SQLX

Introduction to SQL
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SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.
What is SQL?

SQL stands for Structured Query Language SQL lets you access and manipulate databases SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard
What Can SQL do?

SQL SQL SQL SQL SQL SQL SQL SQL SQL SQL can can can can can can can can can can execute queries against a database retrieve data from a database insert records in a database update records in a database delete records from a database create new databases create new tables in a database create stored procedures in a database create views in a database set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
SQL is a Standard - BUT....

Although SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard, there are many different versions of the SQL language. However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the major commands (such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE) in a similar manner. Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary extensions in addition to the SQL standard!
Using SQL in Your Web Site

To build a web site that shows some data from a database, you will need the following:
An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL) A server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP
SQL HTML / CSS
RDBMS
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access. The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. A table is a collections of related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.
Database Tables
A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g. "Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data. Below is an example of a table called "Persons": P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger
The table above contains three records (one for each person) and five columns (P_Id, LastName, FirstName, Address, and City).
SQL Statements
Most of the actions you need to perform on a database are done with SQL statements. The following SQL statement will select all the records in the "Persons" table:
SELECT * FROM Persons

In this tutorial we will teach you all about the different SQL statements.
Keep in Mind That...
SQL is not case sensitive
Semicolon after SQL Statements?

Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of each SQL statement. Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database systems that allow more than one SQL statement to be executed in the same call to the server. We are using MS Access and SQL Server 2000 and we do not have to put a semicolon after each SQL statement, but some database programs force you to use it.
SQL DML and DDL

SQL can be divided into two parts: The Data Manipulation Language (DML) and the Data Definition Language (DDL). The query and update commands form the DML part of SQL:
SELECT - extracts data from a database UPDATE - updates data in a database DELETE - deletes data from a database INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database
The DDL part of SQL permits database tables to be created or deleted. It also define indexes (keys), specify links between tables, and impose constraints between tables. The most important DDL statements in SQL are:
CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database CREATE TABLE - creates a new table ALTER TABLE - modifies a table DROP TABLE - deletes a table CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key) DROP INDEX - deletes an index
SQL SELECT Statement

This chapter will explain the SELECT and the SELECT * statements.
The SQL SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database. The result is stored in a result table, called the result-set.
SQL SELECT Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name
and
SELECT * FROM table_name
Note: SQL is not case sensitive. SELECT is the same as select.
An SQL SELECT Example

The "Persons" table: P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger
Now we want to select the content of the columns named "LastName" and "FirstName" from the table above. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT LastName,FirstName FROM Persons
The result-set will look like this: LastName FirstName
Hansen Svendson Pettersen
Ola Tove Kari
SELECT * Example
Now we want to select all the columns from the "Persons" table. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons
Tip: The asterisk (*) is a quick way of selecting all columns! The result-set will look like this: P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger
Navigation in a Result-set
Most database software systems allow navigation in the result-set with programming functions, like: Move-To-First-Record, Get-Record-Content, Move-To-Next-Record, etc. Programming functions like these are not a part of this tutorial. To learn about accessing data with function calls, please visit our ADO tutorial or our PHP tutorial.
SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

This chapter will explain the SELECT DISTINCT statement.
The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

In a table, some of the columns may contain duplicate values. This is not a problem, however, sometimes you will want to list only the different (distinct) values in a table. The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct (different) values.
SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s) FROM table_name
SELECT DISTINCT Example

Now we want to select only the distinct values from the column named "City" from the table above. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Persons
The result-set will look like this: City Sandnes Stavanger
SQL WHERE Clause

The WHERE clause is used to filter records.
The WHERE Clause

The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified criterion.
SQL WHERE Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value
WHERE Clause Example

Now we want to select only the persons living in the city "Sandnes" from the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE City='Sandnes'
The result-set will look like this: P_Id 1 2 LastName Hansen Svendson FirstName Ola Tove Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 City Sandnes Sandnes
Quotes Around Text Fields

SQL uses single quotes around text values (most database systems will also accept double quotes). Although, numeric values should not be enclosed in quotes. For text values:
This is correct: SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove' This is wrong: SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=Tove
For numeric values:
This is correct: SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year=1965 This is wrong: SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year='1965'
Operators Allowed in the WHERE Clause

With the WHERE clause, the following operators can be used: Operator = <> > < >= <= BETWEEN LIKE IN Equal Not equal Greater than Less than Greater than or equal Less than or equal Between an inclusive range Search for a pattern If you know the exact value you want to return for at least one of the columns Description
Note: In some versions of SQL the <> operator may be written as !=
SQL AND & OR Operators

The AND & OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition.
The AND & OR Operators

The AND operator displays a record if both the first condition and the second condition is true. The OR operator displays a record if either the first condition or the second condition is true.
AND Operator Example
Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove" AND the last name equal to "Svendson": We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove' AND LastName='Svendson'

The result-set will look like this: P_Id 2 LastName Svendson FirstName Tove Address Borgvn 23 City Sandnes
OR Operator Example
Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove" OR the first name equal to "Ola": We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove' OR FirstName='Ola'

Combining AND & OR

You can also combine AND and OR (use parenthesis to form complex expressions).
Now we want to select only the persons with the last name equal to "Svendson" AND the first name equal to "Tove" OR to "Ola": We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE LastName='Svendson' AND (FirstName='Tove' OR FirstName='Ola')

SQL ORDER BY Keyword

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set.
The ORDER BY Keyword

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set by a specified column. The ORDER BY keyword sort the records in ascending order by default. If you want to sort the records in a descending order, you can use the DESC keyword.
SQL ORDER BY Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name(s) ASC|DESC
ORDER BY Example
The "Persons" table: P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 2 3 4
Hansen Svendson Pettersen Nilsen
Ola Tove Kari Tom
Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 Vingvn 23
Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger Stavanger
Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we want to sort the persons by their last name. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons ORDER BY LastName
The result-set will look like this: P_Id 1 4 3 2 LastName Hansen Nilsen Pettersen Svendson FirstName Ola Tom Kari Tove Address Timoteivn 10 Vingvn 23 Storgt 20 Borgvn 23 City Sandnes Stavanger Stavanger Sandnes
ORDER BY DESC Example

Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we want to sort the persons descending by their last name. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons ORDER BY LastName DESC
The result-set will look like this:
P_Id 2 3 4 1
LastName Svendson Pettersen Nilsen Hansen
FirstName Tove Kari Tom Ola
Address Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 Vingvn 23 Timoteivn 10
City Sandnes Stavanger Stavanger Sandnes
SQL INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.
The INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert a new row in a table.
SQL INSERT INTO Syntax

