 The scientific study of psychological disorders.

MODULE 1:

Conducted by:
INTRODUCTION TO ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
 Clinical and counseling psychologists (PhD,
NORMAL PsyD)/Registered Psychologists (RPsy)
 Typical for the social context  Psychiatrists (MD)
 Not distressing to the individual  Psychiatric social workers (MSW)
 Not interfering with social life or work/school  Psychiatric nurses (MN, MSN, PhD)
 Not dangerous  Marriage and family therapists (MA, MS, MFT)
 “College students who are self-confident and happy,  Mental health counselors (MA, MS)
perform to their capacity in school, and have good
friends” SCIENTIST- PRACTITIONER

SOCIALLY ESTABLISHED DIVISION BETWEEN Mental Health Practitioner

NORMAL AND ABNORMAL
 Consumer of Science - Enhancing the practice
 Somewhat unusual for the social context  Evaluator of Science - Determining the effectiveness of
 Distressing to the individual the practice
 Interfering with social or occupational functioning  Creator of Science - Conducting research that leads to
 Dangerous new procedures useful in practice
 “College students who are often unsure and self-critical,
occasionally abuse prescription drugs, fail some courses, 3 BASIC THINGS FROM CONDUCTING RESEARCH
and avoid friends who disapprove of drug use”  To describe psychological disorders
ABNORMAL  To determine their causes
 To treat them
 Highly unusual for the social context
 The source of significant individual distress 3 CATEGORIES THAT MAKE UP THE STUDY OF
 Significantly interfering with social occupational PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
functioning Studying Psychological Disorders
 Highly dangerous to the individual or others
 “College students who are hopeless about the future, are Focus:
self-loathing, chronically abuse drugs, fail courses, and
have alienate all their friends”  Clinical Description
 Causation (Etiology)
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER  Treatment and Outcome

 Describes behavioral, psychological, or biological CLINICAL DESCRIPTION

dysfunctions that are unexpected in their cultural context
and associated with present distress and impairment in COURSE – pattern of behavior
functioning, or increased risk of suffering, death, pain, or  Chronic – last a long time
impairment.  Episodic – likely to recover within a few months only to a
4Ds of ABNORMALITY suffer a recurrence
 Time-limited – to improve in a short period
 DYSFUNCTION - Refers to the breakdown in cognitive,
emotional, or behavioral functioning ONSET – first phase or beginning of the symptoms of the
 DISTRESS - The behavior must be associated with disorder
distress to be classified as a disorder adds an important
 Acute – begins suddenly
component: the criterion is satisfied if the individual is
 Insidious – develops gradually over an extended period
extremely upset.
 DEVIANCE - It deviates from the average. The greater PROGNOSIS – predicted future development of a disorder
the deviation, the more abnormal it is over time
 DANGER - Inflicts danger to self or to another person
 Good
THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY  Bad
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
 study of changes in behavior over time  Genetics, Brain Anatomy, Biochemical Imbalances,
 study of changes in abnormal behavior Central Nervous System Functioning, Autonomic
Nervous System Reactivity, etc.
CAUSATION, TREATMENT & ETIOLOGY OUTCOMES
SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSION
 ETIOLOGY - Cause of development of psychopathology
 TREATMENT - Drugs and/or psychosocial  Race, Gender, Sexual Orientation, Religion,
Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, Culture, etc.
OTHER CLINICAL TERMINOLOGIES
SOCIAL DIMENSION
 Presenting Problem – medical way of identifying the
reason why the patient came to the clinic or hospital.  Family, Relationship, Social Support, Belonging,
Presents is a traditional shorthand way of indicating why Love, Marital Status, Community, etc.
the person came to the clinic.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DIMENSION
 Prevalence – a statistical term referring to the number of
cases present in a particular population.  Personality, Cognition, Emotions, Learning, Stress-
 Incidence – refers to the number of new cases during a Coping, Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy, Values,
given period of time. Developmental History.
 Diagnosis – process of determining whether a presenting
problem meets the established criteria for a specific 4 CATEGORIES OF BIOLOGICAL FACTORS TO THE
disorder DEVELOPMENT OF MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR

II. INDIGENOUS CONCEPTS OF ABNORMALITY  Genetic vulnerabilities

 Brain dysfunction and neural plasticity
 Consider these behaviors: Crucifixions during Holy Week  Neurotransmitter and hormonal abnormalities
A man barking like a dog and crawling on the floor on his  Temperament
hands and knees A woman building a shrine to her dead
husband in her living room and leaving food and gifts for THE ROLE OF GENES
him at the altar
WHAT ARE GENES?
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
 Long molecules of DNA
 Cultural relativism is the view that there are no universal  Double helix structure
standards or rules for labeling a behavior abnormal;  Located on chromosomes
instead, behaviors can be labeled abnormal only relative  46 chromosomes in 23 pairs
to cultural norms (Snowden & Yamada, 2005)  Pairs 1 – 22 = body and brain development
 Pair 23 = gender
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
COMMON TERMINOLOGIES
 Culture and gender can influence the ways people express
symptoms.  Sex Chromosomes – determines an individual’s sex.
 Culture and gender can influence people’s willingness to In females, both chromosomes in the 23rd pair are
admit certain types of behaviors or feelings (Snowden & called X chromosomes. In males, the mother
Yamada, 2005) contributes an X chromosome, but the father
 Culture and gender can influence the types of treatments contributes a Y chromosome. This one difference is
deemed acceptable or helpful for people exhibiting responsible for the variance in biological sex.
abnormal behaviors.  Dominant Gene - one of a pair of genes that strongly
 Cultural universality, on the other hand, refers to the influences a particular trait, and we need only one of
perspective that symptoms of mental disorders are the them to determine, for example, our eye color or hair
same in all cultures and societies (Eshun & Gurung, color.
2009).  Recessive Gene – must be paired with another
MODULE 2: (recessive) gene to determine a trait.
 Polygenic – influenced by many genes, each
APPROACHES TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY contributing only a tiny effect, all of which, in turn,
may be influenced by the environment.
MENTAL DISORDER
 Genome – an individual’s complete set of genes
BIOLOGICAL DIMENSION
DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL
  Individuals are assumed to inherit certain EPIGENETICS
vulnerabilities that make them susceptible to a
disorder when the right kind of stressor comes along  the immediate effects of the environment (such as
early stressful experiences) impact cells that turn
DIATHESIS certain genes on or off. This effect may be passed
down through several generations.
 A predisposition or vulnerability  Your brain + your environment and lifestyle = you!
 Inherited predisposition to develop the disorder +
NEUROSCIENCE AND ITS CONTRIBUTIONS TO
STRESS PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
 Environmental stressors CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
 Prenatal trauma or childhood sexual or physical
abuse, family confuse, significant life changes —  processes all information received from our sense organs
and reacts, as necessary.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISORDER
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
 The stronger the diathesis, the less stress is necessary
to produce the disorder  coordinates with the brain stem to make sure the body is
 Psychological disorder working properly.
GENE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION MODEL MAJOR NEUROTRANSMITTERS

 Also called as reciprocal gene-environment model; Acetylcholine

the individual’s genetic vulnerability toward a certain
disorder may make it more likely that the person will  Influences attention and memory, dream and sleep states,
experience the stressor that, in turn, triggers the and muscle activation; has excitatory and inhibitory
genetic vulnerability and thus the disorder effects
o The child’s genotype may have what has  Alzheimer’s Disease (low)
been termed a passive effect on the Dopamine*
environment, resulting from the genetic
similarity of parents and children.  Influences motivation and reward-seeking behaviors;
o The child’s genotype may evoke kinds of regulates movement, emotional responses, attention, and
reactions from the social and physical planning; has excitatory and inhibitory effects
environment— a so-called evocative effect.  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (high);
o The child’s genotype may play a more schizophrenia (low)
active role in shaping the environment—a
so-called active effect. Epinephrine (adrenaline)* and norepinephrine*
(noradrenaline)

 Excitatory functions including regulating attention,

arousal and concentration, dreaming, and moods; as a
hormone, influences physiological reactions related to
stress response (constricted attention, blood flow, heart
rate, etc.)
 Anxiety and stress disorders; sleep disorders (high/low)

Glutamate
EXAMPLE OF GENE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION
MODEL  Major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in cognition,
memory, and learning
 If you and your spouse each have an identical twin,  Alzheimer’s disease: autism; depression; obsessive-
and both identical twins have been divorced, the compulsive disorder; schizophrenia (high/low)
chance that you will also divorce increases greatly.
 Furthermore, if your identical twin and your parents Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
and your spouse’s parents have been divorced, the  Major inhibitory neurotransmitter; calms the nerves;
chance that you will divorce is 77.5%. regulates mood and muscle tone
 Conversely, if none of your family members on either
side has been divorced, the probability that you will
divorce is only 5.3%.
 Anxiety disorders; attention-deficit/ hyperactivity  Treatment of psychological disorder, from this
disorder; bipolar disorder; depression; schizophrenia perspective, involves an attempt to restructure the
(low) individual’s personality
 Early life experiences play a formative role in
Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT)
personality
 Inhibitory effects regulate temperature, mood, appetite,  In order to understand Freud’s view in
and sleep; reduced serotonin can increase impulsive psychopathology, it is necessary to understand how
behavior and aggression he conceived the personality structure
 Depression, suicide, obsessive-compulsive and anxiety  In Freud’s view, a psychological disorder results
disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, eating disorders from serious imbalance between the id’s needs and
(low) the superego’s restrictions
 Psychological disturbance can also result from
MAJOR HORMONES defects in the ego. In normally functioning
Cortisol individuals, the ego attempts to protect itself from the
id (Defense Mechanisms)
 Steroid hormone released in response to stress
 Anorexia nervosa: depression; stress-related NARCISSISTIC DEFENSES
disorders  Denial, Distortion, Projection
Ghrelin NEUROTIC DEFENSES
 Stimulates hunger and boosts the appeal of food  Controlling ,Isolation, Displacement, Rationalization,
 Eating disorders; obesity Externalization, Reaction, Formation, Inhibition,
Leptin Dissociation, Intellectualization, Repression,
Sexualization
 Suppresses appetite
 Anorexia nervosa; schizophrenia IMMATURE DEFENSES

Melatonin  Acting Out, Blocking,Hypochondriasis, Introjection,

Passive-Aggressive behavior, Regression, Schizoid
 Regulates circadian sleep and wake cycles Fantasy, Somatization
 Bipolar disorder; depression,
particularly seasonal depression; MATURE DEFENSES
schizophrenia; obsessive-
compulsive disorder  Altruism, Anticipation, Asceticism, Humor,
Oxytocin Sublimation, Suppression
 Neuropeptide hormone influencing lactation and POST-FREUDIAN PSYCHODYNAMIC VIEWS
complex social behavior (including nurturing and
bonding)  C.G. Jung believed that the goal of the healthy
 Autism; anxiety; schizophrenia personality development was an integration of the
 unconscious life with conscious thoughts, and that
THE PURPOSE OF THEORIES IN ABNORMAL psychological disorders result from an imbalance
PSYCHOLOGY between these two parts of the personality.
 Offers contrasting perspectives from which to  Alfred Adler placed more emphasis on the
approach the possible causes of psychological individual’s relationship to society, and saw the basis
functioning for psychological disorder as loss of social interest, or
 Provides framework for collecting and analyzing a turning-away from fellow humans
research data  Karen Horney focused more on the inner world of the
 Psychologists of different orientations are likely to individual as the basis for psychological disorder.
examine different aspects of the person She proposed that people with psychological
disorders have become distanced from their true
PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE needs and desires
 Erik Erikson focuses on unconscious roots of
 Theoretical orientation that emphasizes unconscious personality and psychological disorder and
determinants of behavior development proceeds throughout the life span in a
series of eight “crises”
OBJECT-RELATIONS THEORIES  When it comes to social learning or social cognition,
it is not only direct reinforcements that influence
 Object-relation theorists placed far greater emphasis behavior, but indirect reinforcements that people
on the early mother-child relationship acquire. It can also be shown that maladaptive
 Propose that various forms of psychological disorder behaviors are learned through observing other people
arise from defects in the individual’s sense of self.
Some disorders are caused by failure to form an COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
integrated self early in life
 Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck and Donald Meichenbaum
 Other disorders may occur when parent’s lack of
empathy, or sharing of the child’s perspective, and emphasized the role of disturbed thinking processes
failure to mirror back or take pride in the child’s in causing maladaptive behavior
achievements cause the individual to develop  Beck – “dysfunctional attitudes”; Ellis – “irrational
unhealthy needs for attention beliefs”; Meichenbaum – people create their own
 Melanie Klein’s contribution was the idea that the unhappiness by having unduly negative thoughts
infant has an active fantasy life built around parents about their situations
 In Heinz Kohut’s view, a disturbed sense of self  Psychological disorder, as George Kelly proposed,
accounts for most forms of psychological disorder occurs when these constructs fail to organize the
 According to Margaret Mahler, psychological individual’s world
disturbances can result from problems arising at any CULTURAL, SOCIAL & INTERPERSONAL FACTORS
of the phases of development
 Social factors are environmental influences—
HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE often unpredictable and uncontrollable negative
 The core of the humanistic perspective is the belief events—that can negatively affect a person
that human motivation is based on an inherent psychologically, making him or her less
tendency to strive for self-fulfillment and meaning in
resourceful in coping with events.
 The sociocultural perspective looks at the various
life
circles of influence on the individual, ranging from
 Psychological disorders is the result of blocking of close friends and family to the institutions and
one’s potential for living to full capacity, resulting in policies of a country or the world as a whole. These
a state of incongruence – a mismatch between a influences interact in important ways with biological
person’s self-perception and reality (Person-centered processes and with the psychological contributions
approach) that occur through exposure to particular experiences.
 According to Carl Rogers, a psychological disorder  One important and unique sociocultural contribution
develops in an individual who, as a child, was to psychological disorders is discrimination,
subjected to parents who were too critical and whether based on social class, income, race and
demanding ethnicity, nationality, sexual orientation, or gender.
 On Abraham Maslow’s notion of self-actualization,
OTHER TYPES OF SOCIAL FACTORS Early deprivation or
the maximum realization of the individual’s potential
trauma
for psychological growth
 Maslow defined psychological disorder in terms of  Problems in parenting style
the degree of deviation from the ideal state of being  Marital discord and divorce
 Another source of psychological problems is the  Low socioeconomic status and unemployment
suppression of the higher-level needs required to  Maladaptive peer relationships
achieve actualization  Prejudice and discrimination
BEHAVIORAL APPROACH CULTURAL, SOCIAL & INTERPERSONAL FACTORS
 According to classical conditioning principles, many  Everyone experiences anxiety and fear, and phobias
emotions and behaviors are acquired through the are found all over the world. But phobias have a
pairing of neutral and emotion-provoking stimuli peculiar characteristic: The likelihood of your having
 The classical conditioning paradigm accounts for the a particular phobia is powerfully influenced by your
acquisition or learning through conditioning, of gender.
emotional reactions that interfere with a person’s  Many major psychological disorders, such as
ability to carry out everyday tasks schizophrenia and major depressive disorder, seem to
 Shaping is an important method in the treatment of occur in all cultures, but they may look different from
certain behavioral problems (operant conditioning) one culture to another because individual symptoms
 are strongly influenced by social and interpersonal  A suicide assessment should be performed
context (Cheung, 2012; Cheung, van de Vijver, &  Should be asked about any current thoughts of suicide and
Leong, 2011). if thoughts are present, ask the intention.
 Presence of psychotic symptoms should be assessed
MODULE 3  Although the intent of interview is to build rapport, the
CLINICAL ASSESSMENT patient’s safety is the first priority. If he/she is viewed to
be at imminent risk, the interview may need to be
- refers to a systematic evaluation and measurement of terminated and action must be taken
psychological, biological, and social factors in people with
psychiatric disorders to provide idiographic information that HOSTILE, AGITATED & POTENTIALLY VIOLENT
may be helpful in treatment planning. PATIENTS

