Chapter 3

Strength Analysis of Singly Reinforced Concrete Beams

3.1. Design Methods

From the early 1900s until early 1960s, nearly all reinforced concrete design was performed by the WSD method (also
called allowable-stress design or straight-line method). In this method, the dead load and live loads to be supported,
called working loads or service loads, were estimated. Then the members of the structure were proportioned so that
stresses calculated by a tranformed area method did not exceed certain permissible or allowable loads.

After 1963, the ultimate-strength design method (now called strength design) slowly gained popularity because:
 it makes use of a more rational approach than does WSD,
 it uses a more realistic consideration of safety,and
 it provides more economical designs
With this method, the working dead and live loads are multiplied by certain load factors (equivalent to safety factors),
and the resulting values are called factored loads. The members are then selected so they will theoretically just fail
under the factored loads.

3.2. Strength Design Method Assumptions

Reinforced concrete sections are heterogeneous (nonhomogeneou), because they are made of two different materials-
concrete and steel. Therefore, proportioning structural members by strength design approach is based on the following
assumptions:

1. strain in concrete is the same as in reinforcing bars at the same level, provided that the bond between the steel
and concrete is adequate.
2. Strain in concrete is linearly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
3. The modulus of elasticity of all grades of steel is taken as Es  200 000MPa . The stress in the elastic range
is equal to the strain multiplied by Es .
4. Plane cross sections continue to be plane afterbending.
5. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected because
 concrete’s tensile strenght is about 10% of its compressive strenght
 cracked concrete is assumed to be not effective, and
 before cracking, the entire concrete section is effective in resisting the external moment.
6. The method of elastic analysis, assuming an idel behavior at all levels of stress, is not valid. At high stresses,
nonelastic behavior is assumed, which is in close agreement with the actual behavior of concrete and steel.
7. At failure the maximum strain at the extreme compression fibers is assumed equal to 0.003.
8. For design strength, the shape of the compressive concrete stress distributionmaybe assumed to be rectangular,
parabolic, or trapezoidal.

3.3. Structural Safety

The structural safety of a reinforced concrete structure can be calculated with two methods. The first method involves
calculationsof the stresses caused by the working or service loads and their comparison with certain allowable stresses.
Usually the safety factor against collapse when the working-stress method was used was said to equal the smaller of
fc' f y'
or .
fc fs
The second approach to structural safety is the one used in strength design in which uncertainty is considered. The
working loads are multiplied by certain load factors that are larger than 1. The resulting larger or factored loads are used
for designing the structure. The values of the load factors vary depending on the type and combination of the loads.

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 To accurately estimate the ultimate strength of a struture, it is necessary to take into account the uncertaities in the
material strengths, dimensions, and workmanship. This is done by multiplying the theoretical ultimate strenght (called
the nominal strength) of each member by the strength reduction factor,  , which is less than 1.

3.4. Failure Modes and Flexural Strenght of Reinforced Concrete Beams

When a reinforced concrete beam is loaded to failure, three modes of bending failure are possible. The particular mode
of failure is determined by the percentage of steel located in the tension zone. Two of these modes are brittle and one is
ductile. Since the designer’s prime concern is to produce ductile beams with a hign capacity for energy absorption,
beams must be proportioned to ensure that only the ductile failure mode is possible.

Case 1: Balanced Design

Balanced design refers to a design so proportioned that the maximum stresses in concrete (with strain
 c  0.003 ) and steel (with strain  s  f y Es ) arer eached simultaneoulsly once the ultimate load is
reached, causing them to fail simultaneously. Failure in this mode is brittle.

Case 2: Underreinforced Design

Underreinforced design is a design in which the steel reinforcement is lesser than what is required for balanced
condition. If the ultimate load is approcahed, the steel will begin to yield although the compression concrete is
still understressed. If the load is futher increased, the steel will continue to elongate, resulting in appreciable
deflections and large visible cracks in the tensile concrete. Failure in this mode is ductile and will give the
warnig to the user of the structure to decrease the load.

Case 3: Overreinforced Design

Overreinforced design is a design in which the steel reinforcement is more than what is required for balanced
condition. If the is overreinforced, the steel will not yield before failure. As the load is incereased, deflections
are not noticeable although the compression concrete is highly stressed, and the failure occurs suddenly without
warning to the user of the structure. Failure in this mode is brittle.

Note: To prevent a brittle failure, the reinforcement must yield while the strain in the concrete is less than failure strain of
0.003.

3.5. Load Factors and Load Combinations

For the design of structural members, the factored design load is obtained by multiplying the dead load by a load factor
and the specified live load by another load factor. The magnitude of the load factor must be adequate to limit the
probability of sudden failure and to permit an economical structural design. The choice of a proper load factor or, in
general, a proper factor of safety depends mainly on the importance of the structure (whether a courthouse or a
warehouse), the degree of warning needed prior to collapse, the importance of each structural member (whether a beam
or a column), the expection of overload, the accuracy of artisanry, and the accuracy of calculations.