It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two forms. The first form doesn't specify the column names where the data will be inserted, only their values:
INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)
The second form specifies both the column names and the values to be inserted:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,...) VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)
SQL INSERT INTO Example

We have the following "Persons" table:
P_Id 1 2 3
LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen
FirstName Ola Tove Kari
Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20
City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger
Now we want to insert a new row in the "Persons" table. We use the following SQL statement:
INSERT INTO Persons VALUES (4,'Nilsen', 'Johan', 'Bakken 2', 'Stavanger')
The "Persons" table will now look like this: P_Id 1 2 3 4 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen Nilsen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Johan Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 Bakken 2 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger Stavanger
Insert Data Only in Specified Columns

It is also possible to only add data in specific columns. The following SQL statement will add a new row, but only add data in the "P_Id", "LastName" and the "FirstName" columns:
INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id, LastName, FirstName) VALUES (5, 'Tjessem', 'Jakob')
The "Persons" table will now look like this:
P_Id 1 2 3 4 5
LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen Nilsen Tjessem
FirstName Ola Tove Kari Johan Jakob
Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 Bakken 2
City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger Stavanger
SQL UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to update records in a table.
The UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table.
SQL UPDATE Syntax

UPDATE table_name SET column1=value, column2=value2,... WHERE some_column=some_value
Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that should be updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be updated!
SQL UPDATE Example

The "Persons" table: P_Id 1 LastName Hansen FirstName Ola Address Timoteivn 10 City Sandnes
2 3 4 5
Svendson Pettersen Nilsen Tjessem
Tove Kari Johan Jakob
Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 Bakken 2
Sandnes Stavanger Stavanger
Now we want to update the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table. We use the following SQL statement:
UPDATE Persons SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes' WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'
The "Persons" table will now look like this: P_Id 1 2 3 4 5 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen Nilsen Tjessem FirstName Ola Tove Kari Johan Jakob Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 Bakken 2 Nissestien 67 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger Stavanger Sandnes
SQL UPDATE Warning

Be careful when updating records. If we had omitted the WHERE clause in the example above, like this:
UPDATE Persons SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'
The "Persons" table would have looked like this:
P_Id 1 2 3 4 5
LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen Nilsen Tjessem
FirstName Ola Tove Kari Johan Jakob
Address Nissestien 67 Nissestien 67 Nissestien 67 Nissestien 67 Nissestien 67
City Sandnes Sandnes Sandnes Sandnes Sandnes
SQL DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete records in a table.
The DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.
SQL DELETE Syntax

DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_column=some_value
Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that should be deleted. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be deleted!
SQL DELETE Example

The "Persons" table: P_Id 1 2 LastName Hansen Svendson FirstName Ola Tove Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 City Sandnes Sandnes
3 4 5
Pettersen Nilsen Tjessem
Kari Johan Jakob
Storgt 20 Bakken 2 Nissestien 67
Stavanger Stavanger Sandnes
Now we want to delete the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table. We use the following SQL statement:
DELETE FROM Persons WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'
The "Persons" table will now look like this: P_Id 1 2 3 4 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen Nilsen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Johan Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 Bakken 2 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger Stavanger
Delete All Rows

It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the table structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
DELETE FROM table_name or DELETE * FROM table_name
Note: Be very careful when deleting records. You cannot undo this statement!
SQL Try It
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Test your SQL Skills

On this page you can test your SQL skills. We will use the Customers table in the Northwind database: CompanyName Alfreds Futterkiste Berglunds snabbkp Centro comercial Moctezuma Ernst Handel FISSA Fabrica Inter. Salchichas S.A. Galera del gastrnomo Island Trading Kniglich Essen Laughing Bacchus Wine Cellars Magazzini Alimentari Riuniti North/South Paris spcialits Rattlesnake Canyon Grocery Simons bistro The Big Cheese Vaffeljernet Wolski Zajazd ContactName Maria Anders Christina Berglund Francisco Chang Roland Mendel Diego Roel Eduardo Saavedra Helen Bennett Philip Cramer Yoshi Tannamuri Giovanni Rovelli Simon Crowther Marie Bertrand Paula Wilson Jytte Petersen Liz Nixon Palle Ibsen Zbyszek Piestrzeniewicz Address Obere Str. 57 Berguvsvgen 8 Sierras de Granada 9993 Kirchgasse 6 C/ Moralzarzal, 86 Rambla de Catalua, 23 Garden House Crowther Way Maubelstr. 90 1900 Oak St. Via Ludovico il Moro 22 South House 300 Queensbridge 265, boulevard Charonne 2817 Milton Dr. Vinbltet 34 89 Jefferson Way Suite 2 Smagslget 45 ul. Filtrowa 68 City Berlin Lule Mxico D.F. Graz Madrid Barcelona Cowes Brandenburg Vancouver Bergamo London Paris Albuquerque Kbenhavn Portland rhus Warszawa
To preserve space, the table above is a subset of the Customers table used in the example below.
Try it Yourself
To see how SQL works, you can copy the SQL statements below and paste them into the textarea, or you can make your own SQL statements.
SELECT * FROM customers
SELECT CompanyName, ContactName FROM customers
SELECT * FROM customers WHERE companyname LIKE 'a%'
SELECT CompanyName, ContactName FROM customers WHERE CompanyName > 'a'
When using SQL on text data, "alfred" is greater than "a" (like in a dictionary).
SELECT CompanyName, ContactName FROM customers WHERE CompanyName > 'g' AND ContactName > 'g'
SQL TOP Clause

The TOP Clause

The TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return. The TOP clause can be very useful on large tables with thousands of records. Returning a large number of records can impact on performance. Note: Not all database systems support the TOP clause.
SQL Server Syntax

SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s) FROM table_name
SQL SELECT TOP Equivalent in MySQL and Oracle

MySQL Syntax
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name LIMIT number
Example
SELECT * FROM Persons LIMIT 5
Oracle Syntax
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE ROWNUM <= number
Example
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE ROWNUM <=5
SQL TOP Example

The "Persons" table: P_Id 1 2 3 4 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen Nilsen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Tom Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 Vingvn 23 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger Stavanger
Now we want to select only the two first records in the table above. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT TOP 2 * FROM Persons
SQL TOP PERCENT Example