 Reliability is the degree to which a measurement is  Safety of the patient and psychologist/psychiatrist is the
consistent. priority
 Validity is whether something measures what it is  Hostile patients are often interviewed in emergency
designed to measure—in this case, whether a technique settings
assesses what it is supposed to.  Angry, agitated patients can present in any setting
 Standardization is the process by which a certain set of  Interviewers should be aware of any available safety
standards or norms is determined for a technique to make features
its use consistent across different measurements. (Value  They should be aware of his or her own body position and
Assessment depends on these 3) avoid postures that could be seen as threatening
 Interview approach should be calm, direct manner and not
CLINICAL INTERVIEW to bargain or promise to elicit cooperation
 If patient makes threats, further assessment is necessary
Time-honored means of psychological assessment
DECEPTIVE PATIENTS
 Flexible interview (unstructured)
 Consists of open-ended questions on various  Patients lie or deceive for many reasons (secondary gain,
topics such as reasons for being in treatment, psychological benefits of assuming a sick role)
symptoms, health status, family background, etc.  There are no biological markers to definitively validate a
 Standardized interview (structured) patient’s symptoms
 Contains fixed questions with fixed scoring  Gather collateral information regarding the patient
categories  Psychological tests which can help in further evaluating
the reliability of the client
INTERVIEWING DIFFICULT PATIENTS
DEALING WITH PSYCHIATRIC PATIENTS
PATIENTS WITH PSYCHOSIS
 WITHDRAWN PATIENTS
 Often frightened or guarded; have difficulty with  Active-Friendliness Attitude
reasoning and thinking clearly.  TLC
 Can be actively hallucinating during the interview,  Supportive gestures, should be non-threatening
causing them to be inattentive and distracted  Assurance of safety
 May need to alter the usual format and adapt the interview  Attend to basic needs as possible
to match the capacity and tolerance of the patient  PARANOID PATIENTS
 Ask patient about a specific instance or repeat verbatim  Passive-friendliness
 Should be alert for cues  Maintain your distance
 For patients with paranoid thoughts and behaviors,  Do not stare
maintain a respectful distance. It is also helpful to avoid  He/She must be part of decision-making
sustained eye contact  Do not laugh/smile unless he/she started to
DEPRESSED AND POTENTIALLY SUICIDAL PATIENTS  Do not whisper with others in front of the patient
 Do not make unnecessary movements/gestures
 Feelings of hopelessness may contribute to lack of  MANIPULATIVE PATIENTS
engagement  Matter-of-Fact approach
 May have difficulty during the interview  Stick to the rules
 May have impaired motivation and not report their  No negotiations/bargaining
symptoms  Do not react to his/her manipulations
 Depending on the severity of symptoms, may need more  Do not give in to his/her request at once
direct questioning rather than an open-ended format
 Rule implementation must be consistently followed by all  Where were you born? Where did you go to school? Date
staff of marriage? Birthdays of children?
 Patients with dementia of the Alzheimer type retain
THE MENTAL STATUS EXAMINATION (MSE) remote memory longer than recent memory. Gaps in
 To organize information obtained during an interview, memory may be localized or filled in with confabulatory
many clinicians use a mental status exam. details. Hypermnesia is seen in paranoid personality.
 Often a 1-2 paragraph statement which is an assessment Immediate memory (very short-term)
of the client’s JOIMAT.
 Ask patient to repeat six digits forward, then backward
J-O-I-M-A-T (normal responses). Ask patient to try to remember three
 J – udgment/Insight (Inquired/Observed) nonrelated items; test patient after 5 min.
 O – rientation x3 (Person, place, time) (Inquired)  Loss of memory occurs with cognitive, dissociative, or
 I – ntellectual Functioning (Inquired/Observed) conversion disorder. Anxiety can impair immediate
 M – emory (Inquired) retention and recent memory.
 A – ppearance; Affect (Both Observed) Thought process
 T – hought Process (Inquired/Observed)
 Ask similarity between bird and butterfly (both alive),
Topic Sample Questions Comments and Clinical Hints bread and cake (both food).
General appearance  Loose associations point to schizophrenia; flight of ideas
to mania; inability to abstract to schizophrenia, brain
 Introduce yourself and direct patient to take a seat. In the damage.
hospital, bring your chair to bedside; do not sit on the bed.
 Unkempt and disheveled in cognitive disorder, pinpoint Mood
pupils in narcotic addiction, withdrawal and stooped  *Trigger Warning*
posture in depression. How do you feel? How are your spirits? Do you have
Attitude during interview thoughts that life is not worth living or that you want to
harm yourself? Do you have plans to take your own life?
 You may comment about attitude: “You seem irritated Do you want to die? Has there been a change in your
about something; is that an accurate observation?” sleep habits?
 Suspiciousness in paranoia; seductive in hysteria;  Suicidal ideas in 25% of depressives; elation in mania.
apathetic in conversion disorder (la belle indifference); Early morning awakening in depression; decreased need
punning (witzelsucht) in frontal lobe syndromes. for sleep in mania.

Judgment CAGE & RAPS4

 What is the thing to do if you find an envelope in the  Have you ever Cut down on your drinking?
street that is sealed, stamped, and addressed?  Have people Annoyed you by criticizing your drinking?
 Impaired in brain disease, schizophrenia, borderline  Have you ever felt bad or Guilty about your drinking?
intellectual functioning, intoxication.  Have you ever had a drink the first thing in the morning,
as an Eye-opener, to steady your nerves or get rid of a
Insight level hangover?
 Do you think you have a problem? Do you need  Have you ever felt guilty after drinking (Remorse),
treatment? What are your plans for the future?  Could not remember things said or did after drinking
 Impaired in delirium, dementia, frontal lobe syndrome, (Amnesia),
psychosis, borderline intellectual functioning.  Failed to do what was normally expected after drinking
(Perform),
Orientation x3 (Person, Place, Time)  Or had a morning drink (Starter)?

 What place is this? What is today’s date? Do youknow BASIC COMPONENTS OF A COMPREHENSIVE
who I am? PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORT
 Delirium or dementia shows clouded or wandering
sensorium. Orientation to person remains intact longer I. Identifying Data (Demographic Data)
than orientation to time or place. II. Reason for Referral/Source
III. Presenting Problem/Chief Complaint
Remote memory (long-term memory) IV. History of Present Illness
a. Background
 b. Personal PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT REPORTS
c. Family
d. Medical  To respond to the referral questions being asked.
e. Educational  To provide insight to clients for therapy.
V. Mental Status Examination  To assist in the case-conceptualization process.
VI. Assessment Used (Tools and other methods)  To develop treatment options in counseling (e.g., type of
VII. Test Results counseling, use of medications, etc.)
VIII. Diagnosis (if applicable)  To suggest educational services for students with special
IX. Summary & Recommendations needs (e.g., for students who are mentally retarded,
learning disabled, or gifted)
Identifying data  To offer direction when providing vocational
rehabilitation services.
 Be direct in obtaining identifying data. Request  To offer insight about and treatment options for
specificanswers. individuals who have incurred a cognitive impairment
 If patient cannot cooperate, get information from family (e.g., brain injury, senility).
member or friend; if referred by a physician, obtain  To assist the courts in making difficult decisions (e.g.,
medical record. custody decisions, sanity defenses, determination of guilt
Chief complaint (CC) or innocence).
 To providence evidence for placement into schools and
 Why are you going to see a psychiatrist? What brought jobs.
you to the hospital? What seems to be the problem?  To challenge decisions made by institutions and agencies
 Records answers verbatim; a bizarre complaint points to (social security disability, school IEPs
psychotic process.
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
History of present illness (HPI)
Diagnose or rule out physical etiologies
 When did you first notice something happening to you?
Were you upset about anything when symptoms began?  Toxicities
Did they begin suddenly or gradually?  Medication side effects
 Record in patient’s own words as much as possible. Get  Allergic reactions
history of previous hospitalizations and treatment. Sudden  Metabolic conditions
onset of symptoms may indicate drug-induced disorder. BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
Previous psychiatric and medical disorders  Uses direct observation to formally assess an individual’s
 Did you ever lose consciousness? Have a seizure? thoughts, feelings, and behavior in specific situations or
 Ascertain extent of illness, treatment, medications, contexts
outcomes, hospitals, doctors. Determine whether illness  May be more appropriate than an interview in terms of
serves some additional purpose (secondary gain). assessing individuals who are not old enough or skilled
enough to report their problems and experiences.
Personal history  Observation
 Self-Monitoring
 Do you know anything about your birth? If so, from
whom? How old was your mother when you were born? OSERVATIONAL ASSESSMENT FOCUSES ON:
Your father? ANTECEDENTS, BEHAVIOR, CONSEQUENCES
 Older mothers (>35) have high risk for Down syndrome
babies; older fathers (>45) may contribute damaged EXAMPLE OF A-B-C SEQUENCE
sperm, producing deficits including schizophrenia.  Mother asking his son to put his glass in the sink
Family history (Antecedent)
 The boy throwing the glass (Behavior)
 Have any members in your family been depressed?  Mother’s lack of response (Consequence)
Alcoholic? In a mental hospital? Describe your living  This antecedent–behavior–consequence sequence (the
conditions. Did you have your own room? ABCs) might suggest that the boy was being reinforced
 Genetic loading in anxiety, depression, schizophrenia. Get for his violent outburst by not having to clean up his
medication history of family (medications effective in mess. And because there was no negative consequence for
family members for similar disorders may be effective in his behavior (his mother didn’t scold or reprimand him),
patient). he will probably act violently the next time he doesn’t
want to do something
SELF-MONITORING

 People can also observe their own behavior to find

patterns, a technique known as self-monitoring or self-
observation (Haynes et al., 2011).
 The goal here is to help clients monitor their behavior
more conveniently. When behaviors occur only in private
(such as purging by people with bulimia nervosa), self-
monitoring is essential.

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

 Interviews and behavioral observation are relatively direct

attempts to determine a person’s beliefs, attitudes, and THOUGHT DISORDERS
problems. Psychological tests are a more indirect means  Incoherence
of assessing psychological characteristics.  Loosening of Associations
 Two general categories of psychological tests for use in  Illogical Thinking
clinical practice are intelligence tests and personality tests  Neologisms
(projective and objective).  Poverty of content of speech
 Projective Personality Tests/Projective Techniques  Blocking
o Rorschach Inkblot Test, TAT, H-T-P  Circumstantiality
 Personality Inventories  Tangentiality
o MMPI-2, MMPI-RF, PAI, MCMI  Clanging
 Intelligence Testing  Confabulation
o SB-5, WAIS-IV, WISC-V  Echolalia
 Neuropsychological Testing  Flight of Ideas
o Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt II  Pressure of Speech
NEUROLOGICAL TESTING/ NEUROIMAGING  Perseveration

STRUCTURAL IMAGING TYPICAL SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF PSYCHIATRIC

ILLNESSES DELUSIONS
Computerized axial tomography (CT)
 Grandeur
 X-rays of brain  Control
 Pictures in slices  Nihilism
 Reference
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRi)  Persecution
 Strong magnetic field  Self-Blame
 Improved resolution  Somatic
 Poverty
FUNCTIONAL IMAGING  Infidelity
 Thought Broadcasting
 Electroencephalograph (eeG)  Thought Insertion
 Magnetoencephalography (MeG)  Thought Withdrawal
 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRi)
 Diffusion tensor imaging (DTi) MODULE 3.1

 Positron emission tomography (PeT)

 Single photon emission computed tomography DIAGNOSIS
(SPeCT) TYPICAL SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF  is the process of determining whether a problem that
PSYCHIATRIC ILLNESSES distresses a person meets criteria for a psychological
disorder.
 International Classification of Diseases 10th Edition (ICD-
10) and 11th Edition (ICD-11)
 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5 th
Edition-Text Revised (DSM-5 TR)

ELEMENTS OF DIAGNOSIS
 Subtypes – mutually exclusive and jointly exhaustive  DSM IV (1988)

phenomenological subgroupings within a diagnosis and  DSM IV-TR (2000)

are indicated by the instruction “specify whether” in the  DSM 5 (2013)

criteria set  DSM 5-TR (2022)

 Specifiers – as opposed to subtypes, they are indicated by

the instruction “specify” or “specify if” in the criteria set ASSUMPTIONS OF DSM IV
 Other specified – is provided to allow the clinician to  Definition of “mental disorder”; The disorder is clinically
communicate the specific reason that the presentation significant
does not meet the criteria for any specific category within  Syndrome – collection of symptoms that together form a
a diagnostic class. definable pattern
 Unspecified – if clinician chooses not to specify the
reason that the criteria are met for a specific disorder NEUROSIS - Not part of the nomenclature; in reference to
behavior that involves some symptoms that are distressing to
TERMINOLOGIES an individual and are recognized by that person as
APPROACHES unacceptable

 Idiographic - determination of individual, unique features PSYCHOSIS - Refers to various forms of behavior involving
or attributes loss of contact with reality; grossly disturbed
 Nomothetic - determination of general classes and FIVE AXES OF DSM IV
common attributes
 Major disorders (All diagnostic categories except
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS personality disorders and mental retardation)
 Taxonomy - Classification in a scientific context  Stable, enduring problems (Personality disorders and
 Nosology - Taxonomy in psychological / medical mental retardation)
contexts  General medical conditions (related)
 Nomenclature - Nosological labels (e.g., panic disorder)  Psychosocial and environmental problems
 Rating of adaptive functioning (Global assessment of
DIAGNOSTIC PROCESS functioning)

 Client’s Reported Symptoms — DSM 5 (2013)

 Diagnostic Criteria—
 Differential Diagnosis—  ICD 10
 Final Diagnosis—  The general consensus is that DSM-5 is largely unchanged
 Case Formulation from DSM-IV although some new disorders are
introduced, and other disorders have been reclassified
HOW DO WE CLASSIFY DISORDERS? o Divided into three main sections
o How to use the manual
 The DSM-5 and ICD-11 are two of the most respected o Disorders
medvcal manuals in the world for classifying disease and o Description of disorders
disorder.  Most notable change is the removal of the multiaxial
WHY DO WE CLASSIFY DISORDERS? system
 DSM-5 introduces cross-cutting dimensional symptom
 Communication measures
 Prognosis o Evaluating a global sense important symptoms
 Treatment Planning that are often present across disorders in almost
all patients such as anxiety, depression, and
HISTORY DSM problems with sleep
Emil Kraeplin 1856-1926  Social and cultural considerations in the DSM-5

 Pioneered classification of mental illness based on DSM IV-TR to DSM 5 Changes Terminology
biological causes  Neurodevelopmental Disorders
 Mental illness as syndrome
 Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders
 Proposed two syndromes: Dementia Praecox, Manic-
 Bipolar and Related Disorders
Depressive Psychosis
 DSM-I (1952) and DSM-II (1968)  Depressive Disorders
 DSM-III (1980) and DSM-III-R (1987)  Anxiety Disorders
 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders  A dissociative disorder involving outburst of violence and
 Trauma and Stressor-related Disorders aggression or homicidal behavior at people and objects. A
 Dissociative Disorders minor insult would precipitate this condition. Amnesia,
 Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders exhaustion, and persecutory ideas are often associated
with this syndrome.
 Feeding and Eating Disorders
 Sleep-Wake Disorders DHAT
 Sexual Dysfunctions
 Gender Dysphoria  East Indians, Chinese, Sri Lankans
 Extreme anxiety associated with sense of weakness,
 Disruptive, Impulse-Control and Conduct Disorders
exhaustion, and the discharge of semen.
 Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders
 Neurocognitive Disorders TAIJIN KYOFUSHO
 Paraphilic Disorders
 Asians
DSM 5-TR (2022)  Guilt about embarrassing others, timidity resulting from
the feeling that the appearance, odor, facial expressions
 Fully revised text for each disorder with updated sections are offensive to other people.
on associated features, prevalence, development and
course, risk and prognostic factors, culture, diagnostic AMURAKH, LATAH (LATTAH), JUMPING
markers, suicide, differential diagnosis, and more. FRENCHMEN OF MAINE SYNDROME, MYRIACHIT
 Addition of Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD) to Section II
 Siberians, Malaysian, Indonesian, French Canadians
—a new disorder for diagnosis
 The condition primarily affects middle-aged women and
 Over 70 modified criteria sets with helpful clarifications
is characterized by an exaggerated startle reaction. Its
since publication of DSM-5
major symptoms, besides fearfulness, are imitative
 Fully updated Introduction and Use of the Manual to
behavior in speech (see echolalia) and body movements
guide usage and provide context for important
(see echopraxia), a compulsion to utter profanities and
terminology
obscenities (see coprolalia), command obedience, and
 Considerations of the impact of racism and discrimination
disorganization.
on mental disorders integrated into the text
 New codes to flag and monitor suicidal behavior, WINDIGO PSYCHOSIS
available to all clinicians of any discipline and without the
requirement of any other diagnosis  Algonquin Indians in Canada and Northeastern US
 Fully updated ICD-10-CM codes implemented since  The syndrome is characterized by delusions of becoming
2013, including over 50 coding updates new to DSM-5- possessed by a flesh-eating monster (the windigo) and is
TR for substance intoxication and withdrawal and other manifested in symptoms including depression, violence, a
disorders compulsive desire for human flesh, and sometimes actual
 Updated and redesigned Diagnostic Classification cannibalism. The psychosis is also known by numerous
variant names and spellings, among them whitiko,
CULTURE-BOUND SYNDROME wihtigo, wihtiko, witigo, witiko, and wittigo.
NAME GROUP DESCRIPTION SUSTO
ATAQUE DE NERVIOS  Latinos in the US, Mexico, Central America, South
America
 Hispanics
 After experiencing a frightening event, individuals fear
 Out-of-consciousness state resulting from evil spirits.
that their soul has left their body. Symptoms include
Symptoms include attacks of crying, trembling,
weight loss, fatigue, muscle pains, headache, diarrhea,
uncontrollable shouting, physical or verbal aggression,
unhappiness, troubled sleep, lack of motivation, and low
and intense heat in the chest moving to the head. These
self-esteem.
ataques are often associated with stressful events (e.g.,
death of a loved one, divorce or separation, or witnessing PIBLOKTO
an accident including a family member).
 Inuit and other Arctic populations
AMOK, MAL DE PELEA  Individuals experience a sudden dissociative period of
extreme excitement in which they often tear off clothes,
 Malaysians, Laotians, Filipinos, Polynesians, Papua New
run naked through the snow, scream, throw things, and
Guineans, Puerto Ricans
perform other wild behaviors. This typically ends with
 convulsive seizures, followed by an acute coma and  #NoToSelfDiagnosis!
amnesia for the event.
MODULE 4:
INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES ETHICAL ISSUES IN ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