1. In the case of dead, live, and wind loads:

U  1.4 D
U  1.2 D  1.6 L
U  1.2 D  1.0 L  1.0W
U  0.9 D  1.0W
U  1.2 D  1.0 L or 0.5W 

2. In the case of dead, live, and seismic (earthquake) forces, E:

U  1.2 D  1.0 L  1.0 E
U  0.9 D  1.0 E

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 3. For load combination due to roof live load, rain load, snow load, in addition to dead, live, wind, and earthquake
load:
U  1.2 D  1.6 L  0.5  Lr or S or R 
U  1.2 D  1.6  Lr or S or R   1.0 L or 0.5W 
U  1.2 D  1.0W  1.0 L  0.5  Lr or S or R 
U  1.2 D  1.0 E  1.0 L  0.2S

4. Where fluid load F is present, it shall be in cluded as follows:

U  1.4  D  F 
U  1.2 D  1.2 F  1.6 L  0.5  Lr or S or R 
U  1.2 D  1.2 F   L  0.5W   1.6  Lr or S or R 
U  1.2 D  1.2 F  1.0W  L  0.5  Lr or S or R 
U  1.2 D  1.2 F  1.0 E  L  0.2S
U  0.9  D  F   1.0 E

5. When the load H (load due to lateral earth pressure, groundwater pressure, or pressure of bulk material) is
present, it shall be included as follows:
a. Include H with load factor 1.6 where effect of H adds to primary variable load effect.
b. Include H with load factor 0.90 where effect of H resists to primary variable load effect.

U  primary permanent loads  1.6 H

U  primary permament loads  0.9 H

3.6. Strength Reduction Factor, 

Strength reduction factors are commonly referred to as resistance ϕ -factors and play a key role in the determination of
the design reinforced concrete member. The main purposes of these factors follows:

1. To account for the understrength of a member due to variations in material strengths and dimension .
2. To allow for inaccuracies in the design equations.
3. To reflect the degree of ductility and required reliability of a member.
4. To reflect the importance of a member.

The NSCP Code specifies the following values to be used:

For tension-controlled sections   0.90

For compression-controlled sections
a. with spriral reinforcement   0.75
b. other reinforced members   0.65
For plain concrete   0.60
For shear and torsion   0.75
For bearing on concrete   0.65
For strut and tie models   0.75

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Strength reduction factor for moment, axial force, or combined moment and axial force shall be in accordance with Table
421.2.2 of the NSCP Code and is given below. A linear transition in the strength reduction factor is permitted between the
limits for tension-controlled and compression-controlled sections; this transition is illustrated in the figure below.

Strength reduction factor  for moment, axial force, or combined moment and axial force
Net tensile strain 
t Classification Type of transverse reinforcement
Spirals conforming to 425.7.3 Other
 t   ty Compression -
0.75 (a) 0.65 (b)
controlled

 ty   t  0.005 Transition[1] 0.75  0.15

 t   ty  0.65  0.25
 t   ty 
 0.005   ty   0.005   ty 
(c) (d)

Tension-
 t  0.005 0.90 (e) 0.90 (f)
controlled
For sections classified as transition, it shall be permitted to use  corresponding to compression-controlled sections.
[1]

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3.7. Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending
Tests of reinforced concrete beams confirm that strains vary in proportion to distances from the neutral axis even on the
tension sides and even near ultimate loads. Compression stresses vary approximately in a straight line until the
maximum stress equals about 0.50 f c' . This is not the case, however, after stresses go higher. When the ultimate load
is reached, the strain and stress variations are approximately as shown below.

The compressive stresses vary from zero at the neutral axis to a maximum vale at or near the extreme fiber. The actual
stress variation and the actual location of the neutral axis vary somewhat from beam to beam, depending on such
variables as the magnitude and history of past loadings, shrinkage and creep of concrete, size and spacing of tension
cracks, speed of loading, and so on.

If the shape of the stress diagram were the same for every beam, it would be possible to derive a single rational set of
expression for flexural behavior. Because of these stress variations, however, it is necessary to base the strength design
on a combination of theory and test results.

If the concrete is assumed to crush at a strain of about 0.003 and the steel to yield at f y , it is possible to make a
reasonable derivation of beam formulas without knowing the exact stress distribution. However, it is necessary to know
the value of the total compression force and its centroid.