The "Persons" table: P_Id 1 2 3 4 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen Nilsen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Tom Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 Vingvn 23 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger Stavanger
Now we want to select only 50% of the records in the table above. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM Persons
The result-set will look like this: P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 2
Hansen Svendson
Ola Tove
Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23
Sandnes Sandnes
SQL LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.
The LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used to search for a specified pattern in a column.
SQL LIKE Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name LIKE pattern
LIKE Operator Example

Now we want to select the persons living in a city that starts with "s" from the table above. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE City LIKE 's%'
The "%" sign can be used to define wildcards (missing letters in the pattern) both before and after the pattern. The result-set will look like this: P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger
Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that ends with an "s" from the "Persons" table. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE City LIKE '%s'
Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that contains the pattern "tav" from the "Persons" table. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE City LIKE '%tav%'
The result-set will look like this:
P_Id 3
LastName Pettersen
FirstName Kari
Address Storgt 20
City Stavanger
It is also possible to select the persons living in a city that NOT contains the pattern "tav" from the "Persons" table, by using the NOT keyword. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE City NOT LIKE '%tav%'
SQL Wildcards
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SQL wildcards can be used when searching for data in a database.
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SQL Wildcards
SQL wildcards can substitute for one or more characters when searching for data in a database. SQL wildcards must be used with the SQL LIKE operator. With SQL, the following wildcards can be used: Wildcard % _ [charlist] [^charlist] Description A substitute for zero or more characters A substitute for exactly one character Any single character in charlist Any single character not in charlist
or [!charlist]
SQL Wildcard Examples

We have the following "Persons" table: P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger
Using the % Wildcard

Now we want to select the persons living in a city that starts with "sa" from the "Persons" table. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE City LIKE 'sa%'

Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that contains the pattern "nes" from the "Persons" table. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE City LIKE '%nes%'

Using the _ Wildcard

Now we want to select the persons with a first name that starts with any character, followed by "la" from the "Persons" table. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName LIKE '_la'

The result-set will look like this: P_Id 1 LastName Hansen FirstName Ola Address Timoteivn 10 City Sandnes
Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that starts with "S", followed by any character, followed by "end", followed by any character, followed by "on" from the "Persons" table. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE LastName LIKE 'S_end_on'

Using the [charlist] Wildcard

Now we want to select the persons with a last name that starts with "b" or "s" or "p" from the "Persons" table. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE LastName LIKE '[bsp]%'

The result-set will look like this: P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
2 3
Svendson Pettersen
Tove Kari
Borgvn 23 Storgt 20
Sandnes Stavanger
Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that do not start with "b" or "s" or "p" from the "Persons" table. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE LastName LIKE '[!bsp]%'

SQL IN Operator
The IN Operator
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.
SQL IN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...)
IN Operator Example
The "Persons" table: P_Id 1 2 LastName Hansen Svendson FirstName Ola Tove Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 City Sandnes Sandnes
Pettersen
Kari
Storgt 20
Stavanger
Now we want to select the persons with a last name equal to "Hansen" or "Pettersen" from the table above. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE LastName IN ('Hansen','Pettersen')
The result-set will look like this: P_Id 1 3 LastName Hansen Pettersen FirstName Ola Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Stavanger
SQL BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator is used in a WHERE clause to select a range of data between two values.
The BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator selects a range of data between two values. The values can be numbers, text, or dates.
SQL BETWEEN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2
BETWEEN Operator Example

Now we want to select the persons with a last name alphabetically between "Hansen" and "Pettersen" from the table above. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE LastName BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'
Note: The BETWEEN operator is treated differently in different databases. In some databases, persons with the LastName of "Hansen" or "Pettersen" will not be listed, because the BETWEEN operator only selects fields that are between and excluding the test values). In other databases, persons with the LastName of "Hansen" or "Pettersen" will be listed, because the BETWEEN operator selects fields that are between and including the test values). And in other databases, persons with the LastName of "Hansen" will be listed, but "Pettersen" will not be listed (like the example above), because the BETWEEN operator selects fields between the test values, including the first test value and excluding the last test value. Therefore: Check how your database treats the BETWEEN operator.
Example 2
To display the persons outside the range in the previous example, use NOT BETWEEN:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE LastName NOT BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'
The result-set will look like this: P_Id 2 3 LastName Svendson Pettersen FirstName Tove Kari Address Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Stavanger
SQL Alias
With SQL, an alias name can be given to a table or to a column.
SQL Alias
You can give a table or a column another name by using an alias. This can be a good thing to do if you have very long or complex table names or column names. An alias name could be anything, but usually it is short.
SQL Alias Syntax for Tables

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name AS alias_name
SQL Alias Syntax for Columns

SELECT column_name AS alias_name FROM table_name
Alias Example
Assume we have a table called "Persons" and another table called "Product_Orders". We will give the table aliases of "p" and "po" respectively. Now we want to list all the orders that "Ola Hansen" is responsible for. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT po.OrderID, p.LastName, p.FirstName FROM Persons AS p, Product_Orders AS po WHERE p.LastName='Hansen' AND p.FirstName='Ola'
The same SELECT statement without aliases:
SELECT Product_Orders.OrderID, Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName FROM Persons, Product_Orders WHERE Persons.LastName='Hansen' AND Persons.FirstName='Ola'
As you'll see from the two SELECT statements above; aliases can make queries easier to both write and to read.
SQL Joins
SQL joins are used to query data from two or more tables, based on a relationship between certain columns in these tables.
SQL JOIN
The JOIN keyword is used in an SQL statement to query data from two or more tables, based on a relationship between certain columns in these tables. Tables in a database are often related to each other with keys. A primary key is a column (or a combination of columns) with a unique value for each row. Each primary key value must be unique within the table. The purpose is to bind data together, across tables, without repeating all of the data in every table. Look at the "Persons" table:
P_Id 1 2 3
LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen
FirstName Ola Tove Kari
Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20
City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger
Note that the "P_Id" column is the primary key in the "Persons" table. This means that no two rows can have the same P_Id. The P_Id distinguishes two persons even if they have the same name. Next, we have the "Orders" table: O_Id 1 2 3 4 5 OrderNo 77895 44678 22456 24562 34764 P_Id 3 3 1 1 15
Note that the "O_Id" column is the primary key in the "Orders" table and that the "P_Id" column refers to the persons in the "Persons" table without using their names. Notice that the relationship between the two tables above is the "P_Id" column.
Different SQL JOINs

Before we continue with examples, we will list the types of JOIN you can use, and the differences between them.
JOIN: Return rows when there is at least one match in both tables LEFT JOIN: Return all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the right table RIGHT JOIN: Return all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the left table FULL JOIN: Return rows when there is a match in one of the tables
SQL INNER JOIN Keyword

