Prelim Module

Discrete Mathematics

Discrete mathematics is the branch of mathematics dealing with objects

that can consider only distinct, separated values. This includes the
fundamental concepts of Sets, Relations and Functions, Mathematical
Logic, Group theory, Counting Theory, Probability, Mathematical
Induction, and Recurrence Relations, Graph Theory, Trees and Boolean
Algebra.
Discrete Mathematics is a branch of mathematics involving discrete
elements that uses algebra and arithmetic. It is increasingly being
applied in the practical fields of mathematics and computer science.
It is a very good tool for improving reasoning and problem-solving
capabilities.
Mathematics can be broadly classified into two categories −
 Continuous Mathematics − It is based upon continuous number line
or the real numbers. It is characterized by the fact that between
any two numbers, there are almost always an infinite set of
numbers. For example, a function in continuous mathematics can be
plotted in a smooth curve without breaks.
 Discrete Mathematics − It involves distinct values; i.e. between
any two points, there are a countable number of points. For
example, if we have a finite set of objects, the function can be
defined as a list of ordered pairs having these objects, and can
be presented as a complete list of those pairs.

Topics in Discrete Mathematics

Though there cannot be a definite number of branches of Discrete
Mathematics, the following topics are almost always covered in any
study regarding this matter −

 Sets, Relations and Functions

 Mathematical Logic
 Group theory
 Counting Theory
 Probability
 Mathematical Induction and Recurrence Relations
 Graph Theory
 Trees
 Boolean Algebra
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Introduction of Sets

German mathematician G. Cantor introduced the concept of sets. He had

defined a set as a collection of definite and distinguishable objects
selected by the means of certain rules or description.
Set theory forms the basis of several other fields of study like
counting theory, relations, graph theory and finite state machines. In
this chapter, we will cover the different aspects of Set Theory.
Set - Definition
A set is an unordered collection of different elements. A set can be
written explicitly by listing its elements using set bracket. If the
order of the elements is changed or any element of a set is repeated,
it does not make any changes in the set.
A set is defined as a collection of distinct objects of the same type
or class of objects. The purposes of a set are called elements or
members of the set. An object can be numbers, alphabets, names, etc.

Examples of sets are:

a. A set of rivers of India.

b. A set of vowels.
c. A set of all positive integers
d. A set of all the planets in the solar system
e. A set of all the states in India
f. A set of all the lowercase letters of the alphabet

We broadly denote a set by the capital letter A, B, C, etc. while the

fundamentals of the set by small letter a, b, x, y, etc.

If A is a set, and a is one of the elements of A, then we denote it as

a ∈ A. Here the symbol ∈ means -"Element of."

Sets Representation:

Sets are represented in two forms:

a) Roster or tabular form: In this form of representation we list all

the elements of the set within braces { } and separate them by commas.

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Example1: If A= set of all odd numbers less then 10 then in the roster
from it can be expressed as A= { 1,3,5,7,9}.

Example2: Set of vowels in English

alphabet, A={a,e,i,o,u}A={a,e,i,o,u}
Example3: Set of odd numbers less than 10, B={1,3,5,7,9}

b) Set Builder form: In this form of representation we list the

properties fulfilled by all the elements of the set. We note as {x: x
satisfies properties P}. and read as 'the set of those entire x such
that each x has properties P.'

Example: If B= {2, 4, 8, 16, 32}, then the set builder representation

will be: B={x: x=2n, where n ∈ N and 1≤ n ≥5}

Example:  The set {a, e, i , o ,u}{a ,e ,I ,o ,u} is written as −

A= {x: x is a vowel in English alphabet} A= {x: x is a vowel in
English alphabet}
Example: The set {1,3,5,7,9} {1,3,5,7,9} is written as −
B= {x:1≤x<10 and (x%2) ≠ 0}

If an element x is a member of any set S, it is denoted by  x ∈ S x ∈

S and if an element y is not a member of set S, it is denoted by y ∉ S
y ∉ S.
Example: If S={1,1.2,1.7,2},1∈SS= {1,1.2,1.7,2},1∈S but 1.5 ∉ S

Some Important Sets

N − the set of all natural numbers = {1,2,3,4,.....}{1,2,3,4,.....}
Z − the set of all integers = {.....,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,.....}
{.....,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,.....}
Z  − the set of all positive integers
+

Q − the set of all rational numbers

R − the set of all real numbers
W − the set of all whole numbers

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Cardinality of a Sets:
Cardinality of a set S, denoted by |S||S|, is the number of elements
of the set. The number is also referred as the cardinal number. If a
set has an infinite number of elements, its cardinality is ∞

Examples:
1.Let P = {k, l, m, n}
The cardinality of the set P is 4.
2. Let A is the set of all non-negative even integers, i.e.
A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10......}.
If there are two sets X and Y,

 |X|=|Y||X|=|Y| denotes two sets X and Y having same cardinality. It

occurs when the number of elements in X is exactly equal to the number
of elements in Y. In this case, there exists a bijective function ‘f’
from X to Y.
 |X|≤|Y||X|≤|Y| denotes that set X’s cardinality is less than or equal
to set Y’s cardinality. It occurs when number of elements in X is less
than or equal to that of Y. Here, there exists an injective function
‘f’ from X to Y.
 |X|<|Y||X|<|Y| denotes that set X’s cardinality is less than set Y’s
cardinality. It occurs when number of elements in X is less than that
of Y. Here, the function ‘f’ from X to Y is injective function but not
bijective.
 If |X|≤|Y|If |X|≤|Y| and |X|≥|Y||X|≥|Y| then |X|=|Y||X|=|Y|. The sets X
and Y are commonly referred as equivalent sets.