 The international classification of diseases (ICD) was also PERSPECTIVES ON MENTAL HEALTH LAW
used in classifying mental and behavioral disorders.
 During the post-World War II, the World Health  Mental health professionals face such questions daily.
Organization (WHO) published the sixth edition of ICD, They must both diagnose and treat people and consider
which, for the first time, included a section for mental individual and societal rights and responsibilities.
disorders.  Republic Act 11036 – Mental Health Act
 ICD–6 was heavily influenced by the Veterans
Administration classification and included 10 categories
for psychoses and psychoneuroses and seven categories
for disorders of character, behavior, and intelligence.

Mental & Behavioral Disorders (Chapter V-F00-F99) of

ICD-10 MENTAL ILLNESS
 F00-F09 Organic, including symptomatic, mental  MENTAL ILLNESS is a legal concept, typically meaning
disorders “severe emotional or thought disturbances that negatively
 F10-F19 Mental and behavioural disorders due to affect an individual’s health and safety.” Each state has its
psychoactive substance use own definition.
 F20-F29 Schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional  Not synonymous with psychological disorder
disorders  Different definitions of mental illness/health in various
 F30-F39 Mood [affective] disorders countries and states
 F40-F48 Neurotic, stress-related and somatoform
disorders List of definition of terms is included in the IRR of RA 11036
 F50-F59 Behavioural syndromes associated with
physiological disturbances and physical factors CIVIL COMMITMENT
 F60-F69 Disorders of adult personality and behaviour  Individuals with psychological problems or behaviors that
 F70-F79 Mental retardation are so extreme and severe as to pose a threat to
 F80-F89 Disorders of psychological development themselves or others may require protective confinement.
 F90-F98 Behavioural and emotional disorders with onset  Civil commitment is defined as involuntary confinement
usually occurring in childhood and adolescence of a person judged to be a danger to the self or to others,
 F99-F99 Unspecified mental disorder even though the person has not committed a crime.
A CAUTION ABOUT LABELING AND STIGMA o Police power
o Parens Patriae (Latin, Parent of the country)
 Problems and pitfalls with labels
o Negative connotations
o Stigmas
o Reification (perceiving something other than for
what it is)

PSYCHOLOGY STUDENT SYNDROME

 A constellation of signs and symptoms which a

medical student believes he or she has while
learning about a particular disease in medical school;
a collection of psychosomatic symptoms resulting
from the study of a disorder as a medical student
 Many psychology students find that various disorders
apply to them
 Not a true syndrome CRITERIA FOR COMMITMENT
 Diagnosing friends and romantic partners may lead to
conflict
 Individuals present a clear and imminent danger to o The defendant must have a factual
themselves or others understanding of the proceedings
 Individuals are unable to care for themselves or do not o The defendant must have a rational
have the social network to provide for such care understanding of the proceedings.
 Individuals are unable to make responsible decisions o The defendant must be able to rationally consult
about appropriate treatments and hospitalization with counsel in presenting his or her own
 Individuals are in an unmanageable state of fright or panic defense.
DANGEROUSNESS INSANITY DEFENSE

 Mental health professionals have difficulty predicting  legal argument used by defendants who admit they have
whether someone, even a person they know well such as a committed a crime but plead not guilty because they were
client, will commit dangerous acts. The fact that civil mentally disturbed at the time of the crime. The insanity
commitments are often based on a determination of plea recognizes that under specific circumstances, people
dangerousness may not be held accountable for their behavior.
o The rarer something is, the more difficult it is to  Article 12, No. 1 of the Revised Penal Code of the
predict Philippines (Circumstances which exempt criminal
o Violence is as much a function of the context in liability)
which it occurs as of the person’s characteristics O When the imbecile or an insane person has
o The best predictor of dangerousness is often past committed an act which the law defines as a
criminal conduct or a history of violence or felony (delito), the court shall order his
aggression confinement in one of the hospitals or asylums
o The definition of dangerousness is itself unclear established for persons thus afflicted, which he
CRIMINAL COMMITMENT
shall not be permitted to leave without first
obtaining the permission of the same court.
 Incarceration of an individual for having committed a MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSIONALS AS EXPERT WITNESS

crime.
 Although the field of psychology accepts different  Judges and juries often must rely on expert witnesses,
perspectives on free will, criminal law does not. individuals who have specialized knowledge, to assist
LEGAL TERMS
them in making decisions (Mullen, 2010). This is also one
conflict between mental health and the law
 Due Process - constitutional guarantee of fair treatment  Mental health professionals appear to have expertise in
within the judicial system identifying malingering and in assessing competence.
 M’Naghten Rule - a cognitive test of legal insanity that o Malingering – fake or grossly exaggeration of
inquires whether the accused knew right from wrong symptoms, usually to be absolved from blame
when the crime was committed  A second area in which mental health professionals are
 Durham Rule - a test of legal insanity also known as the often asked to provide consultation is in assigning a
product test—an accused person is not responsible if the diagnosis.
unlawful act was the product of a mental disease or defect  Recent revisions of diagnostic criteria, most notably
 Irresistible impulse test - a doctrine that contends that a DSM-IV-TR and DSM-5, have addressed this issue
defendant is not criminally responsible if he or she lacked directly, thus helping clinicians make diagnoses that are
the willpower to control his or her behavior generally reliable. Remember, however, that the legal
 Diminished capacity - law standard allowing defendant to definition of mental illness is not matched by a
be convicted of a lesser offense due to mental impairment comparable disorder in DSM-5
 mens rea – guilty mind MALINGERING (Z76.5)

 actus rea – physical act; guilty ones

  The essential feature of malingering is the intentional
COMPETENCY TO STAND TRIAL
production of false or grossly exaggerated physical or
psychological symptoms, motivated by external
 There is, in English common law, a principle that a person incentives such as avoiding military duty, avoiding work,
charged with a crime must be competent to stand trial obtaining financial compensation, evading criminal
(Fogel et al., 2013; Stafford & Sadoff, 2011). prosecution, or obtaining drugs.
 Several factors can influence a court decision that the
defendant in a case is not competent to stand trial.
  Respect for the Dignity of Persons and People
 Competent Caring for the Well-Being of Persons and
People
 Integrity
 Professional and Scientific Responsibilities to Society
Malingering should be strongly considered if any combination  How we resolve ethical issues in our professional lives
of the following is noted: and communities;
 How we adhere to the highest standards of professional
1. Medicolegal context of presentation (e.g., the individual competence;
is referred by an attorney to the clinician for examination,  How we respect for the rights and dignity of our clients,
or the individual self-refers while litigation or criminal our peers, our students, and our other stakeholders in the
charges are pending). profession and scientific discipline;
2. Marked discrepancy between the individual’s claimed  How we maintain confidentiality in the important aspects
stress or disability and the objective findings and of our professional and scholarly functions;
observations.  How we ensure truthfulness and accuracy in all our public
3. Lack of cooperation during the diagnostic evaluation and statement;
in complying with the prescribed treatment regimen.  How we observe professionalism in our records and fees.
4. The presence of antisocial personality disorder.
SOME EXAMPLES UNDER THE PHILIPPINE CODE OF ETHICS
DUTY TO WARN (TARASOFF CASE)

 Boundaries of Competence
 Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California  Providing Services in Emergencies
(1974,1976)  Multiple Relationships
 It is a standard for therapists concerning their duty to  Confidentiality
warn a client’s potential victims.  Disclosures
 It is difficult for therapists to know their exact  Documentation and Maintenance of Records
responsibilities for protecting third parties from their  Withholding Client Records
clients. Good clinical practice dictates that any time they
are in doubt they should consult with colleagues. A MODULE 5:
second opinion can be just as helpful to a therapist as to a
client. ANXIETY, TRAUMA AND OCD-RELATED
DISORDERS
RIGHTS OF MENTAL PATIENTS

ANXIETY FEAR PANIC

 Right to Treatment Both characterizes a negative affect, but Fear occurring during
 Right to Refuse Treatment both can also be adaptive (Fear – fight an inappropriate time
 Deinstitutionalization or flight; Anxiety – increases
 Rights of Research Participants preparedness)
o The right to be informed about the purpose of the
Future-oriented Instantaneous alarm Two types of panic
research study
reaction attack:
o The right to privacy
Both involve the physiological arousal Cued (Expected)
o The right to be treated with respect and dignity
through the sympathetic nervous system Uncued (Unexpected)
o The right to be protected from physical and
mental harm
o The right to choose to participate or to refuse to
participate without prejudice or reprisals FEAR AND ANXIETY
o The right to anonymity in the reporting of results
o The right to the safeguarding of their records
CODE OF ETHICS

 RA 11036 – Mental Health Act

 RA 10029 – Psychology Act of 2009
 Code of Ethics of Philippine Psychologists
 The PAP shall take steps to ensure that all members of the ANXIETY, FEAR & PANIC
PAP and the larger community of Philippine
psychologists will know, understand, and be properly Anxiety in General
guided by this Code.
 The adaptive value of anxiety may be that it helps us  At least 4 weeks in children and adolescents; 6 months or
plan and prepare for a possible threat. In mild to moderate more in adults
degrees, anxiety actually enhances learning and performance.
 For example, a mild amount of anxiety about how Selective Mutism
you are going to do on your next exam, or in your next sport  Failure to speak in specific social situations
match, can actually be helpful.  At least 1 month (but not limited to the first month of
 But, although anxiety is often adaptive in mild or school)
moderate degrees, it is maladaptive when it becomes chronic
and severe, as we see in people diagnosed with anxiety Specific Phobia
disorders.
 Marked fear or anxiety on a specific subject or situation
ETIOLOGY OF ANXIETY, TRAUMA AND OCD- (e.g. heights, blood-injection-injury, animals)
RELATED DISORDERS  Lasting for 6 months or more (causes clinically significant
distress)
Biological, Psychological, Social
Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)
 Genetically predisposed
 Unconscious feelings and sensitivity to situations which  Fear or anxiety in one or more social situations wherein
may posed as threats (neurotic disorders) the individual is exposed to possible scrutiny to others;
 Lack of social support most common anxiety disorder
 Associated with specific brain circuits, hormonal  Lasting for 6 months or more (causes clinically significant
systems and neurotransmitters distress)
 Avoidance in situations which can associate fear, panic
and anxiety Panic Disorder
 Other environmental factors can be connected (e.g.  Recurrent un-cued panic attacks
family, career, etc.)  Attacks has been followed by 1 month with additional
criteria (pg. 208)
POSSIBLE TREATMENTS Agoraphobia
Drug treatment Cognitive-Behavioral -Stress  Excessive fear about two (or more) of the five situations
Antidepressants Therapy (majority) management (e.g. using public transportation, being in open spaces,
 Anxiolytics  Trauma-informed Care through healthy etc.)
(Benzodiazep  Exposure lifestyle  Lasting for 6 months or more (causes clinically significant
ines) therapy/Panic control -Meditational distress)
 Anti- treatment and
depressants  Systematic Mindfulness Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
(SNRIs) Desensitization approaches
 Cognitive  Anxiety that focuses on minor everyday events, not one
Restructuring major worry or concern; the individual finds it difficult to
 Modeling Therapy control.
 Occurs more days than not for at least 6 months

AN INTEGRATED MODEL ANXIETY DISORDERS

 High rates of comorbidity (55% - 76%)

 Links with physical disorders (chronic pain, headache,
hypertension, heart diseases, etc.)
 Comorbidity with depression? Yes. It is possible.
 Suicide attempt rates is also similar as depression (20%)

GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER

ANXIETY DISORDERS
 GAD in children = needs only one symptom
Separation Anxiety Disorder  Insidious onset (early adulthood)
 Chronic course
 Excessive fear from experiencing separation from home  Associated with muscle tension
or from major attachment figures  Inherited tendency to become anxious
 55%-60% of those with GAD are women
  Shopping malls, Being far from home, Cars (as driver or
passenger), Staying at home alone Buses, Waiting in line,
Trains Supermarkets, Subways, Stores, Wide
streets, Crowds Tunnels, Planes Restaurants, Elevators
Theaters, Escalators

Interoceptive Daily Activities Typically Avoided by People

with Agoraphobia

 Running up flights of stairs, Walking outside in intense

heat, Having showers with the doorsand windows closed,
Hot stuffy stores or shopping malls, Walking outside in
very cold weather, Aerobics, Lifting heavy objects,
Dancing, Eating chocolate, Standing quickly from a
sitting position, Watching exciting movies or sports
events, Getting involved in "heated" debates, Hot stuffy
 The key feature of generalized anxiety disorder is rooms, Hot stuffy cars, Having a sauna, Hiking Sports,
that, unlike the disorders you have learned about so far, it does Drinking coffee or any caffeinated beverages, Sexual
not have a particular focus. relations, Watching horror movies, Eating heavy meals,
 People with generalized anxiety disorder feel anxious Getting angry
for much of the time, even though they may not be able to say
exactly why they feel this way. NOCTURNAL PANIC

PANIC ATTACK VS. ANXIETY ATTACK  60% with panic disorder experience nocturnal attacks
 Caused by deep relaxation,
Sudden & extreme - Gradually builds up o Sensations of “letting go” are anxiety provoking to
people with panic attacks
 Sleep terrors (occurs in children)
 Isolated sleep paralysis (occurs during transitional phase)

SPECIFIC PHOBIA

 A PHOBIA is an irrational fear associated with a

particular object or situation. It is common to have some
fear of or at least a desire to avoid such objects as spiders
or situations with enclosed spaces or heights. In a
SPECIFIC PHOBIA, however, the fear or anxiety is so
intense that it becomes incapacitating.
 People with specific phobia go to great lengths to avoid
the feared object or situation. If they can’t get away, they
endure the situation but only with marked anxiety and
discomfort. Like all anxiety disorders, a specific phobia
AGORAPHOBIA induces significant distress.