SQL INNER JOIN Keyword

The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is at least one match in both tables.
SQL INNER JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 INNER JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
PS: INNER JOIN is the same as JOIN.
SQL INNER JOIN Example

The "Orders" table: O_Id 1 2 3 4 5 OrderNo 77895 44678 22456 24562 34764 P_Id 3 3 1 1 15
Now we want to list all the persons with any orders. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName, Orders.OrderNo FROM Persons
INNER JOIN Orders ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id ORDER BY Persons.LastName
The result-set will look like this: LastName Hansen Hansen Pettersen Pettersen FirstName Ola Ola Kari Kari OrderNo 22456 24562 77895 44678
The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is at least one match in both tables. If there are rows in "Persons" that do not have matches in "Orders", those rows will NOT be listed.
SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword

SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table_name1), even if there are no matches in the right table (table_name2).
SQL LEFT JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 LEFT JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
PS: In some databases LEFT JOIN is called LEFT OUTER JOIN.
SQL LEFT JOIN Example
Now we want to list all the persons and their orders - if any, from the tables above. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName, Orders.OrderNo FROM Persons LEFT JOIN Orders ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id ORDER BY Persons.LastName
The result-set will look like this: LastName Hansen Hansen FirstName Ola Ola OrderNo 22456 24562
Pettersen Pettersen Svendson
Kari Kari Tove
77895 44678
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Persons), even if there are no matches in the right table (Orders).
SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword

SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword

The RIGHT JOIN keyword Return all rows from the right table (table_name2), even if there are no matches in the left table (table_name1).
SQL RIGHT JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 RIGHT JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
PS: In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.
SQL RIGHT JOIN Example

The "Orders" table:
O_Id 1 2 3 4 5
OrderNo 77895 44678 22456 24562 34764
P_Id 3 3 1 1 15
Now we want to list all the orders with containing persons - if any, from the tables above. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName, Orders.OrderNo FROM Persons RIGHT JOIN Orders ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id ORDER BY Persons.LastName
The result-set will look like this: LastName Hansen Hansen Pettersen Pettersen FirstName Ola Ola Kari Kari OrderNo 22456 24562 77895 44678 34764
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the right table (Orders), even if there are no matches in the left table (Persons).
SQL FULL JOIN Keyword

SQL FULL JOIN Keyword

The FULL JOIN keyword return rows when there is a match in one of the tables.
SQL FULL JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 FULL JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
SQL FULL JOIN Example

Now we want to list all the persons and their orders, and all the orders with their persons. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName, Orders.OrderNo FROM Persons FULL JOIN Orders ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id ORDER BY Persons.LastName
The result-set will look like this: LastName Hansen Hansen Pettersen Pettersen Svendson FirstName Ola Ola Kari Kari Tove 34764 OrderNo 22456 24562 77895 44678
The FULL JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Persons), and all the rows from the right table (Orders). If there are rows in "Persons" that do not have matches in "Orders", or if there are rows in "Orders" that do not have matches in "Persons", those rows will be listed as well.
SQL UNION Operator

The SQL UNION operator combines two or more SELECT statements.
The SQL UNION Operator

The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements. Notice that each SELECT statement within the UNION must have the same number of columns. The columns must also have similar data types. Also, the columns in each SELECT statement must be in the same order.
SQL UNION Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2
Note: The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow duplicate values, use UNION ALL.
SQL UNION ALL Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 UNION ALL SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2
PS: The column names in the result-set of a UNION are always equal to the column names in the first SELECT statement in the UNION.
SQL UNION Example

Look at the following tables: "Employees_Norway": E_ID 01 02 03 04 E_Name Hansen, Ola Svendson, Tove Svendson, Stephen Pettersen, Kari
"Employees_USA": E_ID 01 02 E_Name Turner, Sally Kent, Clark
03 04
Svendson, Stephen Scott, Stephen
Now we want to list all the different employees in Norway and USA. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_Norway UNION SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA
The result-set will look like this: E_Name Hansen, Ola Svendson, Tove Svendson, Stephen Pettersen, Kari Turner, Sally Kent, Clark Scott, Stephen
Note: This command cannot be used to list all employees in Norway and USA. In the example above we have two employees with equal names, and only one of them will be listed. The UNION command selects only distinct values.
SQL UNION ALL Example

Now we want to list all employees in Norway and USA:
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_Norway UNION ALL
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA
Result E_Name Hansen, Ola Svendson, Tove Svendson, Stephen Pettersen, Kari Turner, Sally Kent, Clark Svendson, Stephen Scott, Stephen
SQL SELECT INTO Statement

The SQL SELECT INTO statement can be used to create backup copies of tables.
The SQL SELECT INTO Statement

The SELECT INTO statement selects data from one table and inserts it into a different table. The SELECT INTO statement is most often used to create backup copies of tables.
SQL SELECT INTO Syntax

We can select all columns into the new table:
SELECT * INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_tablename
Or we can select only the columns we want into the new table:
SELECT column_name(s) INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase] FROM old_tablename
SQL SELECT INTO Example

Make a Backup Copy - Now we want to make an exact copy of the data in our "Persons" table. We use the following SQL statement:
SELECT * INTO Persons_Backup FROM Persons
We can also use the IN clause to copy the table into another database:
SELECT * INTO Persons_Backup IN 'Backup.mdb' FROM Persons
We can also copy only a few fields into the new table:
SELECT LastName,FirstName INTO Persons_Backup FROM Persons
SQL SELECT INTO - With a WHERE Clause

We can also add a WHERE clause.
The following SQL statement creates a "Persons_Backup" table with only the persons who lives in the city "Sandnes":
SELECT LastName,Firstname INTO Persons_Backup FROM Persons WHERE City='Sandnes'
SQL SELECT INTO - Joined Tables

Selecting data from more than one table is also possible. The following example creates a "Persons_Order_Backup" table contains data from the two tables "Persons" and "Orders":
SELECT Persons.LastName,Orders.OrderNo INTO Persons_Order_Backup FROM Persons INNER JOIN Orders ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id
SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement

The CREATE DATABASE Statement

The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a database.
SQL CREATE DATABASE Syntax

CREATE DATABASE database_name
CREATE DATABASE Example

Now we want to create a database called "my_db".
We use the following CREATE DATABASE statement:
CREATE DATABASE my_db
Database tables can be added with the CREATE TABLE statement.
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement

The CREATE TABLE Statement

The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database.
SQL CREATE TABLE Syntax

CREATE TABLE ( column_name1 column_name2 column_name3 .... ) table_name data_type, data_type, data_type,
The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold. For a complete reference of all the data types available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL Server, go to our complete Data Types reference.
CREATE TABLE Example

Now we want to create a table called "Persons" that contains five columns: P_Id, LastName, FirstName, Address, and City. We use the following CREATE TABLE statement:
CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int, LastName varchar(255), FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255) )
The P_Id column is of type int and will hold a number. The LastName, FirstName, Address, and City columns are of type varchar with a maximum length of 255 characters. The empty "Persons" table will now look like this: P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
The empty table can be filled with data with the INSERT INTO statement.
SQL Constraints
SQL Constraints
Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. Constraints can be specified when a table is created (with the CREATE TABLE statement) or after the table is created (with the ALTER TABLE statement). We will focus on the following constraints:
NOT NULL UNIQUE PRIMARY KEY FOREIGN KEY CHECK DEFAULT
The next chapters will describe each constraint in details.
SQL NOT NULL Constraint

Previous
By default, a table column can hold NULL values.
Next Chapter
SQL NOT NULL Constraint

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values. The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always contain a value. This means that you cannot insert a new record, or update a record without adding a value to this field. The following SQL enforces the "P_Id" column and the "LastName" column to not accept NULL values:
CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) )
SQL UNIQUE Constraint

SQL UNIQUE Constraint

The UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table. The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints both provide a guarantee for uniqueness for a column or set of columns. A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint defined on it. Note that you can have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only one PRIMARY KEY constraint per table.
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created: MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255), UNIQUE (P_Id) )
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL UNIQUE, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) )
To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255), CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE (P_Id,LastName) )
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already created, use the following SQL: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons ADD UNIQUE (P_Id)

To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons ADD CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE (P_Id,LastName)
To DROP a UNIQUE Constraint

To drop a UNIQUE constraint, use the following SQL: MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons DROP INDEX uc_PersonID
ALTER TABLE Persons DROP CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table. Primary keys must contain unique values. A primary key column cannot contain NULL values. Each table should have a primary key, and each table can have only ONE primary key.
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created: MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255), City varchar(255), PRIMARY KEY (P_Id) )
CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) )
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255), CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY (P_Id,LastName) )
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already created, use the following SQL: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons ADD PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)

To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons ADD CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY (P_Id,LastName)

Note: If you use the ALTER TABLE statement to add a primary key, the primary key column(s) must already have been declared to not contain NULL values (when the table was first created).
To DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint

To drop a PRIMARY KEY constraint, use the following SQL: MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons DROP PRIMARY KEY
ALTER TABLE Persons DROP CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint

A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY KEY in another table. Let's illustrate the foreign key with an example. Look at the following two tables: The "Persons" table: P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger
The "Orders" table: O_Id 1 2 OrderNo 77895 44678 P_Id 3 3
3 4
22456 24562
2 1
Note that the "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table points to the "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table. The "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons" table. The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders" table. The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy links between tables. The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents that invalid data form being inserted into the foreign key column, because it has to be one of the values contained in the table it points to.
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is created: MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Orders ( O_Id int NOT NULL, OrderNo int NOT NULL, P_Id int, PRIMARY KEY (O_Id), FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id) )
CREATE TABLE Orders ( O_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY, OrderNo int NOT NULL, P_Id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Persons(P_Id) )
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Orders ( O_Id int NOT NULL,
OrderNo int NOT NULL, P_Id int, PRIMARY KEY (O_Id), CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id) )
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a FOREIGN KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is already created, use the following SQL: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Orders ADD FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)

To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Orders ADD CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
To DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint

To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL: MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders DROP FOREIGN KEY fk_PerOrders
ALTER TABLE Orders DROP CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders
SQL CHECK Constraint
Previous
Next Chapter
SQL CHECK Constraint

The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a column. If you define a CHECK constraint on a single column it allows only certain values for this column. If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain columns based on values in other columns in the row.
SQL CHECK Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created. The CHECK constraint specifies that the column "P_Id" must only include integers greater than 0. My SQL:
CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255), CHECK (P_Id>0) )
CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL CHECK (P_Id>0), LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) )
To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons
( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255), CONSTRAINT chk_Person CHECK (P_Id>0 AND City='Sandnes') )
SQL CHECK Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already created, use the following SQL: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons ADD CHECK (P_Id>0)

To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons ADD CONSTRAINT chk_Person CHECK (P_Id>0 AND City='Sandnes')
To DROP a CHECK Constraint

To drop a CHECK constraint, use the following SQL: SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons DROP CONSTRAINT chk_Person
SQL DEFAULT Constraint

SQL DEFAULT Constraint

The DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a default value into a column.
The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.
SQL DEFAULT Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the "Persons" table is created: My SQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes' )
The DEFAULT constraint can also be used to insert system values, by using functions like GETDATE():
CREATE TABLE Orders ( O_Id int NOT NULL, OrderNo int NOT NULL, P_Id int, OrderDate date DEFAULT GETDATE() )
SQL DEFAULT Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the table is already created, use the following SQL: MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER City SET DEFAULT 'SANDNES'
ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER COLUMN City SET DEFAULT 'SANDNES'
To DROP a DEFAULT Constraint

To drop a DEFAULT constraint, use the following SQL: MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER City DROP DEFAULT
ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER COLUMN City DROP DEFAULT
SQL CREATE INDEX Statement

The CREATE INDEX statement is used to create indexes in tables. Indexes allow the database application to find data fast; without reading the whole table.
Indexes
An index can be created in a table to find data more quickly and efficiently. The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used to speed up searches/queries. Note: Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table without (because the indexes also need an update). So you should only create indexes on columns (and tables) that will be frequently searched against.
SQL CREATE INDEX Syntax

Creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are allowed:
CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name)
SQL CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Syntax

Creates a unique index on a table. Duplicate values are not allowed:
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name)
Note: The syntax for creating indexes varies amongst different databases. Therefore: Check the syntax for creating indexes in your database.
CREATE INDEX Example

The SQL statement below creates an index named "PIndex" on the "LastName" column in the "Persons" table:
CREATE INDEX PIndex ON Persons (LastName)
If you want to create an index on a combination of columns, you can list the column names within the parentheses, separated by commas:
CREATE INDEX PIndex ON Persons (LastName, FirstName)
SQL DROP INDEX, DROP TABLE, and DROP DATABASE