Types of Sets

Sets can be classified into many categories. Some of which are finite,
infinite, subset, universal, proper, power, singleton set, etc.

Finite Set
A set which contains a definite number of elements is called a finite
set.

Example − S={x|x∈NS={x|x∈N and 70>x>50}70>x>50}
Infinite Set
A set which contains infinite number of elements is called an infinite
set.

Example − S={x|x∈NS={x|x∈N and x>10}

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Subset
A set X is a subset of set Y (Written as X⊆YX⊆Y) if every element of
X is an element of set Y.
Example 1 −
Let, X={1,2,3,4,5,6}X={1,2,3,4,5,6} and Y={1,2}Y={1,2}. Here
set Y is a subset of set X as all the elements of set Y is in set
X. Hence, we can write Y⊆XY⊆X.
Example 2 − Let, X={1,2,3}X={1,2,3} and Y={1,2,3}Y={1,2,3}.
Here set Y is a subset (Not a proper subset) of set X as all the
elements of set Y is in set X. Hence, we can write Y⊆XY⊆X.
Proper Subset
The term “proper subset” can be defined as “subset of but not equal
to”. A Set X is a proper subset of set Y (Written as X⊂YX⊂Y) if every
element of X is an element of set Y and |X|<|Y||X|<|Y|.
Example −
Let, X={1,2,3,4,5,6}X={1,2,3,4,5,6} and Y={1,2}Y={1,2}. Here
set Y⊂XY⊂X since all elements in YY are contained in XX too
and XX has at least one element is more than set YY.
Universal Set
It is a collection of all elements in a particular context or
application. All the sets in that context or application are
essentially subsets of this universal set. Universal sets are
represented as UU.
Example − We may define UU as the set of all animals on earth. In
this case, set of all mammals is a subset of UU, set of all fishes
is a subset of UU, set of all insects is a subset of UU, and so
on.
Empty Set or Null Set
An empty set contains no elements. It is denoted by ∅∅. As the number
of elements in an empty set is finite, empty set is a finite set. The
cardinality of empty set or null set is zero.
Example − S={x|x∈NS={x|x∈N and 7<x<8}=∅
Singleton Set or Unit Set
Singleton set or unit set contains only one element. A singleton set
is denoted by {s}{s}.
Example − S={x|x∈N, 7<x<9}S={x|x∈N, 7<x<9} = {8}{8}
Equal Set
If two sets contain the same elements they are said to be equal.

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Example − If A={1,2,6}A={1,2,6} and B={6,1,2}B={6,1,2}, they

are equal as every element of set A is an element of set B and
every element of set B is an element of set A.
Equivalent Set
If the cardinalities of two sets are same, they are called equivalent
sets.
Example − If A={1,2,6}A={1,2,6} and B={16,17,22}B={16,17,22},
they are equivalent as
cardinality of A is equal to the cardinality of B. i.e. |A|=|B|
=3|A|=|B|=3
Overlapping Set
Two sets that have at least one common element are called overlapping
sets.
In case of overlapping sets −

 n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)−n(A∩B)n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)−n(A∩B)
 n(A∪B)=n(A−B)+n(B−A)+n(A∩B)n(A∪B)=n(A−B)+n(B−A)+n(A∩B)
 n(A)=n(A−B)+n(A∩B)n(A)=n(A−B)+n(A∩B)
 n(B)=n(B−A)+n(A∩B)n(B)=n(B−A)+n(A∩B)
Example − Let, A={1,2,6}A={1,2,6} and B={6,12,42}B={6,12,42}.
There is a common element ‘6’, hence these sets are overlapping sets.
Disjoint Set
Two sets A and B are called disjoint sets if they do not have even one
element in common. Therefore, disjoint sets have the following
properties −

 n(A∩B)=∅n(A∩B)=∅
 n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)
Example − Let, A={1,2,6}A={1,2,6} and B={7,9,14}B={7,9,14}, there
is not a single common element, hence these sets are overlapping sets.