Typical Situations Avoided by People Agoraphobia Term - Fear of:

 Acarophobia - Insects, mites mood, dissociative symptoms, avoidance symptoms and
 Achluophobia – Darkness, night arousal symptoms
 Acousticophobia - Sounds  Duration of disturbance is 3 days to at least 1 month after
 Acrophobia - Heights trauma exposure; may progress to PTSD after 1 month
 Aerophobia - Air currents, drafts, wind
 Agoraphobia - Open spaces Adjustment Disorder

4 TYPES OF SPECIFIC PHOBIA  The presence of emotional or behavioral symptoms in

response to an identifiable stressor is the essential feature
 Animal of adjustment disorders
 Natural Environment (heights, storm, water)  The disturbance begins within 3 months of onset of a
 Blood-injection-injury stressor; If the stressor is an acute event, the onset of the
 Situational (planes, enclosed spaces, elevators) disturbance is usually immediate (i.e., within a few days)
 Other (phobic avoidance of situations that may lead and the duration is relatively brief
to choking, vomiting, or contracting an illness, etc.)
Prolonged Grief Disorder

 Represents a prolonged maladaptive grief reaction that

can be diagnosed only after at least 12 months (6 months
in children and adolescents) have elapsed since the death
of someone with whom the bereaved had a close
relationship
 Symptoms usually begin within the initial months after
the death, although there may be a delay before the full
syndrome appears.

TRAUMA-RELATED DISORDERS

Major symptom clusters:

TRAUMA AND STRESSOR-RELATED DISORDER
 Intrusion symptoms
Reactive Attachment Disorder  Avoidance
 Pattern of emotionally withdrawn behavior toward adult  Negative alteration in mood or cognition
caregivers; or had experienced extremes of insufficient  Arousal and changes in reactivity
care POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER
 Present for more than 12 months; occurs during infancy
or early childhood  An anxiety disorder in which the individual experiences
several distressing symptoms for more than a month
Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder following a traumatic event, such as a reexperiencing of
 Pattern of behavior in which a child actively approaches the traumatic event, an avoidance of reminders of the
and interacts with unfamiliar adults and experienced a trauma, a numbing of general responsiveness, and
pattern of extremes of insufficient care increased arousal.
 Present for more than 12 months; occurs during infancy 3 FACTORS OF PTSD
or early childhood
 Pre-traumatic
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)  Peri-traumatic
 Exposure to a traumatic event that involves actual or  Posttraumatic
threatened injury; see page 301-305 of DSM-5-TR Most common traumas:
 Applicable to adults, adolescents and children older than
6 years old. Separate criteria for children 6 years and  Sexual
below. Duration varies from the first 3 months, 12 months  Accidents
or 50 years  Combat

Acute Stress Disorder

 Exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury or

sexual violation; presence of 9 (or more) symptoms from
the 5 categories namely intrusion symptoms, negative
 COMPULSION

Four major categories

 Checking
 Ordering
 Arranging
 Washing/cleaning

Association with obsessions

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE AND RELATED DISORDERS

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

 Presence of obsessions, compulsions, or both, which are

time-consuming
 Mean age at onset is 19.5 years;
 Has the tendency to begin before 10 years old;
 Compulsions are easily diagnosed in children than
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE AND RELATED DISORDERS obsessions

Obsession - Persistent thoughts Body Dysmorphic Disorder

Compulsion - Repetitive behaviors  Preoccupation with one or more perceived defects or

flaws in physical appearance that are not observable;
OBSESSION  Also possessed repetitive behaviors
 Typically begins in late adolescence
60% have multiple obsessions
Hoarding Disorder
 Need for symmetry
 Forbidden thoughts or actions  Persistent difficulty in discarding or parting with
 Cleaning and contamination possessions, regardless of value
 Hoarding  Usually begins in childhood or early adolescence

Trichotillomania (Hair-Pulling)

 Frequent pulling of one’s hair, which results to hair loss

 Can be triggered by feelings of anxiety, which gives a
satisfying feeling of pulling hair or picking the skin or
scab

Excoriation (Skin-Picking)

 Repeated picking of skin, resulting in skin lesions

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER  Triggering events including intense interpersonal conflicts
and feelings of depression, hopelessness, guilt, anger, or
 Female = Male shame.
 Chronic course  Perceived inability to make progress toward goals or to
 Onset = childhood to 30s solve problems; related feelings of failure, worthlessness,
 Tic Disorder – characterized by involuntary and hopelessness.
movement (sudden jerking of limbs, for example), to co-occur  Ambivalence about suicide; there is a strong underlying
in patients with OCD desire to live.
OCD VS. OCPD  Suicidal intent is communicated directly or indirectly
through verbal or behavioral cues.
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD)
RISK FACTORS
 form of anxiety disorder
 can accept condition and seek help Biological Psychological Social Sociocultural
 ritualistic
 ego-dystonic behavior Low serotonin Childhood Isolation Financial
abuse decline
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE PERSONALITY DISORDER Genetic and Mental illness Relationship Male gender
(OCPD) epigenetic conflict
effects
 form of personality disorder
Alcohol effects Hopelessness Loss of Suicide
 reluctant to seek medical help
partner contagion
 perfectionism
Sleep difficulties Psych-ache Bullying Access to
 ego-syntonic behavior
firearms
MODULE 6: Physical Impulsivity Cultural
illness/disability alienation
MOOD DISORDERS AND SUICIDE Prior attempts
SUICIDE JOINER’S INTERPERSONAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL
OF SUICIDE
 Intentional, direct, and conscious taking of one’s own life
 Not only a tragic act, but it is also difficult to comprehend

SEMICOLON PROJECT; Assess risk of suicide

 A semicolon is used when an author could have chosen to  “Have you had thoughts about death, or about killing
end their sentence but chose not to. yourself?” If yes, ask:
 The author is you, and the sentence is your life. o “Do you have a plan for how you would do
 Founder Amy Bleuel took her own life at the age of 31 this?”
last 2017. o “Are there means available (e.g., a gun and
bullets or poison)?”
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS o “Have you actually rehearsed or practiced how
 Belief that things will never change, and that suicide is you would kill yourself?”
the only solution. o “Do you tend to be impulsive?”
 Desire to escape from psychological pain and distressing o “How strong is your intent to do this?”
thoughts and feelings. o “Can you resist the impulse to do this?”
o “Have you heard voices telling you to hurt or kill
yourself?”
 Ask about previous attempts, especially the degree of intense negative emotions and arousal, escape-
intent. oriented behavior, lack of social support Possible
 Ask about suicide of family members. mood disorder
 Preventing suicide is extremely difficult. Most people
who are depressed and contemplating suicide do not
realize that their thinking is restricted and their decision
making impaired and that they are in need of assistance.
 Indeed, only about 40 percent of people with suicidal
thoughts or attempts around the world receive treatment
(Bruffaerts et al., 2011).

3 MAIN THRUST OF PREVENTIVE EFFORTS

 Treatment of person’s current mental disorder(s)

 Crisis Intervention DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Working with High-Risk Groups
 Depressive Episode - a person is markedly depressed or
MOOD DISORDERS loses interest in formerly pleasurable activities (or both)
What is mood? for at least 2 weeks, as well as other symptoms such as
changes in sleep or appetite, or feelings of worthlessness
 Emotional state or our prevailing frame of mind  Mania - mental state characterized by very exaggerated
 Can significantly affect our perceptions of the world, activity and emotions including euphoria, excessive
sense of well-being, and interactions with others excitement, or irritability that result in impairment in
social or occupational functioning
Most of you experience minor mood changes throughout the  Manic Episode/Elevated Mood - a person shows a
day but can stay emotionally balanced and on an even keel. markedly elevated, euphoric, or expansive mood, often
You may also have times where you feel depressed or times interrupted by occasional outbursts of intense irritability
when you experience an emotional high—normal reactions to or even violence— particularly when others refuse to go
the events going on around you. along with the manic person’s wishes and schemes.
 Hypomania - a milder form of mania involving increased
You may have occasional, brief episodes of more significant
levels of activity and goal-directed behaviors combined
mood changes— experiencing overwhelming sadness over the
with an elevated, expansive, or irritable mood
loss of a friendship or feeling extremely energized or even
 Expansive Mood - person may feel extremely confident
ecstatic when you hear great news. or self-important and behave impulsively
Unlike these temporary, normal emotional reactions, the mood  Euphoria - exceptionally elevated mood; exaggerated
symptoms in depressive and bipolar disorders: feeling of well-being

DEPRESSIVE DISORDER
 affect the person’s well-being and school, work, or social
functioning; TYPES OF DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS [ADAPTED FROM
 continue for days, weeks, or months; THE DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF
 often occur for no apparent reason; and MENTAL DISORDERS – 5TH - TEXT REVISION (DSM-5-
 involve extreme reactions that cannot be easily explained TR), 2022]*
by what is happening in the person’s life. Major Depressive Disorder
CAUSE OF MOOD DISORDERS AND SUICIDE  5 or more symptoms listed in the DSM-5-TR should be
 Biological vulnerabilities/early predispositions: present during the same 2-week period and represents a
Genetic contributions, neurochemical and hormonal change in previous functioning; at least one of the
changes, brain changes symptoms is either (1) depressed mood, or (2) loss of
 Early family problems: Poor attachment, interest or pleasure
disengaged parents,  May first appear in any age but likelihood onset increases
expressed emotion, modeling of parental depression markedly in puberty stage
 Stressful life events: Family conflict, alienation from Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)
others, academic and other challenges
 Cognitive-stress and behavioral vulnerabilities:
Sense of learned helplessness and hopelessness,
 Depressed mood that occurs most of the day, for more  Coming home to slump into bed without eating dinner.
days than not, at least 2 years; at least 1 year for children Tossing and turning in bed, unable to sleep. Some
and adolescents difficulty concentrating.
 Often has an early and insidious onset  Inability to rise from bed many days, skipping classes at
school, and withdrawing from contact with others.
Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder  Complete inability to interact with others or even leave
 Expression of mood lability, irritability, dysphoria and, the house. Great changes in appetite and weight. Suicide
anxiety symptoms that occur repeatedly during the attempt or completion.
menstrual phase of the cycle and remit around the onset of CYCLE OF PERSISTENT DEPRESSIVE DISORDER
menses (DYSTHYMIA)
 Onset can occur anytime at any point after menarche
CYCLE OF MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER
Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder

 Chronic, severe persistent irritability manifested by

frequent temper outbursts and angry mood present SPECIFIERS OF MDD
between tantrums
 Onset is before 10 years old and should not be applied to  Anxious Distress
children with a developmental age of less than 6 years  Mixed features
 Melancholic features
CYCLE OF MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER  Atypical features
 Mood-congruent psychotic features
Depression – More Severe  Mood-incongruent psychotic features
EMOTION  Catatonia
 Peripartum onset
 Good mood.  Seasonal pattern
 Feeling upset and sad, perhaps becoming a bit teary-eyed.
 Mild discomfort about the day, feeling a bit irritable or ETIOLOGY
down. ETIOLOGY OF DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS
 Intense sadness and frequent crying. Daily feelings of
“heaviness” and emptiness. Biological
 Extreme sadness, very frequent crying, and feelings of
emptiness and loss. Strong sense of hopelessness.  Predisposing – short allele 5-HTTLPR gene
 HPA reactivity and excess cortisol
COGNITIONS  Female hormones after puberty
 Shrinkage of hippocampus
 Thoughts about what one has to do that day. Thoughts
about how to plan and organize the day. Psychological
 Thoughts about the difficulties of the day. Concern that
something will go wrong.  Negative thoughts
 Dwelling on the negative aspects of the day, such as a  Learned helplessness
couple of mistakes on a test or a cold shoulder from a  Rumination
coworker.  Self-contempt, blame, guilt
 Thoughts about one’s personal deficiencies, strong Social
pessimism about the future, and thoughts about harming
oneself (with little intent to do so).  Early life neglect, maltreatment, etc.
 Thoughts about suicide, funerals, and instructions to
others in case of one’s death. Sociocultural
 Strong intent to harm oneself.  Discrimination
BEHAVIORS  Female gender roles
 LGBT orientation*
 Rising from bed, getting ready for the day, and going to
school or work.
 Taking a little longer than usual to rise from bed. Slightly
less concentration at school or work.
TREATMENT

 Behavioral
Psychopharmacology
Activation Therapy
 Anti-depressants -Support
 Interpersonal
 Tricyclics from
Psychotherapy
 MAOIs family
 Cognitive-
 SNRIs and loved
Behavioral Therapy
 SSRIs ones
 Mindfulness-based
cognitive therapy
Brain stimulation
therapies (e.g.
Electroconvulsive
Therapy, Vagus
Nerve Stimulation)
OTHER FORMS OF DEPRESSION