Indexes, tables, and databases can easily be deleted/removed with the DROP statement.
The DROP INDEX Statement

The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete an index in a table.
DROP INDEX Syntax for MS Access:

DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name
DROP INDEX Syntax for MS SQL Server:

DROP INDEX table_name.index_name
DROP INDEX Syntax for DB2/Oracle:

DROP INDEX index_name
DROP INDEX Syntax for MySQL:

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP INDEX index_name
The DROP TABLE Statement

The DROP TABLE statement is used to delete a table.
DROP TABLE table_name
The DROP DATABASE Statement

The DROP DATABASE statement is used to delete a database.
DROP DATABASE database_name
The TRUNCATE TABLE Statement

What if we only want to delete the data inside the table, and not the table itself? Then, use the TRUNCATE TABLE statement:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement

The ALTER TABLE Statement

The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table.
SQL ALTER TABLE Syntax

To add a column in a table, use the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype
To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some database systems don't allow deleting a column):
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name
To change the data type of a column in a table, use the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype
SQL ALTER TABLE Example

Look at the "Persons" table: P_Id 1 LastName Hansen FirstName Ola Address Timoteivn 10 City Sandnes
2 3
Svendson Pettersen
Tove Kari
Borgvn 23 Storgt 20
Sandnes Stavanger
Now we want to add a column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table. We use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons ADD DateOfBirth date
Notice that the new column, "DateOfBirth", is of type date and is going to hold a date. The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold. For a complete reference of all the data types available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL Server, go to our complete Data Types reference. The "Persons" table will now like this: P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger DateOfBirth
Change Data Type Example

Now we want to change the data type of the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table. We use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER COLUMN DateOfBirth year
Notice that the "DateOfBirth" column is now of type year and is going to hold a year in a two-digit or four-digit format.
DROP COLUMN Example
Next, we want to delete the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table. We use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons DROP COLUMN DateOfBirth
The "Persons" table will now like this: P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger
SQL AUTO INCREMENT Field

Auto-increment allows a unique number to be generated when a new record is inserted into a table.
AUTO INCREMENT a Field

Very often we would like the value of the primary key field to be created automatically every time a new record is inserted. We would like to create an auto-increment field in a table.
Syntax for MySQL

The following SQL statement defines the "P_Id" column to be an auto-increment primary key field in the "Persons" table:
CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255), PRIMARY KEY (P_Id) )

MySQL uses the AUTO_INCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-increment feature. By default, the starting value for AUTO_INCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new record. To let the AUTO_INCREMENT sequence start with another value, use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons AUTO_INCREMENT=100

To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will not have to specify a value for the "P_Id" column (a unique value will be added automatically):
INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName) VALUES ('Lars','Monsen')

The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "P_Id" column would be assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".
Syntax for SQL Server

CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int PRIMARY KEY IDENTITY, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) )
The MS SQL Server uses the IDENTITY keyword to perform an auto-increment feature. By default, the starting value for IDENTITY is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new record. To specify that the "P_Id" column should start at value 10 and increment by 5, change the identity to IDENTITY(10,5). To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will not have to specify a value for the "P_Id" column (a unique value will be added automatically):

Syntax for Access

CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) )
The MS Access uses the AUTOINCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-increment feature. By default, the starting value for AUTOINCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new record. To specify that the "P_Id" column should start at value 10 and increment by 5, change the autoincrement to AUTOINCREMENT(10,5). To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will not have to specify a value for the "P_Id" column (a unique value will be added automatically):

Syntax for Oracle

In Oracle the code is a little bit more tricky. You will have to create an auto-increment field with the sequence object (this object generates a number sequence).
Use the following CREATE SEQUENCE syntax:
CREATE SEQUENCE seq_person MINVALUE 1 START WITH 1 INCREMENT BY 1 CACHE 10

The code above creates a sequence object called seq_person, that starts with 1 and will increment by 1. It will also cache up to 10 values for performance. The cache option specifies how many sequence values will be stored in memory for faster access. To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will have to use the nextval function (this function retrieves the next value from seq_person sequence):
INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id,FirstName,LastName) VALUES (seq_person.nextval,'Lars','Monsen')

The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "P_Id" column would be assigned the next number from the seq_person sequence. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".
SQL Views
A view is a virtual table. This chapter shows how to create, update, and delete a view.
SQL CREATE VIEW Statement

In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement. A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or more real tables in the database. You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as if the data were coming from one single table.
SQL CREATE VIEW Syntax

CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name WHERE condition
Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the data, using the view's SQL statement, every time a user queries a view.
SQL CREATE VIEW Examples

If you have the Northwind database you can see that it has several views installed by default. The view "Current Product List" lists all active products (products that are not discontinued) from the "Products" table. The view is created with the following SQL:
CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS SELECT ProductID,ProductName FROM Products WHERE Discontinued=No
We can query the view above as follows:
SELECT * FROM [Current Product List]
Another view in the Northwind sample database selects every product in the "Products" table with a unit price higher than the average unit price:
CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice FROM Products WHERE UnitPrice>(SELECT AVG(UnitPrice) FROM Products)
SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price]
Another view in the Northwind database calculates the total sale for each category in 1997. Note that this view selects its data from another view called "Product Sales for 1997":
CREATE VIEW [Category Sales For 1997] AS SELECT DISTINCT CategoryName,Sum(ProductSales) AS CategorySales FROM [Product Sales for 1997] GROUP BY CategoryName
SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]
We can also add a condition to the query. Now we want to see the total sale only for the category "Beverages":
SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997] WHERE CategoryName='Beverages'
SQL Updating a View

You can update a view by using the following syntax:
SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition
Now we want to add the "Category" column to the "Current Product List" view. We will update the view with the following SQL:
CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS SELECT ProductID,ProductName,Category FROM Products WHERE Discontinued=No
SQL Dropping a View
You can delete a view with the DROP VIEW command.
SQL DROP VIEW Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name
SQL Date Functions

SQL Dates
The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure that the format of the date you are trying to insert, matches the format of the date column in the database. As long as your data contains only the date portion, your queries will work as expected. However, if a time portion is involved, it gets complicated. Before talking about the complications of querying for dates, we will look at the most important builtin functions for working with dates.
MySQL Date Functions