Based on the assumptions regarding the rectangular stress block suggested by Whitney, equations of statics can easily
be written for the sum of the horizontal forces and for the resisting moment produced by the internal couple. These
expressions can then be solved separately for a and for the moment M n . The design strength of a member,  M n , must
at least be equal to the required strength, M u , caused by the factored loads

Design Strength ≥ Required Strength

M n  Mu
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 As f y  f yd where:
a  1c     steel ratio
0.85 fc'b 0.85 fc'
c  distance from the neutral axis to the extreme concrete fiber in
As compression

bd 1  0.85 for fc'  30MPa
 
1  0.85  0.008 fc'  30  0.65 for fc'  30MPa
 a  a
M n  T  d    As f y  d   M n  nominal moment
 2  2
 a
 M n   As f y  d  
 2 Mn  Mu
 fy    strength reduction factor = 0.90
M u   As f y d 1  0.59  ' 
 fc   M n  design strength

 fy  M u  required strength
M u   f y bd 2 1  0.59 ' 
 fc 

Mu
0.85 fc'  2 Rn  Rn 
 1  1   bd 2
f y  0.85 fc' 
 Rn  flexural resistance factor
1.4 fc' 

min  max  ,  min  minimum steel percentage
 f y 4 f y 
b  balance steel percentage
0.851 fc'  600   dt 
b     dt  distance from the bottom layer reinforcement to concrete fiber in compression
fy  600  f y  d 
  For single layer reinforcement, dt  d
max permitted  0.75b max permitted  maximum steel ratio allowed by the code for   0.9

3.8. Upper Limit of Steel Percentage

The upper limit or the maximum steel percentage, that can be used in a singly reinforced concrete section in bending
is based on the net tensile strain,  t , in the tension steel, the balanced steel ratio, b , and the grade of steel used.

 0.003  f y Es 
 max    b
 0.003   t 

For upper limit tension-controlled section,  t  0.005

 0.003  f y Es 
 max    b
 0.008 

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Note:
1. When   max , tension controls and   0.9
2. When   max , the section will be in transition region with   0.9

3.9. Lower Limit or Minimum Percentage of Steel

If the factored moment applied on a beam is very small and the dimensions of the section are specified and are larger
than needed to resist the factored moment, the calculation may show that very small or no steel reinforcement is
required. In this case, the maximumtensile stress due to bending moment maybe equal to or less than the modulus of
rupture f concrete. If no reinforcement is provided, suddent failure will be expected when the first crack occurs. The
NSCP Code, section 409.6.1, specifies a minimum steel area,

 0.25 f ' 1.4 

As min  max  c
bd , bd or
 fy fy 
 

 0.25 f ' 1.4 

min  max  c
, 
 fy fy 
 

3.8. Significance of Analysis and Design Expressions

Two approaches for the investigations of a reinforced cocnrete member will be used in this module:
a. Analysis of a section that the dimensions and steel used in the section (in addition to concrete strength and steel
yield strength) are given, and it is required to calculate the internal design moment capacity of the section so
that it can be comapred with the applied external required moment.
b. Design of a section imples that the external required moment is known from structural analysis, and it si required
to compute the dimensions of an adequate concrete section and the amount of steel reinforcement. Cocnrete
strength and yieod strength of steel used are given.

Problem Set 3:
1. For the section shown below, given that fc'  27.6MPa and f y  420MPa , calculate

a. the balanced steel reinforcement

b. the maximum reinforcement area allowed by the NSCP Code for a tension-controlled section and in transition
region
c. the position of the neutral axis and the depth of the equivalent compressive stress block for the tension-
controlled section in b.

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 2. Determine the design moment strength and the position of the neutral axis of the rectangular section shown in the
figure below if the reinforcement used is three 28 mm diameter bar. Given fc'  21MPa and f y  420MPa .

3. Repeat Prob. 2 using 3-D32 bars as the tension steel.

3.9. Adequacy of Sections

A given section is said to be adequate is the internal moment strength (design strength,  M n ) of the section is equal
to or greated than the externally applied factored moment (required strength, M u ). The procedure can be summarized
as follows:

1. Calculate the external applied moment, M u .

2. Calcultate  M n for the basic singly reinforced section:
a. Check that min    max

As f y
b. Calculate a  and check  t for  .
0.85 fc'b
 a
c. Calculate M n  As f y  d  .
 2
3. If  M n  M u , then the section is adequate

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Problem Set 4:
1. A 2.4 m cantilever beam has a rectangular section and reinforcement as shown in the figure below. The beam carries
a dead load, including ite own weight, of 22 kN/m and a live load of 13 kN/m. Using fc'  27.6MPa and
f y  420MPa , check is the beam is safe to carry the above loads.

2. A simply supported beam has a span of 6 m. If the cross section of the beam is as shown below, fc'  21 MPa ,
and f y  420 MPa , determine the allowable uniformly distributed service live load on the beam assuming the
dead load is that due to beam weight.

3. Check the design adequacy of the section shown in the figure below to resist a factored moment
M u  40.5 kN  m using fc'  21 MPa and f y  276 MPa .

4. Determine the design moment strength of a rectangular concrete section reinforced with 6-D28 bars in two rows as
shown below.

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