SPECIFIER OF BD

 Anxious Distress
 Loss and the grieving process  Mixed features
 Postpartum “blues”(Postnatal/Antenatal Depression)  Depressive Episode with Mixed Features
 Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)  Rapid cycling
 Psychotic Depression (MDD with psychotic features)  Melancholic Features
 Psychotic Features
BIPOLAR DISORDER
 Catatonia
Symptoms of a Manic Episode  Peripartum onset
 Seasonal pattern
 Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
 Decreased need for sleep, such as feeling rested after only ETIOLOGY OF BIPOLAR AND RELATED DISORDERS
3 hours of sleep More talkative than usual or pressure to
BIOLOGICAL
keep talking
 Subjective experience that one’s thoughts are racing, or  Genetic Predisposition
flight of ideas  Neurochemical factors (norepinephrine and serotonin
 Distractibility deficiency)
 Distractibility  Abnormalities of hormonal regulatory systems (HPA)
 Distractibility  Circadian rhythm abnormalities
PSYCHOLOGICAL  A man with shattered self-esteem reverts to childlike
“showing off” and exhibits his genitals to young
 Stressful life events girls. This is an example of what defense mechanism?
 Rumination Regression
SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS  Which of the following shows an example of an active
effect?
(BIPOLAR AND UNIPOLAR)  Highly intelligent parents may provide a
highly stimulating environment for their child, thus
 In some cultures, the concept of depression as we know it creating an environment that will interact in a positive
simply does not exist. way with the child’s genetic endowment for high
 For example, Australian aborigines who are “depressed” intelligence.
show none of the guilt and self-abnegation commonly
 According to Freudian theory, which behavior would
seen in more developed countries.
suggest fixation at the oral stage? Being talkative.
 They also do not show suicidal tendencies but instead are
more likely to vent their hostilities onto others rather than  The diathesis-stress model of vulnerability to
onto themselves. schizophrenia proposes that: Some people have a
predisposition that places them at risk for developing
TREATMENTS/INTERVENTIONS a disorder if exposed to certain stressful life
experiences
 Anti-depressants
 A object-relation therapist would treat an individual with
 Mood stabilizers (e.g. Lithium)
 Anti-psychotic drugs generalized anxiety disorder by: urging the client to
 Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy develop an enhanced sense of self.
 Bright Light Therapy  Protective factors always lead to resilience. False
 Behavioral Activation Treatment  A psychological disorder is described as having a
 Interpersonal Therapy insidious onset if the symptoms develop __________,
 Family and Marital Therapy while it has an acute onset if the symptoms develop
 Brain stimulation therapies (e.g. Electroconvulsive _______ gradually; suddenly
Therapy, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, Deep Brain  Which of the following types of specific phobia is most
Stimulation) likely to be associated with vasovagal fainting? blood-
injection-injury
l  A ___________________ represents the combination of
QUIZZES behaviors that make up a disorder; A
__________________ is what first brought the patient to
 Mahasal Bador caught her fiance cheating on her a month the clinic or assessment. clinical description; presenting
before their wedding. Her fiance decided to cancel the problem
wedding to think things through. She is often seen staring  Racism and discrimination at work falls under which risk
at a blank wall and started to cry for days. Which of the factor? Cultural
following best defines Mahasal's situation? Distress
 When Larry was admitted in the hospital for his peculiar
 A client says, "I honestly don't remember this event" You
behavior, his family wanted to know the all the factors
identify this as: Distress
that affected his illness. In medical terms, they wanted to
 What neurotransmitters are considered to be "chemical
know Larry's ___
brothers""? GABA & Glutamate
Etiology
 The Hippocratic-Galenic approach's intervention is to
 Mass hysteria may simply demonstrate the phenomenon
___________________; Ancient Chinese is to
of _________________, in which the experience of an
____________________. Bloodletting; Acupuncture
emotion seems to spread to those around us Emotion
 Mothers' alcohol habits during pregnancy is partially
contagion
genetically influenced, and those genes may be passed
down to her offspring is an example of  Which hormone is activated when an individual is placed
_________________ Passive effect under extreme craving for food? Ghrelin
 Behavioral explanation of anxiety disorders, particularly  The largest part of the forebrain is the cerebral cortex,
in panic attacks states that; A stimulus-response pattern which contains more than _____ of all neurons in the
previously conditioned was triggered central nervous system 80%
 Which of the following maldevelopment tendencies is the  The following are under the limbic system, except?
core pathology under Ego Integrity vs. Dispair stage? Medulla Oblongata
Disdain
 The cognitive approach attributes the cause of cause of  What is the correct order of the diagnostic process?
abnormal behavior to Irrational and illogical Client's reported symptoms, diagnostic criteria,
perceptions of reality differential diagnosis, final diagnosis, case formulation
 An intense fear of the dark in a 3- to 5-year-old child may  What is the modern term for "dementia praecox"
not be considered abnormal, given that most children Schizophrenia
have at least one specific fear that they bring into early
 How do you best deal with your manipulative patient? 
adolescence. However, an intense fear of the dark that
 [Control]Deal with him/her on a straightforward
causes considerable distress and avoidance behavior in a
manner
high school or college-age student would be considered a
phobia. This situation is the focus of what field?  A withdrawn patient was being referred to you. How do
you initially deal with him? Attend to basic needs as
Developmental psychopathology
possible
 An increase of which of the following neurotransmitter is
 Four-year-old Pancho is very aggressive toward his peers,
greatly responsible for the overexcitement of nerve cells
which results in poor peer relationships. A
that can lead to brain damage? GABA psychologist has been asked to assess Pancho’s
 Chris feels anger toward his sister for getting all the aggressiveness and determine if he needs intervention.
attention. Because of this, he started to enroll in a boxing The psychologist would probably do what type of
class. Which of the following defense mechanisms best assessment? Behavioral
describes this behavior? Sublimation  Which of the following neuroimaging techniques below is
 Dorothea Dix began spent much of her life campaigning used to detect patterns of brain activation that are
for ____________ in the treatment of the mentally ill and associated with various mental processes fMRI
started the ____________ reform; mental hygiene  Which of the following parts of the mental status
movement examination needs to be observed? Behavior
 Minor tranquilizers are also called as _______?  A patient with a history of bipolar disorder reports
Benzodiazepines experiencing 1 week of elevated and expansive mood.
 The belief of homophobic people that the "sin" of Evidence of which of the following would suggest that
homosexuality has resulted in HIV/AIDS is related to the the patient is experiencing a hypomanic, rather than
historical concept of ______________ as a cause of manic, episode? Increased productivity at work
madness Divine punishment  Also known as "Cerea flexibilitas" Waxy flexibility
 Shouting at your subordinates after your boss shouted at  A 32-year old man reports 1 week of feeling unusually
you is an example of Displacement irritable. During this time, he has increased energy and
 Within the multidimensional integrative approach to activity, sleeps less, and finds it difficult to sit still. He is
understanding psychopathology, neural plasticity is also more talkative than usual and is easily distractable, to
considered a(n) ______ dimension. Biological the point of finding it difficult to complete his work
 The technical name of serotonin. 5-hydroxytryptamine  assignments. A physical examination and laboratory
 John has a history of depression in the family. By the time workup are negative for any medical cause of his
he was 16, he was abused by his partner. As a result, he symptoms and he takes no medications. What diagnosis
spends a lot of time alone and no longer sees pleasure in best fits this clinical picture?
any of his usual activities. If John were to develop  [Control]Manic episode
depression, the model that would probably best explain
this situation and the cause of his depression is  "A remark heard on television is believed to be directed
_____________ diathesis-stress specifically to the patient" is considered as what kind of
 Which of the following situations is an example of a delusion?
client using displacement as defense mechanism? A client  [Control]Delusion of reference
 In which of the following aspects does cyclothymic
yells at people in the ward after receiving a call from
disorder mostly differ from bipolar I disorder? Severity
his wife about divorce,
 A 14 year-old boy describes himself as feeling "down" all
 The dominant figure in the 19th century that also coined of the time for the past year. He remembers feeling better
the term "dementia praecox" is ______________ Emil while he was at camp for 4 weeks during the summer;
Kraeplin however, the depressed mood returned when he came
 Which of the following is categorized as structural home. He reports poor concentration, feelings of
imaging? Magnetic resonance imaging hopelessness, and low self-esteem but denies suicidal
 The phrase "I think I have pepsiddiction" is an example of ideation or changes in his appetite or sleep. What is the
what type of thought disorder? Neologism most likely diagnosis?
 Persistent depressive disorder
 A 23-year old woman reports that during every menstrual of the following is not a diagnostic possibility for this
cycle she experiences breast swelling, bloating, patient?
hypersomnia, an increased craving for sweets, poor  [Control]Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
concentration, and a feeling that she cannot handle her  A 29 year-old woman complains of sad mood every
normal responsibilities. She notes that she also feels month in anticipation of her very painful menses. The
somewhat more sensitive emotionally and may become pain begins with the start of her flow and continues for
tearful when hearing a sad story. She takes no oral several days. She does not experience pain during other
medication but does use a drospirenone patch. What times of the month. She has tried a variety of treatments,
diagnosis best fits this clinical picture? Premenstrual
none of which have given her relief. What is the
syndrome
appropriate diagnosis? Dysmenorrhea
 A man shows up at the emergency room at a hospital.  Which of the following test is not a type of Projective
You are called to consult on this case. The man does not Test? 16-PF
know his own name. He is unable to identify what city he
lives in, and is not sure how he got to the hospital. What
tests and methods of assessment would you want to
administer at this point?
 [Control]Physical examination and MSE
 Also known as Clerambault-Kadinsky complex
Erotomania
 What is the possible question that you would ask in
assessing the patient's insight?
 “What do you think is causing your problems?”
 Which of the following is considered to be a new
disorder?
 [Control]Prolonged Grief Disorder
 What could be the possible question when we will assess
a person's judgment?
 [Control]"If you were in a movie theater and smelled
smoke, what will you do?"
 What is under F30-F39 of the ICD-10? Mood disorders
 Spark Knight Klee is presented with a series of cards that
has different situational pictures on it. He is asked to state
a story based on what she sees on these cards. Klee is
probably taking a(n) Projective Test
 Jennie was hospitalized 12 times by the time she was 40.
When interviewed, she just kept repeating that she had
been "eating wires and lighting fires". What type of
symptom is portrayed in this scenario?
 Word Salad
 Which of the following features confers a worse
prognosis for a patient with bipolar II disorder? Rapid
cycling pattern
 "I own BDO bank and my people are going to put up
50,000,000php from my release from here." is what type
of delusion? Grandeur
 "They’re destroying too many cattle and oil just to make
soap. If we need soap when you can jump into a pool of
water, and then when you go to buy your gasoline, my
folks always thought they should, get pop but the best
thing to get, is motor oil, and, money..."
This statement shows what type of thought disorder?
 [Control]Word salad
 A 12-year old boy begins to have new episodes of temper
outbursts that are out of proportion to the situation. Which
  Looks to the environment, exploring ways in which our
lives are shaped by the world that we encounter. They
investigate the extent to which we are shaped by our early
environments, and how our current circumstances
influence our behavior in both subtle and evident ways.
(Feldman, 2018)

Human Development

The field of human development is the scientific study of age-

related changes in behavior, thinking, emotion, and
personality (Boyd and Bee, 2015)

Philosophical Beginnings

Original Sin

 St. Augustine of Hippo taught that all humans are born

with a selfish nature. To reduce the influence of this
inborn tendency toward selfishness, humans must seek
spiritual rebirth and submit themselves to religious
training.
 Thus, from this perspective, developmental outcomes,
both good and bad, result from each individual’s struggle
to overcome an inborn tendency to act immorally when
doing so somehow benefits the self (Boyd and Bee, 2015)

The Blank Slate

 John Locke drew upon a broad philosophical approach

known as empiricism when he claimed that the mind of a
child is a blank slate.
 Empiricism is the view that humans possess no innate
tendencies and that all differences among humans are
attributable to experience. The blank-slate view suggests
that adults can mold children into whatever they want
them to be. (Boyd and Bee, 2015)
MODULE 1: Innate Goodness
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY  Jean-Jacques Rousseau claimed that all human beings are
THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT naturally good and seek out experiences that help them
grow (Crain, 2011). Rousseau believed that children need
THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT AND THE LIFE SPAN only nurturing and protection to reach their full potential.
PERSPECTIVE  Developmental outcomes are good when a child’s
environment refrains from interfering in her attempts to
Life Span Development nurture her own development. (Boyd and Bee, 2015)
 Is understanding the growth and change that occur during  Development is the pattern of change that begins at
life. conception and continues through the life span. Most
 How both the biological inheritance from our parents and development involves growth, although it also includes
the environment in which we live jointly affect our decline brought on by aging and dying.
behavior. THE COMPONENTS OF THE LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVE:
 Explains how our genetic background can determine not
only how we look but also how we behave and relate to Development Is Lifelong.
others in a consistent manner—that is, matters of
personality. They explore ways to identify how much of  In the life-span perspective, early adulthood is not the
our potential as human beings is provided—or limited— endpoint of development; rather, no age period dominates
by heredity. development (Santrock, 2017). Every age period has its
own agenda, its unique demands and opportunities that
 yield certain similarities in development across many  All development occurs within a context or setting.
individuals. Nevertheless, throughout life, the challenges Contexts include families, schools, peer groups, churches,
people face and the adjustments they make are highly cities, neighborhoods, university laboratories, countries,
diverse in timing and pattern, as the remaining and so on. Contexts exercise three types of influences:
assumptions make clear (Berk, 2018).  Normative age-graded influences are similar for
individuals in a particular age group. These influences
Development Is Multidimensional. include biological processes such as puberty and
 No matter what your age might be, your body, mind, menopause, socio cultural factors and environmental
emotions, and relationships are changing and affecting processes.
each other (Santrock, 2017). Lifespan development is also  Normative history-graded influences are common to
multidirectional, in at least two ways: people of a particular generation because of historical
o First, development is not limited to improved circumstances, economic, political and social upheavals,
performance. Rather, at every period, it is a joint integration of computers and cellphones in our everyday
expression of growth and decline. lives among others.
o Second, besides being multidirectional over time, o Cohort effects provide an example of history-
change is multidirectional within each domain of graded influences, which are biological and
development. The lifespan perspective includes environmental influences associated with a
both continuous and discontinuous change (Berk, particular historical moment. Cohorts are a group
2018). of people born at around the same time in the
same place. (Feldman, 2018)
Development is Plastic.  Non-normative life events are unusual occurrences that
have a major impact on the lives of individual people.
 Plasticity is the capacity for change and there has been These events do not happen to everyone, and when they
several debates if our capacity is fixed at a certain period do occur, they can influence people in different ways such
or if it is possible to change as we get older (Santrock, as early pregnancy, tragedy in the home, etc.
2017). The term plasticity denotes two complementary
aspects of development: Human traits can be molded (as Development is Multi Cultural.
plastic can be), yet people maintain a certain durability of
identity (as plastic does). The concept of plasticity in  For social scientists, culture is “the system of shared
development provides both hope and realism — hope beliefs, conventions, norms, behaviors, expectations and
because change is possible, and realism because symbolic representations that persist over time and
development builds on what has come before (Stassen prescribe social rules of conduct” (Bornstein et al., 2011,
Berger, 2020). p. 30) (Stassen Berger, 2020). Each group of people
creates a culture, which means there are ethnic cultures,
Development is Multidirectional. national cultures, family cultures, college cultures,
economic cultures, and so on. Thus, everyone is
 Throughout life, some dimensions or components of a multicultural, and everyone sometimes experiences a
dimension expand, and others shrink (Santrock, 2017). clash between their cultures (Stassen Berger, 2020).
The study of life-span development highlights how and
why people change over time. But a crucial realization Developmental Science is Multidisciplinary.
regarding any life stage is that gains and losses are
continual. Even in old age, gains are apparent. A  Psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists,
simplistic understanding of the direction of development neuroscientists, and medical researchers all share an
from birth to death — up, steady, and down — is interest in unlocking the mysteries of development
imprecise and sometimes flat-out wrong (Stassen Berger, through the lifespan (Santrock, 2017). In order to examine
2020). each aspect of human growth, development is often
 Critical period. A crucial time when certain events (either considered in three domains — biosocial, cognitive, and
biological or social) must occur in order for development psychosocial. Each domain is the focus of several
to proceed normally. academic disciplines:
 Sensitive period. A time when a certain development is o Biosocial includes biology, neuroscience, and
most likely to occur. For example, early childhood is medicine.
considered a sensitive period for language learning o Cognitive includes psychology, linguistics, and
(Stassen Berger, 2020). education.
o Psychosocial includes economics, sociology, and
Development is Contextual. history (Stassen Berger, 2020)
Development Involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation playing with peers. First grade typically marks the end of
of Loss. early childhood.
 Middle and late childhood is the developmental period
 Baltes and his colleagues (2006) assert that the mastery of from about 6 to 10 or 11 years of age, approximately
life often involves conflicts and competition among three corresponding to the elementary school years. During this
goals of human development: growth, maintenance, and period, children master the fundamental skills of reading,
regulation of loss. As individuals age into middle and late writing, and arithmetic, and they are formally exposed to
adulthood, the maintenance and regulation of loss in their the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a
capacities takes center stage. • Development Is a Co- more central theme of the child’s world, and self-control
construction of Biology, Culture, and the Individual. For increases.
example, the brain shapes culture, but it is also shaped by  Adolescence is the developmental period of transition
culture and the experiences that individuals have or from childhood to early adulthood, entered at
pursue. In terms of individual factors, we can go beyond approximately 10 to 12 years of age and ending at 18 to
what our genetic inheritance and our environment give us. 21 years of age. Adolescence begins with rapid physical
Three broad domains of development: changes—dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in
body contour, and the development of sexual
 Biological processes produce changes in an individual’s characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts, growth
physical nature of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. At
 Cognitive processes refer to changes in the individual’s this point in development, the pursuit of independence
thought, intelligence, and language and an identity are preeminent. Thought is more logical,
 Socioemotional processes involve changes in the abstract, and idealistic. More time is spent outside the
individual’s relationships with other people, changes in family. There has been a substantial increase in interest in
emotions, and changes in personality. the transition between adolescence and early adulthood, a
transition that can be a long one as individuals develop
THE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT (Santrock, 2019) more effective skills to become full members of society.
 Prenatal Period: Conception to birth Recently, the transition from adolescence to adulthood
 Infancy: Birth to 18 to 24 months has been referred to as emerging adulthood, the period
 Early Childhood: 3 to 5 years from approximately 18 to 25 years of age (Arnett, 2015,
 Middle and Late childhood: 6–10/11 years 2016a, b). Experimentation and exploration characterize
 Adolescence: 10–12 to 18–21 years the emerging adult. At this point in their development,
 Early Adulthood: 20s and 30s many individuals are still exploring which career path
 Middle Adulthood: 40s and 50s they want to follow, what they want their identity to be,
 Late Adulthood: 60s – 70s to death and which lifestyle they want to adopt (for example,
single, cohabiting, or married) (Jensen, 2018; Padilla-
Walker & Nelson, 2017).
 Early adulthood is the developmental period that begins in
 The prenatal period is the time from conception to birth. It the early twenties and lasts through the thirties. It is a time
involves tremendous growth— from a single cell to an of establishing personal and economic independence,
organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities advancing in a career, and for many, selecting a mate,
—and takes place in approximately a 9-month period. learning to live with that person in an intimate way,
Infancy is the developmental period from birth to 18 or 24 starting a family, and rearing children.
months. Infancy is a time of extreme dependence upon  Middle adulthood is the developmental period from
adults. During this period, many psychological activities approximately 40 to about 60 years of age. It is a time of
— language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor expanding personal and social involvement and
coordination, and social learning, for example— are just responsibility; of assisting the next generation in
beginning. becoming competent, mature individuals; and of reaching
 The term toddler is often used to describe a child from and maintaining satisfaction in a career.
about 1 ½ to 3 years of age. Toddlers are in a transitional  Late adulthood is the developmental period that begins
period between infancy and the next period, early during the sixties or seventies and lasts until death. It is a
childhood. time of life review, retirement, and adjustment to new
 Early childhood is the developmental period from 3 social roles and diminishing strength and health
through 5 years of age. This period is sometimes called
the “preschool years.” During this time, young children CONCEPTS OF AGE
learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for
themselves, develop school readiness skills (following
instructions, identifying letters), and spend many hours
 Chronological Age The number of years that have elapsed which a person is unaware. It contains infantile wishes,
since birth. But time is a crude index of experience, and it desires, demands, and needs that, because of their
does not cause anything. (MacDonald & Stawski, 2016). disturbing nature, are hidden from conscious awareness.
 Biological age is a person’s age in terms of biological Freud suggested that the unconscious is responsible for a
health. Determining biological age involves knowing the good part of our everyday behavior. According to Freud,
functional capacities of a person’s vital organs. One everyone’s personality has three aspects: id, ego, and
person’s vital capacities may be better or worse than those superego.
of other people of comparable age (Richards & others,  The id is the raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality
2015) that is present at birth. It represents primitive drives
 Psychological age is an individual’s adaptive capacities related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses.
compared with those of other individuals of the same The id operates according to the pleasure principle, in
chronological age. (Rakoczy & others, 2018; Thomas & which the goal is to maximize satisfaction and reduce
others, 2018). tension.
 Social age refers to connectedness with others and the  The ego is the part of personality that is rational and
social roles individuals adopt. Individuals who have better reasonable. The ego acts as a buffer between the real
social relationships with others are happier and more world outside of us and the primitive id. The ego operates
likely to live longer than individuals who are lonely on the reality principle, in which instinctual energy is
(Carstensen & others, 2015; Reed & Carstensen, 2015) restrained in order to maintain the safety of the individual
and help integrate the person into society.
KEY DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES:  Finally, Freud proposed that the superego represents a
1. NATURE-NURTURE ISSUE involves the extent to person’s conscience, incorporating distinctions between
which development is influenced by nature and by right and wrong. It begins to develop around age five or
nurture. Nature refers to an organism’s biological six and is learned from an individual’s parents, teachers,
inheritance, nurture to its environmental experiences. and other significant figures. (Feldman, 2018)
2. STABILITY AND CHANGE ISSUE. Involves the degree  According to Freud, development in the first six years of
to which early traits and characteristics persist through life occurs in three stages. His theory is sometimes called
life or change. Many developmentalists who emphasize a theory of psychosexual development because each stage
stability in development argue that stability is the result of is characterized by sexual interest and pleasure arising
heredity and possibly early experiences in life, while from a particular part of the body. Freud did not believe
others emphasize change which take the more optimistic that new stages occurred after puberty; rather, he believed
view that later experiences can produce change. that adult personalities and habits were influenced by
3. CONTINUITY VERSUS DISCONTINUITY ISSUE unconscious memories of childhood experiences (Stassen
focuses on the degree to which development involves Berger, 2020).
either gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct  As Freud listened to, probed, and analyzed his patients, he
stages (discontinuity). (Santrock, 2019) became convinced that their problems were the result of
experiences early in life. He thought that as children grow
Contemporary Concerns (Santrock, 2019) up, their focus of pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from
the mouth to the anus and eventually to the genitals. As a
 Health and Well-Being, Parenting and Education, Culture, result, we go through five stages of psychosexual
Socio Economic Status (SES), Gender, Ethnicity, Social development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Our
Policy and Technology adult personality, Freud (1917) claimed, is determined by
MODULE 2: the way we resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure
at each stage and the demands of reality. Unconscious
THE THEORIES OF DEVELOPEMENT thought remains a central theme, but conscious thought
plays a greater role than Freud envisioned. His theory is
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES divided into five stages (Santrock, 2019; Boyd and Bee,
 place great importance on the early experiences of a child 2015).
with his parents. Development is primarily unconscious,
and psychoanalysts believe that behavior is a result of the
inner workings of the mind. (Santrock, 2015)