Venn Diagrams
Venn diagram, invented in 1880 by John Venn, is a schematic diagram
that shows all possible logical relations between different
mathematical sets.
Examples

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Set Operations
Set Operations include Set Union, Set Intersection, Set Difference,
Complement of Set, and Cartesian Product.
Set Union
The union of sets A and B (denoted by A∪BA∪B) is the set of elements
which are in A, in B, or in both A and B. Hence, A∪B={x|
x∈A OR x∈B}A∪B={x|x∈A OR x∈B}.
Example − If A={10,11,12,13}A={10,11,12,13} and B = {13,14,15}
{13,14,15}, then A∪B={10,11,12,13,14,15}A∪B={10,11,12,13,14,15}.
(The common element occurs only once)

Set Intersection
The intersection of sets A and B (denoted by A∩BA∩B) is the set of
elements which are in both A and B. Hence, A∩B={x|
x∈A AND x∈B}A∩B={x|x∈A AND x∈B}.
Example −
If A={11,12,13}A={11,12,13} and B={13,14,15}B={13,14,15},
then A∩B={13}

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Set Difference/ Relative Complement

The set difference of sets A and B (denoted by A–BA–B) is the set of
elements which are only in A but not in B. Hence, A−B={x|
x∈A AND x∉B}A−B={x|x∈A AND x∉B}.
Example −
If A={10,11,12,13}A={10,11,12,13} and B={13,14,15}B={13,14,15},
then (A−B)={10,11,12}(A−B)={10,11,12} and (B−A)={14,15}
(B−A)={14,15}. Here, we can see (A−B)≠(B−A)

Complement of a Set
The complement of a set A (denoted by A′A′) is the set of elements
which are not in set A. Hence, A′={x|x∉A}A′={x|x∉A}.
More specifically, A′=(U−A)A′=(U−A) where UU is a universal set which
contains all objects.
Example − If A={x|x belongstosetofoddintegers}A={x|
x belongstosetofoddintegers} then A′={y|y doesnotbelongtosetofod
dintegers}

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Cartesian Product / Cross Product

The Cartesian product of n number of sets A1,A2,…AnA1,A2,…An denoted
as A1×A2⋯×AnA1×A2⋯×An can be defined as all possible ordered
pairs (x1,x2,…xn)(x1,x2,…xn) where x1∈A1,x2∈A2,…xn∈Anx1∈A1,x2∈A2,…
xn∈An
Example − If we take two sets A={a,b}A={a,b} and B={1,2}B={1,2},
The Cartesian product of A and B is written as − A×B={(a,1),(a,2),
(b,1),(b,2)}A×B={(a,1),(a,2),(b,1),(b,2)}
The Cartesian product of B and A is written as − B×A={(1,a),(1,b),
(2,a),(2,b)}

Power Set
Power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S including the
empty set. The cardinality of a power set of a set S of cardinality n
is 2n2n. Power set is denoted as P(S)P(S).
Example −
For a set S={a,b,c,d}S={a,b,c,d} let us calculate the subsets −
 Subsets with 0 elements − {∅}{∅} (the empty set)
 Subsets with 1 element − {a},{b},{c},{d}{a},{b},{c},{d}
 Subsets with 2 elements − {a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{b,c},{b,d},
{c,d}{a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{b,c},{b,d},{c,d}
 Subsets with 3 elements − {a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,c,d},{b,c,d}
{a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,c,d},{b,c,d}
 Subsets with 4 elements − {a,b,c,d}
Hence, P(S)=P(S)=
{{∅},{a},{b},{c},{d},{a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{b,c},{b,d},{c,d},
{a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,c,d},{b,c,d},{a,b,c,d}}{{∅},{a},{b},{c},
{d},{a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{b,c},{b,d},{c,d},{a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,c,d},
{b,c,d},{a,b,c,d}}
|P(S)|=24=16|P(S)|=24=16
Note − The power set of an empty set is also an empty set.

|P({∅})|=20=1|P({∅})|=20=1

Partitioning of a Set
Partition of a set, say S, is a collection of n disjoint subsets,
say P1,P2,…PnP1,P2,…Pn that satisfies the following three conditions −
 PiPi does not contain the empty set.

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 [Pi≠{∅} for all 0<i≤n][Pi≠{∅} for all 0<i≤n]
 The union of the subsets must equal the entire original set.
[P1∪P2∪⋯∪Pn=S][P1∪P2∪⋯∪Pn=S]
 The intersection of any two distinct sets is empty.
[Pa∩Pb={∅}, for a≠b where n≥a,b≥0][Pa∩Pb={∅}, for a≠b where 
n≥a,b≥0]
Example
Let S={a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h}S={a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h}
One probable partitioning is {a},{b,c,d},{e,f,g,h}{a},{b,c,d},
{e,f,g,h}
Another probable partitioning is {a,b},{c,d},{e,f,g,h}

Bell Numbers
Bell numbers give the count of the number of ways to partition a set.
They are denoted by BnBn where n is the cardinality of the set.
Example −
Let S={1,2,3}S={1,2,3}, n=|S|=3n=|S|=3
The alternate partitions are −

1. ∅,{1,2,3}∅,{1,2,3}
2. {1},{2,3}{1},{2,3}
3. {1,2},{3}{1,2},{3}
4. {1,3},{2}
5. {1},{2},{3}{1},{2},{3}
Hence B3=5

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