCY AND OVERFREQUENCY PROTECTION

DIFFERENTIAL CURRENT PROTECTION

Fig A8.29 Differential current protection

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