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory suggests that unconscious

forces act to determine personality and behavior. To
Freud, the unconscious is a part of the personality about
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory  Initiative versus guilt, Erikson’s third stage of
development, occurs during the preschool years. As
 Erik Erikson (1902–1994) recognized Freud’s preschool children encounter a widening social world,
contributions but believed that Freud misjudged some they face new challenges that require active, purposeful,
important dimensions of human development. For one responsible behavior. Feelings of guilt may arise, though,
thing, Erikson (1950, 1968) said we develop in if the child is irresponsible and is made to feel too
psychosocial stages, rather than in psychosexual stages as anxious.
Freud maintained. According to Erikson, it is social and  Industry versus inferiority is Erikson’s fourth
reflects a desire to affiliate with other people (Santrock, developmental stage, occurring approximately during the
2017). elementary school years. Children now need to direct
 Erikson emphasized the social contexts of development; their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual
his theory is called psychosocial. He understood that the skills. The negative outcome is that the child may develop
people — family, friends, and the larger community — a sense of inferiority— feeling incompetent and
who nurture each person are crucial for that person’s unproductive.
development. Those people follow the norms of their  During the adolescent years, individuals need to find out
culture in raising their children. In two crucial aspects, who they are, what they are all about, and where they are
Erikson’s theory diverges from Freud’s: going in life. This is Erikson’s fifth developmental stage,
o Erikson’s stages emphasized family and culture, identity versus identity confusion. If adolescents explore
not sexual urges. roles in a healthy manner and arrive at a positive path to
o Erikson recognized that development continues follow in life, then they achieve a positive identity; if they
lifelong, with three stages after adolescence. do not, identity confusion reigns.
(Stassen Berger, 2020).  Intimacy versus isolation is Erikson’s sixth developmental
 In Erikson’s theory, eight stages of development unfold as stage, which individuals experience during early
we go through life. At each stage, a unique developmental adulthood. At this time, individuals face the
task confronts individuals with a crisis that must be developmental task of forming intimate relationships. If
resolved. According to Erikson, this crisis is not a young adults form healthy friendships and an intimate
catastrophe, but a turning point marked by both increased relationship with another, intimacy will be achieved; if
vulnerability and enhanced potential. The more not, isolation will result.
successfully an individual resolves each crisis, the  Generativity versus stagnation, Erikson’s seventh
healthier development will be. developmental change developmental stage, occurs during middle adulthood. By
occurs throughout the life span. (Santrock, 2019) generativity Erikson means primarily a concern for
 Unlike Freud, who regarded development as relatively helping the younger generation to develop and lead useful
complete by adolescence, Erikson suggested that growth lives. The feeling of having done nothing to help the next
and change continue throughout the life span. (Feldman, generation is stagnation.
2018) Psychosocial theory is divided into 8 stages: (Boyd  Integrity versus despair is Erikson’s eighth and final stage
and Bee,2015) of development, which individuals experience in late
adulthood. During this stage, a person reflects on the past.
If the person’s life review reveals a life well spent,
integrity will be achieved; if not, the retrospective glances
likely will yield doubt or gloom—the despair Erikson
described. (Santrock, 2019)
 Trust versus mistrust is Erikson’s first psychosocial stage, COGNITIVE THEORIES emphasize the mental aspects of
which is experienced in the first year of life. The development such as logic and memory and conscious
development of trust during infancy sets the stage for a thoughts(Boyd and Bee, 2015)
lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and
pleasant place to live. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development
 Autonomy versus shame and doubt is Erikson’s second
stage. This stage occurs in late infancy and toddlerhood (1  Theory Piaget’s theory states that children go through
to 3 years). After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants four stages of cognitive development as they actively
begin to discover that their behavior is their own. They construct their understanding of the world. Two processes
start to assert their sense of independence or autonomy. underlie this cognitive construction of the world:
They realize their will. If infants and toddlers are organization and adaptation. To make sense of our world,
restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are we organize our experiences. For example, we separate
likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt. important ideas from less important ideas, and we connect
one idea to another. In addition to organizing our
observations and experiences, we adapt, adjusting to new
 environmental demands (Miller, 2015). The theory has  Vygotsky’s theory is a sociocultural cognitive theory that
four stages: (Santrock, 2019) emphasizes how culture and social interaction serve as
guide to cognitive development and it involves learning to
use the inventions of society. (Santrock, 2019)
 According to sociocultural theory, all learning is social,
whether people are learning a manual skill, a social
 The sensorimotor stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 custom, or a language. As part of the apprenticeship of
years of age, is the first Piagetian stage. In this stage, thinking, a mentor (parent, peer, or professional) finds the
infants construct an understanding of the world by learner’s zone of proximal development, an imaginary
coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and area surrounding the learner that contains the skills,
hearing) with physical, motoric actions—hence the term knowledge, and concepts that are close (proximal) to
sensorimotor. being grasped but not yet reached.
 The preoperational stage, which lasts from approximately  Through sensitive assessment of each learner, mentors
2 to 7 years of age, is Piaget’s second stage. In this stage, engage mentees within their zone. Together, in a “process
children begin to go beyond simply connecting sensory of joint construction,” new knowledge is attained
information with physical action and represent the world (Valsiner, 2006). The mentor must avoid two opposite
with words, images, and drawings. However, according to dangers: boredom and failure. Some frustration is
Piaget, preschool children still lack the ability to perform permitted, but the learner must be actively engaged, never
what he calls operations, which are internalized mental passive or overwhelmed (Stassen Berger, 2020).
actions that allow children to do mentally what they
previously could only do physically. For example, if you
imagine putting two sticks together to see whether they
would be as long as another stick, without actually
moving the sticks, you are performing a concrete
operation.
 The concrete operational stage, which lasts from
approximately 7 to 11 years of age, is the third Piagetian
stage. In this stage, children can perform operations that
involve objects, and they can reason logically when the
reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples.
For instance, concrete operational thinkers cannot
imagine the steps necessary to complete an algebraic BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES
equation, a task that is too abstract for individuals at this emphasize continuity in development and argue that
stage of development. development does not occur in stage-like fashion. (Santrock,
 The formal operational stage, which appears between the 2019)
ages of 11 and 15 and continues through adulthood, is
Piaget’s fourth and final stage. In this stage, individuals Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think in
abstract and more logical terms. As part of thinking more  In the first years of the twentieth century, Ivan Pavlov
abstractly, adolescents develop images of ideal performed hundreds of experiments to examine the link
circumstances. They might think about what an ideal between something that affected a living creature (such as
parent would be like and compare their parents to this a sight, a sound, a touch) and the reaction of that creature.
ideal standard. They begin to entertain possibilities for the Technically, he was interested in how a stimulus effects a
future and are fascinated with what they can be. In response.
solving problems, they become more systematic,  Pavlov began by sounding a tone just before presenting
developing hypotheses about why something is happening food. After a number of repetitions of the tone-then-food
the way it is and then testing these hypotheses. (Santrock, sequence, dogs began salivating at the sound even when
2019) there was no food. This simple experiment demonstrated
classical conditioning (also called respondent
Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Cognitive Theory conditioning).
 In classical conditioning, a person or animal learns to
 Like Piaget, the Russian developmentalist Lev Vygotsky associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful one,
(1896– 1934) argued that children actively construct their gradually responding to the neutral stimulus in the same
knowledge. However, Vygotsky (1962) gave social way as to the meaningful one. In Pavlov’s original
interaction and culture far more important roles in experiment, the dog associated the tone (the neutral
cognitive development than Piaget did. stimulus) with food (the meaningful stimulus) and
 eventually responded to the tone as if it were the food time, but some children hate recess. Then recess is not a
itself. The conditioned response to the tone (no longer reinforcer.
neutral but now a conditioned stimulus) was evidence that  The opposite is true as well: Something thought to be a
learning had occurred (Stassen Berger, 2020). punishment may actually be a reinforcement. For
example, parents “punish” their children by withholding
John B. Watson dessert. But a particular child might dislike the dessert, so
 He argued that if psychology was to be a true science, being deprived of it is no punishment. The crucial
psychologists should examine only what they could see question is “what works as a reinforcement or punishment
and measure, not invisible impulses. In his words: Why for that individual?”
don’t we make what we can observe the real field of  Remember, behaviorists focus on the effect that a
psychology? consequence has on future behavior, not whether it is
 “ Let us limit ourselves to things that can be observed, intended to be a reward or a punishment. Children who
and formulate laws concerning only those things…. We misbehave again and again have been reinforced, not
can observe behavior — what the organism does or says.” punished, for their actions, perhaps by their parents or
[Watson, 1924/1998, p. 6] teachers, perhaps by their friends, perhaps by themselves
 Other North American psychologists agreed. They (Stassen Berger, 2020).
developed behaviorism to study observable behavior, Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
objectively and scientifically. For living creatures at every
age, they believe that behavior follows natural laws.  focuses on your environment, and cognition which are the
 They seek to uncover those laws, experimenting with key factors in development. Observational learning (also
mice, dogs, and birds, because they believe that all called imitation or modeling), learning that occurs
learning follows the same laws. For behaviorists, through observing what others do. People cognitively
everything that people do, and feel is learned, step by represent the behavior of others and then sometimes adopt
step, via conditioning. Behaviorists believe that this behavior themselves. (Santrock, 2019)
development occurs not in stages but bit by bit. A person  That social interplay is the foundation of social learning
learns to talk, read, socialize, and even love — one tiny theory, which holds that humans sometimes learn without
step at a time (Stassen Berger, 2020) personal reinforcement. This learning often occurs
through modeling, when people copy what they see others
B F Skinner’s Operant Conditioning do (also called observational learning) (Bandura, 1986,
 places importance on the consequences of a behavior 1997).
produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s  Modeling is not simple imitation: People copy only some
occurrence. The key aspect of development is behavior, actions, of some individuals, in some contexts. They may
not thoughts and feelings. Rewards and punishments do the opposite of what they observed. All that is social
shape development. (Santrock,2015) learning
 Skinner agreed with Watson that psychology should focus  Generally, modeling is most likely when the observer is
on observable behavior. He did not dispute Pavlov’s uncertain or inexperienced (modeling is especially
classical conditioning, but, as a good scientist, he built on powerful in childhood) and when the model is admirable,
Pavlov’s conclusions. Skinner’s most famous contribution powerful, nurturing, or similar to the observer. Social
was to recognize another type of conditioning — operant learning occurs not only for behavior (why do teenagers
conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) — in style their hair as they do?) but also for morals, which
which animals (including people) act and then something people may think they decided for themselves but instead
follows that action. have been powerfully affected by other people (Bandura,
 In other words, Skinner went beyond learning by 2016).
association, in which one stimulus is paired with another ETHOLOGICAL THEORY
stimulus (in Pavlov’s experiment, the tone with the food).
He focused instead on what happens after the response. If  Ethology stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by
the consequence that follows is enjoyable, the creature biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by
(any living thing — a bird, a mouse, a child) tends to critical or sensitive periods. Ethologists emphasize
repeat the behavior; if the consequence is unpleasant, the genetically determined survival behaviors that are
creature does not do that action again. assumed to have evolved through natural selection. For
 Pleasant consequences are reinforcers. Behaviorists do example, nests are necessary for the survival of young
not like to call them rewards because what some people birds. Therefore, ethologists say, evolution has equipped
consider a reward may actually be a punishment, an birds with nest-building genes (Boyd & Bee, 2015).
unpleasant consequence. For instance, a teacher might
reward good behavior by giving the class extra recess Konrad Lorenz’s theory
 focuses on imprinting is the rapid, innate learning that MODULE 3:
involves attachment to the first moving object seen.
Imprinting needs to take place at a certain, very early time RESEARCH ON LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
in the life of the animal, or else it will not take place. This The Scientific method is an approach that can be used to
point in time is called a critical period. (Santrock, 2019). obtain accurate information. It includes the following steps:
Lorenz studied imprinting among animals extensively
(Lorenz, 1935). He learned that young ducklings and 1. conceptualize the problem,
geese, for example, imprint on any moving object to 2. collect data,
which they are exposed during the critical period for 3. draw conclusions, and
imprinting (24 to 48 hours after hatching). In fact, one of 4. revise research conclusions and theory.
the best-known images in the field of ethology is that of
Lorenz himself being followed by several goslings who Developmental psychology uses the scientific method to
had imprinted on him (Boyd & Bee, 2015). achieve four goals:

John Bowlby  to describe

 to explain
 applied ethological theory to the understanding of the  to predict
human infant–caregiver relationship. He argued that  to influence human development from conception to
infant smiling, babbling, grasping, and crying are built-in death
social signals that encourage the caregiver to approach,
care for, and interact with the baby. By keeping the parent Generally, research on life-span development is designed to
near, these behaviors help ensure that the infant will be test hypotheses, which in some cases are derived from the
fed, protected from danger, and provided with stimulation theories just described. Through research, theories are
and affection necessary for healthy growth. The modified to reflect new data, and occasionally new theories
development of attachment in humans is a lengthy process arise.
involving psychological changes that lead the baby to METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
form a deep affectionate tie with the caregiver
(Thompson, 2006). Bowlby believed that this bond has Observation. Scientific observation requires an important set
lifelong consequences for human relationships. In later of skills. For observations to be effective, they have to be
chapters, we will consider research that evaluates this systematic. Observations are made wither in a laboratory or in
assumption (Boyd & Bee, 2015). the outside world.