The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in MySQL: Function NOW() CURDATE() CURTIME() DATE() EXTRACT() DATE_ADD() DATE_SUB() DATEDIFF() DATE_FORMAT() Description Returns the current date and time Returns the current date Returns the current time Extracts the date part of a date or date/time expression Returns a single part of a date/time Adds a specified time interval to a date Subtracts a specified time interval from a date Returns the number of days between two dates Displays date/time data in different formats
SQL Server Date Functions

The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in SQL Server: Function Description
GETDATE() DATEPART() DATEADD() DATEDIFF() CONVERT()
Returns the current date and time Returns a single part of a date/time Adds or subtracts a specified time interval from a date Returns the time between two dates Displays date/time data in different formats
SQL Date Data Types

MySQL comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in the database:
DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS TIMESTAMP - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS YEAR - format YYYY or YY
SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in the database:
DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS SMALLDATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS TIMESTAMP - format: a unique number
Note: The date types are chosen for a column when you create a new table in your database! For an overview of all data types available, go to our complete Data Types reference.
SQL Working with Dates

You can compare two dates easily if there is no time component involved! Assume we have the following "Orders" table: OrderId 1 2 3 4 ProductName Geitost Camembert Pierrot Mozzarella di Giovanni Mascarpone Fabioli OrderDate 2008-11-11 2008-11-09 2008-11-11 2008-10-29
Now we want to select the records with an OrderDate of "2008-11-11" from the table above. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'

The result-set will look like this: OrderId 1 3 ProductName Geitost Mozzarella di Giovanni OrderDate 2008-11-11 2008-11-11
Now, assume that the "Orders" table looks like this (notice the time component in the "OrderDate" column): OrderId 1 2 3 4 ProductName Geitost Camembert Pierrot Mozzarella di Giovanni Mascarpone Fabioli OrderDate 2008-11-11 13:23:44 2008-11-09 15:45:21 2008-11-11 11:12:01 2008-10-29 14:56:59
If we use the same SELECT statement as above:
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'

we will get no result! This is because the query is looking only for dates with no time portion. Tip: If you want to keep your queries simple and easy to maintain, do not allow time components in your dates!
SQL NULL Values

Previous
NULL values represent missing unknown data. By default, a table column can hold NULL values. This chapter will explain the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators.
Next Chapter
SQL NULL Values

If a column in a table is optional, we can insert a new record or update an existing record without adding a value to this column. This means that the field will be saved with a NULL value. NULL values are treated differently from other values.
NULL is used as a placeholder for unknown or inapplicable values. Note: It is not possible to compare NULL and 0; they are not equivalent.
SQL Working with NULL Values

Look at the following "Persons" table: P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Borgvn 23 Address City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger
Suppose that the "Address" column in the "Persons" table is optional. This means that if we insert a record with no value for the "Address" column, the "Address" column will be saved with a NULL value. How can we test for NULL values? It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or <>. We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.
SQL IS NULL
How do we select only the records with NULL values in the "Address" column? We will have to use the IS NULL operator:
SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons WHERE Address IS NULL

The result-set will look like this: LastName Hansen Pettersen FirstName Ola Kari Address
Tip: Always use IS NULL to look for NULL values.
SQL IS NOT NULL
How do we select only the records with no NULL values in the "Address" column? We will have to use the IS NOT NULL operator:
SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons WHERE Address IS NOT NULL

The result-set will look like this: LastName Svendson FirstName Tove Address Borgvn 23
In the next chapter we will look at the ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE() functions.
SQL NULL Functions

SQL ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE() Functions

Look at the following "Products" table: P_Id 1 2 3 ProductName Jarlsberg Mascarpone Gorgonzola UnitPrice 10.45 32.56 15.67 UnitsInStock 16 23 9 20 UnitsOnOrder 15
Suppose that the "UnitsOnOrder" column is optional, and may contain NULL values. We have the following SELECT statement:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+UnitsOnOrder) FROM Products

In the example above, if any of the "UnitsOnOrder" values are NULL, the result is NULL. Microsoft's ISNULL() function is used to specify how we want to treat NULL values. The NVL(), IFNULL(), and COALESCE() functions can also be used to achieve the same result. In this case we want NULL values to be zero. Below, if "UnitsOnOrder" is NULL it will not harm the calculation, because ISNULL() returns a zero if the value is NULL:
SQL Server / MS Access
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+ISNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0)) FROM Products
Oracle Oracle does not have an ISNULL() function. However, we can use the NVL() function to achieve the same result:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+NVL(UnitsOnOrder,0)) FROM Products
MySQL MySQL does have an ISNULL() function. However, it works a little bit different from Microsoft's ISNULL() function. In MySQL we can use the IFNULL() function, like this:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+IFNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0)) FROM Products

or we can use the COALESCE() function, like this:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+COALESCE(UnitsOnOrder,0)) FROM Products
SQL Data Types

Previous
Data types and ranges for Microsoft Access, MySQL and SQL Server.
Next Chapter
Microsoft Access Data Types

Data type Text Memo Description Use for text or combinations of text and numbers. 255 characters maximum Memo is used for larger amounts of text. Stores up to 65,536 characters. Note: You cannot sort a memo field. However, they are searchable Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1 byte Storage
Byte
Integer Long Single Double Currency AutoNumber Date/Time Yes/No
Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 Single precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals Double precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals Use for currency. Holds up to 15 digits of whole dollars, plus 4 decimal places. Tip: You can choose which country's currency to use AutoNumber fields automatically give each record its own number, usually starting at 1 Use for dates and times A logical field can be displayed as Yes/No, True/False, or On/Off. In code, use the constants True and False (equivalent to -1 and 0).Note: Null values are not allowed in Yes/No fields
2 bytes 4 bytes 4 bytes 8 bytes 8 bytes 4 bytes 8 bytes 1 bit
Ole Object Hyperlink Lookup Wizard
Can store pictures, audio, video, or other BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects) up to 1GB Contain links to other files, including web pages Let you type a list of options, which can then be chosen from a dropdown list 4 bytes
MySQL Data Types

In MySQL there are three main types : text, number, and Date/Time types. Text types: Data type CHAR(size) VARCHAR(size) Description Holds a fixed length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters). The fixed size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters Holds a variable length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters). The maximum size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters. Note: If you put a greater value than 255 it will be converted to a TEXT type Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535 characters For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 65,535 bytes of data Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 characters For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 16,777,215 bytes of data Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295 characters For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 4,294,967,295 bytes of data Let you enter a list of possible values. You can list up to 65535 values in an ENUM list. If a value is inserted that is not in the list, a blank value will be inserted. Note: The values are sorted in the order you enter them. You enter the possible values in this format: ENUM('X','Y','Z')
TINYTEXT TEXT BLOB MEDIUMTEXT MEDIUMBLOB LONGTEXT LONGBLOB ENUM(x,y,z,etc.)
SET
Similar to ENUM except that SET may contain up to 64 list items and can store more than one choice
Number types: Data type TINYINT(size) SMALLINT(size) MEDIUMINT(size) INT(size) BIGINT(size) Description -128 to 127 normal. 0 to 255 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis -32768 to 32767 normal. 0 to 65535 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis -8388608 to 8388607 normal. 0 to 16777215 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis -2147483648 to 2147483647 normal. 0 to 4294967295 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807 normal. 0 to 18446744073709551615 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis A small number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter A large number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter A DOUBLE stored as a string , allowing for a fixed decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter
FLOAT(size,d)
DOUBLE(size,d)
DECIMAL(size,d)
*The integer types have an extra option called UNSIGNED. Normally, the integer goes from an negative to positive value. Adding the UNSIGNED attribute will move that range up so it starts at zero instead of a negative number. Date types: Data type DATE() Description A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01' to '9999-12-31' DATETIME() *A date and time combination. Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01 00:00:00' to '9999-12-31 23:59:59' TIMESTAMP() *A timestamp. TIMESTAMP values are stored as the number of seconds since the Unix epoch ('1970-01-01 00:00:00' UTC). Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS Note: The supported range is from '1970-01-01 00:00:01' UTC to '2038-01-09 03:14:07' UTC TIME() A time. Format: HH:MM:SS Note: The supported range is from '-838:59:59' to '838:59:59'
YEAR()
A year in two-digit or four-digit format. Note: Values allowed in four-digit format: 1901 to 2155. Values allowed in twodigit format: 70 to 69, representing years from 1970 to 2069
*Even if DATETIME and TIMESTAMP return the same format, they work very differently. In an INSERT or UPDATE query, the TIMESTAMP automatically set itself to the current date and time. TIMESTAMP also accepts various formats, like YYYYMMDDHHMMSS, YYMMDDHHMMSS, YYYYMMDD, or YYMMDD.
SQL Server Data Types

Character strings: Data type char(n) varchar(n) varchar(max) text Unicode strings: Data type nchar(n) nvarchar(n) nvarchar(max) ntext Binary types: Data type bit binary(n) varbinary(n) varbinary(max) image Number types: Data type tinyint smallint int Description Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 Storage 1 byte 2 bytes 4 bytes Description Allows 0, 1, or NULL Fixed-length binary data. Maximum 8,000 bytes Variable-length binary data. Maximum 8,000 bytes Variable-length binary data. Maximum 2GB Variable-length binary data. Maximum 2GB Storage Description Fixed-length Unicode data. Maximum 4,000 characters Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 4,000 characters Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 536,870,912 characters Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 2GB of text data Storage Description Fixed-length character string. Maximum 8,000 characters Variable-length character string. Maximum 8,000 characters Variable-length character string. Maximum 1,073,741,824 characters Variable-length character string. Maximum 2GB of text data Storage n
bigint decimal(p,s)
Allows whole numbers between -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 and 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 Fixed precision and scale numbers. Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 1. The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that can be stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p must be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18. The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0
8 bytes 5-17 bytes
numeric(p,s)
Fixed precision and scale numbers. Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 1. The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that can be stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p must be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18. The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0
5-17 bytes
smallmoney money float(n)
Monetary data from -214,748.3648 to 214,748.3647 Monetary data from -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to 922,337,203,685,477.5807 Floating precision number data from -1.79E + 308 to 1.79E + 308. The n parameter indicates whether the field should hold 4 or 8 bytes. float(24) holds a 4-byte field and float(53) holds an 8-byte field. Default value of n is 53.
4 bytes 8 bytes 4 or 8 bytes
real Date types: Data type datetime datetime2 smalldatetime date time datetimeoffset timestamp
Floating precision number data from -3.40E + 38 to 3.40E + 38
4 bytes
Description From January 1, 1753 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 3.33 milliseconds From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds From January 1, 1900 to June 6, 2079 with an accuracy of 1 minute Store a date only. From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 Store a time only to an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds The same as datetime2 with the addition of a time zone offset Stores a unique number that gets updated every time a row gets created or modified. The timestamp value is based upon an internal
Storage 8 bytes 6-8 bytes 4 bytes 3 bytes 3-5 bytes 8-10 bytes
clock and does not correspond to real time. Each table may have only one timestamp variable Other data types: Data type sql_variant uniqueidentifier xml cursor table Description Stores up to 8,000 bytes of data of various data types, except text, ntext, and timestamp Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID) Stores XML formatted data. Maximum 2GB Stores a reference to a cursor used for database operations Stores a result-set for later processing

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Introduction to SQL

Previous Next Chapter

SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.

What Can SQL do?

SQL is a Standard - BUT....

Using SQL in Your Web Site

SQL HTML / CSS

SELECT * FROM Persons

Keep in Mind That...

SQL is not case sensitive

Semicolon after SQL Statements?

SQL DML and DDL

SQL SELECT Statement

The SQL SELECT Statement

SQL SELECT Syntax

SELECT * FROM table_name

Note: SQL is not case sensitive. SELECT is the same as select.

An SQL SELECT Example

SELECT LastName,FirstName FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this: LastName FirstName

Hansen Svendson Pettersen

Ola Tove Kari

SELECT * FROM Persons

SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

This chapter will explain the SELECT DISTINCT statement.

The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT Example

SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this: City Sandnes Stavanger

SQL WHERE Clause

The WHERE clause is used to filter records.

The WHERE Clause

SQL WHERE Syntax

WHERE Clause Example

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE City='Sandnes'

Quotes Around Text Fields

For numeric values:

Operators Allowed in the WHERE Clause

Note: In some versions of SQL the <> operator may be written as !=

SQL AND & OR Operators

The AND & OR Operators

AND Operator Example

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove' AND LastName='Svendson'

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove' OR FirstName='Ola'

Combining AND & OR

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE LastName='Svendson' AND (FirstName='Tove' OR FirstName='Ola')

SQL ORDER BY Keyword

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set.

The ORDER BY Keyword

SQL ORDER BY Syntax

Hansen Svendson Pettersen Nilsen

Ola Tove Kari Tom

Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 Vingvn 23

Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger Stavanger

SELECT * FROM Persons ORDER BY LastName

ORDER BY DESC Example

SELECT * FROM Persons ORDER BY LastName DESC