ECOLOGICAL THEORY  Naturalistic observation provides insights that sometimes

cannot be attained in the laboratory (Babbie, 2017).
Urie Bronfenbrenner states that, development reflects the Naturalistic observation means observing behavior in
influence of several environmental systems: real-world settings, making no effort to manipulate or
 Microsystem the setting in which the individual lives; control the situation. Life-span researchers conduct
these contexts include the person’s family, peers, school, naturalistic observations at sporting events, child-care
and neighborhood. It is in the microsystem that the most centers, work settings, malls, and other places people live
direct interactions with social agents take place—with in and frequent.
parents, peers, and teachers.  Naturalistic observation sometimes employs ethnography
 Mesosystem involves relations between microsystems or a researcher’s goal is to understand a culture’s values and
connections between contexts. Examples are the relation attitudes through careful, extended examination.
of family experiences to school experiences, school Typically, researchers using ethnography act as
experiences to religious experiences, and family participant observers, living for a period of weeks,
experiences to peer experience. months, or even years in another culture.
 Exosystem consists of links between a social setting in  Structured observations can also be made in a laboratory,
which the individual does not have an active role and the in which the investigator sets up a laboratory situation
individual’s immediate context. that evokes the behavior of interest so that every
 Macrosystem involves the culture in which individuals participant has equal opportunity to display the response.
live. Culture refers to the behavior patterns, beliefs, and
all other products of a group of people that are passed on
from generation to generation.
 Chronosystem consists of the patterning of environmental
events and transitions over the life course, as well as
sociohistorical circumstances. (Santrock, 2019)
Survey and Interviews can be used to study topics ranging the correlation is positive or negative in determining the
from religious beliefs to sexual habits to attitudes about gun strength of the correlation.
control to beliefs about how to improve schools. Surveys and
interviews may be conducted in person, over the telephone, Experimental method is a carefully regulated procedure in
and over the Internet. which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior
being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held
 A related method is the survey (sometimes referred to as a constant. If the behavior under study changes when a factor is
questionnaire), which is especially useful when manipulated, we say that the manipulated factor has caused
information from many people is needed. A standard set the behavior to change. In other words, the experiment has
of questions is used to obtain peoples’ self-reported demonstrated cause and effect. The cause is the factor that was
attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic. manipulated. The effect is the behavior that changed because
of the manipulation.

 An independent variable is a manipulated, influential,

experimental factor. It is a potential cause. The label
“independent” is used because this variable can be
manipulated independently of other factors to determine
its effect. An experiment may include one independent
variable or several of them.
Standardized tests have uniform procedures for administration  A dependent variable is a factor that can change in an
and scoring. Many standardized tests allow a person’s experiment, in response to changes in the independent
performance to be compared with that of other individuals; variable. As researchers manipulate the independent
thus, they provide information about individual differences variable, they measure the dependent variable for any
among people (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2018; Santrock 2019) resulting effect.
Case Study is an in-depth look at a single individual. Case  An experimental group is a group whose experience is
studies are performed mainly by mental health professionals manipulated. A control group is a comparison group that
when, for either practical or ethical reasons, the unique aspects is as similar to the experimental group as possible and that
of an individual’s life cannot be duplicated and tested in other is treated in every way like the experimental group except
individuals. for the manipulated factor (independent variable). The
control group serves as a baseline against which the
Physiological Measures such as hormone levels, neuro effects of the manipulated condition can be compared.
imaging, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI),
electroencephalography (EEG) are some of the examples used
in studying development at different periods in the life span.
(Santrock, 2019)

RESEARCH DESIGNS

Descriptive method aims to observe and record and reveal

behavior. By itself, descriptive research cannot prove what TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH
causes some phenomenon, but it can reveal important
information about people’s behavior (Gravetter & Forzano, Cross Sectional Approach is a research strategy that
2017) simultaneously compares individuals of different ages. In
some studies, data are collected in a single day. Even in large-
Correlational method describes the strength of the relationship scale crosssectional studies with hundreds of subjects, data
between two or more events or characteristics. The more collection does not usually take longer than several months to
strongly the two events are correlated (or related or complete. The main advantage of the cross-sectional study is
associated), the more accurately we can predict one event that the researcher does not have to wait for the individuals to
from the other (Aron, Aron, & Coups, 2017; Santrock, 2019). grow up or become older. Despite its efficiency, though, the
cross-sectional approach has its drawbacks. It gives no
 The Correlation Coefficient is a number based on information about how individuals change or about the
statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of stability of their characteristics.
association between two variables. The higher the
correlation coefficient (whether positive or negative), the Longitudinal Approach is a research strategy in which the
stronger the association between the two variables. A same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually
correlation of 0 means that there is no association several years or more. Longitudinal studies provide a wealth
between the variables. A correlation of −.40 is stronger of information about vital issues such as stability and change
than a correlation of +.20 because we disregard whether in development and the influence of early experience on later
development, but they do have drawbacks (Almy & Cicchetti, people, and experiences (including previous therapy)
2018). They are expensive and time-consuming. The longer clients have found more or less helpful.
the study lasts, the more participants drop out—they move, get  Closing- Tasks and activities linked to the closing include
sick, lose interest, and so forth. o providing support and reassurance for clients
o returning to role induction and client
expectations
o summarizing crucial themes and issues
o providing an early case formulation or mental
disorder diagnosis
o instilling hope, and, as needed
o focusing on future homework, future sessions,
Cohort Effects. Characteristics determined by a person’s time and scheduling (SommersFlanagan & Sommers-
of birth, era, or generation rather than the person’s actual age. Flanagan, 2017).
A cohort is a group of people who are born at a similar point  Termination involves ending the session and parting
in history and share similar experiences as a result. These ways. The termination stage requires excellent time
shared experiences may produce a range of differences among management skills; it also requires intentional sensitivity
cohorts (Ganguli, 2017; Messerlian & Basso, 2018; Schaie, and responsiveness to how clients might react to endings
2016a, b). in general or leaving the therapy office in particular.

 Cross-sectional studies can show how different cohorts CONDUCTING ETHICAL RESEARCH
respond, but they can confuse age changes and cohort Ethics in research may affect you personally if you ever serve
effects. Longitudinal studies are effective in studying age as a participant in a study. In that event, you need to know
changes but only within one cohort. your rights as a participant and the responsibilities of
SELF REPORTS researchers to assure that these rights are safeguarded. he
participants’ best interests need to be kept foremost in the
Self-reports ask research participants to provide information researcher’s mind. APA’s guidelines address four important
on their perceptions, thoughts, abilities, feelings, attitudes, issues:
beliefs, and past experiences. They range from relatively
unstructured interviews to highly structured interviews, Informed Consent. Participants must know what their research
questionnaires, and tests. Some participants, wishing to please participation will involve and what risks might develop. Even
the interviewer, may make up answers that do not represent after informed consent is given, participants must retain the
their actual thinking. When asked about past events, some may right to withdraw from the study at any time and for any
have trouble recalling exactly what happened. And because reason.
the clinical interview depends on verbal ability and  Confidentiality. Researchers are responsible for keeping
expressiveness, it may underestimate the capacities of all of the data they gather on individuals completely
individuals who have difficulty putting their thoughts into confidential and, when possible, completely anonymous.
words.  Debriefing. After the study has been completed,
CLINICAL INTERVIEW participants should be informed of its purpose and the
methods that were use
Flexible interviewing procedure in which the investigator  Deception. In all cases of deception, however, the
obtains a complete account of the participant’s thoughts. The psychologist must ensure that the deception will not harm
primary goals are: the participants and that the participants will be debriefed
(told the complete nature of the study) as soon as possible
 assessment and after the study is completed.
 helping
MINIMIZING BIAS:
Stages of a Clinical Interview:
Researchers need to guard against gender, cultural, and ethnic
 Introduction bias in research. Every effort should be made to make research
 Opening – The opening question could be “what concerns equitable for both females and males. Individuals from varied
bring you to counseling today?” ethnic backgrounds need to be included as participants in life-
 Body. If the purpose is to collect information pertaining to span research, and overgeneralization about diverse members
psychiatric diagnosis, the body includes diagnostic- within a group must be avoided. (Santrock, 2019)
focused questions. In contrast, if the purpose is to initiate
psychotherapy, the focus could quickly turn toward the MODULE 4:
history of the problem and what specific behaviors,
 BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL combination of genes on each chromosome (Mader &
FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT Windelspecht, 2018). Thus, when chromosomes from the
mother’s egg and the father’s sperm are brought together
GENES AND CHROMOSOMES in the zygote, the result is a truly unique combination of
Every person is a unique individual and it is true that you are genes (Brooker & others, 2018).
“one in a million!” Scientists have been trying to duplicate the  Another source of variability comes from DNA. Chance
genetic makeup of humans and animals for the longest time. events, a mistake by cellular machinery, or damage from
However, even if science is so advanced, still there are things an environmental agent such as radiation may produce a
that man may not be able to recreate. mutated gene, which is a permanently altered segment of
DNA (Freeman & others, 2017; Mason & others, 2018).
 Every cell in the human body contains 23 pairs of  There is increasing interest in studying susceptibility
chromosomes, or strings of genetic material. However, genes, those that make the individual more vulnerable to
sperm and ovum, collectively called gametes, contain 23 specific diseases or accelerated aging (Hartiala & others,
single (unpaired) chromosomes. At conception, 2017; Park & others, 2018; Patel & others, 2018), and
chromosomes in the ovum and the sperm combine to form longevity genes, those that make the individual less
23 pairs in an entirely new cell called a zygote. (Boyd vulnerable to certain diseases and more likely to live to an
&Bee, 2015) older age (Blankenburg, Pramstaller, & Dominguez,
 Chromosomes are found in every nucleus of the human 2018; Dato & others, 2017). These are aspects of the
cell which are threadlike structures with one member of individual’s genotype.
each pair coming from each parent. The contain a  Identical twins (also called monozygotic twins) develop
substance called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). from a single zygote that splits into two genetically
 DNA is a complex molecule that has a double helix identical replicas, each of which becomes a person.
shape, like a spiral staircase and contains genetic Fraternal twins (called dizygotic twins) develop when two
information. eggs are fertilized by different sperm, creating two
 Genes, the units of hereditary information, are short zygotes that are genetically no more similar than ordinary
segments of DNA. They help cells to reproduce siblings.
themselves and to assemble proteins.  A genotype is a person’s genetic heritage or his actual
 There are three major processes involved in the genetic material, while a phenotype is the way an
transmission of genes: individual’s genotype is expressed in observed and
 Mitosis - Cellular reproduction in which the cell’s nucleus measurable characteristics.
duplicates itself with two new cells being formed, each  A phenotype consists of observable characteristics, and
containing the same DNA as the parent cell, arranged in these include physical characteristics (such as height,
the same 23 pairs of chromosomes. weight, and hair color) and psychological characteristics
 Meiosis - A specialized form of cell division that occurs (such as personality and intelligence).
to form eggs and sperm (also known as gametes).  The difference between genotypes and phenotypes helps
 Fertilization - A stage in reproduction when an egg and a us to understand this source of variability. For a genotype
sperm fuse to create a single cell, called a zygote. to be expressed to create a phenotype, the following
genetic principles may provide answers to this
phenomenon:
 Dominant- Recessive Genes. In some cases, one gene of a
pair always exerts its effects; it is dominant and overrides
the potential influence of the other gene, called the
recessive gene. This is the dominantrecessive genes
principle. A recessive gene exerts its influence only if the
two genes of a pair are both recessive
 Sex Linked Genes. Most mutated genes are recessive.
 Genetic variability is caused by a unique combination of When a mutated gene is carried on the X chromosome,
genes from each parent or mutated genes as a result of the result is called X-linked inheritance. (Freeman &
chance events during conception. First, the chromosomes others, 2017; Mader & Windelspecht, 2018). Males only
in the zygote are not exact copies of those in the mother’s have one X gene and may develop an x-linked gene while
ovaries or the father’s testes. During the formation of the females have 2 x genes and therefore are not likely to
sperm and egg in meiosis, the members of each pair of have an X-linked disease. (Santrock, 2019)
chromosomes are separated, but which chromosome in  Genetic Imprinting. Genetic imprinting occurs when the
the pair goes to the gamete is a matter of chance. In expression of a gene has different effects depending on
addition, before the pairs separate, pieces of the two whether the mother or the father passed on the gene
chromosomes in each pair are exchanged, creating a new (Brooker & others, 2018; Simon, 2017). A chemical
 process “silences” one member of the gene pair. For
example, as result of imprinting, only the maternally
derived copy of the expressed gene might be active, while
the paternally derived copy of the same expressed gene is
silenced—or vice versa (John, 2017). (Santrock, 2019)
 Poly genetic Inheritance. The term polygenic inheritance
means that many different genes determine a
characteristic (Hill & others, 2018; Oreland & others,
2017). Even a simple characteristic such as height, for
example, reflects the interaction of many genes as well as
the influence of the environment. (Santrock, 2019)

 A genetic disorder is a disease caused in whole or in part

by a change in the DNA sequence away from the normal
sequence. Genetic disorders can be caused by a mutation
in one gene (monogenic disorder), by mutations in
multiple genes (multifactorial inheritance disorder), by a
combination of gene mutations and environmental factors,
or by damage to chromosomes (changes in the number or
CHROMOSOMAL AND GENE LINKED structure of entire chromosomes, the structures that carry
ABNORMALITIES genes). (National Human Genome Research Institute,
2019)
 Chromosome abnormalities can be numerical or
structural.
 A numerical abnormality means an individual is either
missing one of the chromosomes from a pair or has more
than two chromosomes instead of a pair.
 A structural abnormality means the chromosome's
structure has been altered in one of several ways. HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT: Heredity -Environment
(National Human Genome Research Institute, 2019) Correlations View

Research results from the study of twins provided insight as to

how genes are related to the types of environments that they
were exposed (Jaffee, 2016). In a sense, individuals “inherit,”
seek out, or “construct” environments that may be related or
linked to genetic “propensities.” Three ways that heredity and
environment may be correlated:

 Passive genotype-environment correlations exist when the

natural parents, who are genetically related to the child,
provide a rearing environment for the child.
 Evocative genotype-environment correlations exist when
the child’s genetically influenced characteristics elicit
certain types of environments.
 Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations
exist when children seek out environments, they find
compatible and stimulating. (Scarr, 1993)
 Gene Linked abnormalities are caused by absent,
nonfunctional, or mutated genes which can contribute to THE EPIGENETIC VIEW
disorders. (Santrock, 2019)
Gilbert Gottlieb (2007) emphasizes the epigenetic view, which
states that development reflects an ongoing, bidirectional
interchange between heredity and the environment. (Gottlieb, an early miscarriage is similar to a menstrual period,
2017) although feelings of discomfort and blood loss are usually
greater. Medical care is always necessary after a
 The inherited genes of the baby at conception are miscarriage because the woman’s body may fail to
influenced by prenatal environments such as the mother’s completely expel the embryo. (Boyd & Bee, 2015)
nutrition, exposure to toxins, stress. These may cause
some genes to stop functioning, or cause others to become SECOND TRIMESTER
more active or less active.
 Environmental influences such as nutrition, stress,  During the second trimester of pregnancy, from the end of
learning and encouragement continue to play a role in the week 12 through week 24, morning sickness usually
development of the infant and all throughout his lifetime. disappears, resulting in increases in appetite. The
The interchange continues and will manifest in our pregnant woman gains weight, and the uterus expands to
temperaments, height, weight, hobbies, abilities and many accommodate a fetus that is growing rapidly.
more. (Moore, 2017; Santrock, 2019) Consequently, the woman begins to “show” sometime
during the second trimester.
MODULE 5:  She also begins to feel the fetus’s movements, usually at
some point between the 16th and 18th weeks. At monthly
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT clinic visits, doctors monitor both the mother’s and the
THE MOTHER’S EXPERIENCE baby’s vital functions and keep track of the growth of the
baby in the womb. Ultrasound tests are usually
THE FIRST TRIMESTER performed, and the sex of the baby can be determined by
the 12th week.
 Zygote implants itself in the lining of the woman’s uterus  Monthly urine tests check for gestational diabetes, a kind
(also called the womb). The zygote then sends out of diabetes that happens only during pregnancy. Women
chemical messages that cause the woman’s menstrual who have any kind of diabetes, including gestational
periods to stop. Some of these chemicals are excreted in diabetes, have to be carefully monitored during the
her urine, making it possible to diagnose pregnancy second trimester because their babies may grow too
within a few days after conception. Other chemicals cause rapidly, leading to premature labor or a baby that is too
physical changes, such as breast enlargement. large for vaginal delivery. The risk of miscarriage drops
 The cervix (the narrow, lower portion of the uterus, which in the second trimester. However, a few fetuses die
extends into the vagina) thickens and secretes mucus that between the 13th and 20th weeks of pregnancy. (Boyd &
serves as a barrier to protect the developing embryo from Bee, 2015)
harmful organisms that might enter the womb through the
vagina. • The uterus begins to shift position and put THIRD TRIMESTER
pressure on the woman’s bladder, causing her to urinate
more often. This and other symptoms, like fatigue and  At 25 weeks, the pregnant woman enters her third
breast tenderness, may interfere with sleep. trimester. Weight gain and abdominal enlargement are the
 Another common early symptom of pregnancy is morning main experiences of this period. In addition, the woman’s
sickness—feelings of nausea, often accompanied by breasts may begin to secrete a substance called colostrum
vomiting, that usually occur in the morning. Prenatal care in preparation for nursing.
during the first trimester is critical to prevent birth  Most women begin to feel more emotionally connected to
defects, because all of the baby’s organs form during the the fetus during the third trimester (DiPietro, 2010).
first 8 weeks. Individual differences in fetal behavior, such as
 Early prenatal care can identify maternal conditions, such hiccupping or thumb sucking, sometimes become obvious
as sexually transmitted diseases, that may threaten during the last weeks of pregnancy. These behaviors may
prenatal development. Doctors and nurses can also urge be observed during ultrasound tests that produce
women to abstain from using drugs and alcohol early in increasingly clear images of the fetus.
prenatal development, when such behavior changes may  In addition, most women notice that the fetus has regular
prevent birth defects. periods of activity and rest. Monthly prenatal doctor visits
 Early prenatal care can also be important to the pregnant continue in the third trimester until week 32, when most
woman’s health. For example, a small number of zygotes women begin visiting the doctor’s office or clinic once a
implant in one of the fallopian tubes instead of in the week.
uterus, a condition called ectopic pregnancy. Early  Monitoring of blood pressure is especially important, as
surgical removal of the zygote is critical to the woman’s some women develop a life-threatening condition called
future ability to have children. toxemia of pregnancy during the third trimester. This
 About 15% of pregnancies end in miscarriage, or condition is signaled by a sudden increase in blood
spontaneous abortion. From the woman’s point of view,
 pressure and can cause a pregnant woman to have a  Pain with the contractions, though possibly not as much
stroke. (Boyd & Bee, 2015)  An overwhelming urge to push (though not every woman
feels it, especially if she’s had an epidural)
THE BIRTH PROCESS  Tremendous rectal pressure (ditto)
After spending the first 9 months of life inside the mother’s  A burst of renewed energy (a second wind) or fatigue
womb, it is now time for birth – a difficult but rewarding  Very visible contractions, with your uterus rising
journey for both the mother and the child. noticeably with each
 An increase in bloody show
Key Concepts:  A tingling, stretching, burning or stinging sensation at the
vagina as your baby’s head emerges
1. The physical process of childbirth is divided in three  A slippery wet feeling as your baby emerges
stages as follows:
Stage 3: Delivering the Placenta

 Delivery of placenta and other uterine materials

 This last stage of childbirth usually lasts anywhere from
five to 20 minutes or more. It may seem a little
anticlimactic ("it's a placenta!"), but this last stage of
childbirth is actually a very important one — and a very
symbolic one.
 The placenta, also known as afterbirth, provided bed and
board for your baby for most of his or her stay in your
uterus, and its delivery represents the end of that era, and
the beginning of a new one (life on the outside)

2. Natural childbirth provides information about

childbirth to the mother to reduce her fear and
Stage 1: Dilation and Effacement
anxiety. An example is the Bradley Method which
 During early labor, a woman might experience any of the involves the husband or a coach, relaxation
following labor signs: techniques for easier childbirth, and prenatal nutrition
 Backache (constant or with each contraction) and exercise. (Santrock, 2019)
 Menstrual-like cramps 3. Prepared childbirth or the Lamaze method includes
 Lower abdominal pressure special breathing techniques to control pushing in the
final stages of labor as well as a detailed education
 Indigestion
about anatomy and physiology. (Santrock, 2019)
 Diarrhea
4. The Caesarian Section or C Section is the delivery of
 A sensation of warmth in the abdomen
the infant by surgery or incisions made in the
 Blood-tinged mucous discharge (also known as bloody abdominal and uterine walls. This is done if one of
show) the following situations may aggravate the safety of
 Rupture of the amniotic membranes (i.e. your water will both the child and the mother: breech presentation,
break), though it's more likely to happen sometime during fetal distress during labor, failure of labor to
active labor progress, fetal size and maternal health conditions.
o During Transitional labor: (Boyd & Bee, 2015)
 Strong pressure in the lower back and/or perineum 5. A breech presentation, in which an infant’s feet or
 Rectal pressure, with or without an urge to push bottom is delivered first, represents one of the most
 An increase in bloody show as capillaries in the cervix compelling reasons for a c-section because it is
rupture associated with collapse of the umbilical cord
 Feeling very warm and sweaty or chilled and shaky (ACOG, 2001).
 Crampy legs that may tremble uncontrollably 6. Birth Complications may include fetal distress,
 Nausea and/or vomiting anoxia and dislocation of shoulders and hips during
 Drowsiness between contractions birth (Boyd & Bee, 2015)
 A tightening sensation in your throat or chest
Prenatal development
 Fatigue or exhaustion
 Begins at the moment of fertilization and ends with the
Stage 2: Pushing and Delivery Baby’s head moves past
birth of the child
stretched cervix, into birth canal and out of mother’s body
 Lasts for 9 months or 38 to 40 weeks
Common in the second stage:
 Divided into three periods: the germinal period, the  Timeline: o 3 rd week - formation of the neural tube
embryonic period and the fetal period. (Santrock, 2019) which eventually becomes the spinal cord
 The Germinal Period and its major milestones o 21 days - eyes begin to appear
 Begins on first 2 weeks after conception o 24 days - cells for heart begin to
 Includes: the creation of the fertilized egg or the zygote differentiate
 Rapid cell division which occurs through a process called o 4 week – urogenital system becomes
mitosis apparent, arm and leg buds appear, four
 Attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall which takes chambers of heart take shape and blood
place about 11 to 15 days after conception vessels appear
 Differentiation occurs one week after conception o 5 th to 8th week – arms and legs
 Blastocyst group of cells consisting of an inner mass of differentiate further, face start to form,
cells which develop into the embryo intestinal tract develops, facial features fuse
 Trophoblast the outer layer of cell that will provide
The Fetal Period and its major milestones
nutrition and support for the embryo. (Santrock, 2019)
 Lasts for about 7 months
 Timeline:
o 3rd month (13 weeks) –fetal length 3 inches,
weight four-fifths of an ounce, spontaneous or
random movements of arms, legs and head,
mouth opens and closes, facial features,
extremities are distinguishable, genitals can be
identified
o 4th month (17 weeks) – fetal length 5.5 inches,
weight 5 ounces, growth spurt in lower body
parts, mother feels fetal movements
o 5 th month (22 weeks) – fetal length 1 foot,
weight close to a pound, formation of skin
structures, more active and preference for a
particular position in womb
The Embryonic Period and its major milestones o 6th month (26 weeks)– fetal length 14 inches,
weight gain half pound to a pound, eyes and
 Happens from 2 to 8 weeks after conception eyelids completely formed, fine layer of hair is
 The three layers of cells are formed: o The Endodermis evident, presence of grasping reflex, irregular
the inner layer of cells, which will develop into the breathing movements occur, 24 to 25 weeks
digestive and respiratory systems fetus may have a chance of survival outside of
o The Mesoderm is the middle layer, which will womb
become the circulatory system, bones, muscles, o 7 th month (25 to 28 weeks) – fetal length 16
excretory system, and reproductive system. inches, weight 3 pounds
o The Ectoderm develops is the outermost layer, o 8th and 9th month (28 weeks until birth) –
which will become the nervous system and brain, development of fatty tissues, functioning of
sensory receptors (ears, nose, and eyes, for various organ systems, fetus grows longer and
example), and skin parts (hair and nails, for gains substantial weight (Santrock, 2019)
example).
 Life support systems also develop rapidly Four important phases of brain development in prenatal
o Amnion. The part of the prenatal life-support period involve:
system that consists of a sac containing a clear
 The Neural Tube. As the human embryo develops
fluid in which the developing embryo floats.
inside its mother’s womb, the nervous system begins
o Umbilical cord. Part of the prenatal life-support
forming as a long, hollow tube located on the
system that contains two arteries and one vein
embryo’s back. This pear-shaped neural tube, which
that connect the baby to the placenta.
forms at about 18 to 24 days after conception,
o Placenta. A prenatal life-support system that
develops out of the ectoderm. The tube closes at the
consists of a disk-shaped group of tissues in top and bottom ends at about 27 days after
which small blood vessels from the mother and conception (Keunen, Counsell, & Bender, 2017).
offspring intertwine.
 Neurogenesis. In a normal pregnancy, once the neural
 Organ formation or Organogenesis happens during tube has closed, a massive proliferation of new
the first two months immature neurons begins to take place at about the
 fifth prenatal week and continues throughout the and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS, also
remainder of the prenatal period. The generation of known as crib death). (Santrock, 2019)
new neurons is called neurogenesis, a process that o Cocaine. Among the effects of the intake of
continues through the remainder of the prenatal cocaine by pregnant mothers reduced birth
period but is largely complete by the end of the fifth weight, length, and head circumference (Gouin
month after conception (Keunen, Counsell, & & others, 2011), impaired connectivity of the
Benders, 2017). At the peak of neurogenesis, it is thalamus and prefrontal cortex in newborns
estimated that as many as 200,000 neurons are (Salzwedel & others, 2016); impaired motor
generated every minute. development at 2 years of age and a slower rate
 Neuronal migration. At approximately 6 to 24 weeks of growth through 10 years of age (Richardson,
after conception, neuronal migration occurs. This Goldschmidt, & Willford, 2008); self-regulation
involves cells moving outward from their point of problems at age 12 (Minnes & others, 2016);
origin to their appropriate locations and creating the elevated blood pressure at 9 years of age
different levels, structures, and regions of the brain (Shankaran & others, 2010); impaired language
(Keunen, Counsell, & Benders, 2017). Once a cell development and information processing
has migrated to its target destination, it must mature o Marijuana. Negative outcomes of the use of
and develop a more complex structure. marijuana are the following lower intelligence in
o Neural connectivity. At about the 23rd children (Goldschmidt & others, 2008),
prenatal week, connections between neurons alteration of brain functioning in the fetus
begin to occur, a process that continues (Calvigioni & others, 2014; Jaques & others,
postnatally (Miller, Huppi, & Mallard, 2016; 2014), low birth weight and greater likelihood of
(Santrock, 2019). being placed in a neonatal intensive care unit
(Gunn & others, 2016), stillbirth (Varner &
others, 2014) and many others.
o Heroin addicted mothers may have babies with
behavioral difficulties at birth (Angelotta &
Appelbaum, 2017), and these include withdrawal
symptoms, such as tremors, irritability, abnormal
crying, disturbed sleep, and impaired motor
control. Many still show behavioral problems at
their first birthday, and attention deficits may
appear later in development. (Lai & others,
2017)
 Incompatible blood types of the mother and the father
TERATOGENS AND HAZARDS TO PRENATAL may result in problems including miscarriage or stillbirth,
DEVELOPMENT anemia, jaundice, heart defects, brain damage, or death
soon after birth (Fasano, 2017).
HAZARDS TO FETAL DEVELOPMENT  Environmental hazards. Some specific hazards to the
embryo or fetus include radiation, toxic wastes, and other
 A teratogen is an agent that can possibly cause a birth chemical pollutants (Jeong & others, 2018; Sreetharan &
defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral others, 2017).
outcomes.  Maternal diseases such as AIDS, syphilis, Rubella or
 The severity of damage to the embryo or fetus may be German measles, genital herpes and diabetes may cause a
influenced by the dose, genetic susceptibility, and the host of abnormalities in babies. (Santrock, 2019)
time of exposure to a particular teratogen.  Maternal diet and nutrition. The nutritional status of the
 Major teratogens embryo or fetus is determined by the mother’s total
 Prescription or non-prescription drugs caloric intake as well as her intake of proteins, vitamins,
 Psychoactive drugs act on the nervous system to alter and minerals. Children born to malnourished mothers are
states of consciousness, modify perceptions, and change more likely than other children to be malformed.
moods.  Maternal age. Babies born to adolescent mothers have a
o Alcohol. Heavy drinking by pregnant women high risk or mortality and those that are born to mothers
may cause Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders 35 years or older have an increase risk of children with
(FASD) and may include facial deformities and Down Syndrome.
defects of the limbs and heart (Santrock, 2019)  Emotional states and stress of mothers may increase the
o Nicotine. Cigarette smoking by pregnant women chance of having babies with Attention Deficit
can lead to preterm births and low birth weights, Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), delay in language,
fetal and neonatal deaths, respiratory problems, cognitive and emotional problems among others.
 Paternal factors include the father’s exposure to radiation,
lead, pesticides, smoking may lead to a number of
abnormalities and even miscarriage. (Santrock, 2019)

LECTURE 2
FIELD METHODS
HOW TO WRITE AN EFFECTIVE RESEARCH
PAPER INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION

 Introduction — Discussion/ Conclusion

ANSWER TWO MAJOR QUESTIONS

 “Why was this study needed to fill in the gap on scientific

knowledge?”
 “Why does this gap need filling?”
KNOWLEDGE GAP

 What is known
Flow of Objectives

 Identify the knowledge gap

 Explain why it needs to be filled
 Summarize how this study attempts to fill that gap
INTRODUCTION CONTENT

 Brief background information about research topic

 Rationale for undertaking this study (reason for “filling
the gap”)
 Key references to preliminary work or closely related
papers
 Clarifications of terms, definitions, or abbreviations
 Review of pertinent literature
INTRODUCTION STRUCTURE
 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
IDENTIFICATION OF A PROBLEM
The identification and analysing a research problem is the first
and most crucial step of research process. A problem can not
be solved effectively unless a researcher possesses the intellect
and insight to isolate and understand the specific factors
giving rise to the difficulty.
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM & THE STATEMENT OF
THE PROBLEM
Step 1: Show what is already known (Background
Information) Research Problem — Statement of the Problem

1. Give A strong statement that reflects your research The following steps are to be followed in identifying a
subject area. research problem:
2. State the topic and the problems explored in your study.  Step 1 : Determining the field of research in which a
Ask questions to frame the aims of the study. researcher is keen to do the research work.
3. Use keywords from your title.
 Step 2 : The researcher should develop the mastery on the
4. Don't state obvious or broad facts about your topic –
area or it should be the field of his specialization.
highly relevant information is always more useful.
 Step 3 : He should review the researches conducted in
Here you should also: area to know the recent trend and studies in the area.
 Step 4 : On the basis of review, he should consider the
 Be sure to cite all of the sources referenced. priority field of the study.
 Only give useful background information.  Step 5 : He should draw an analogy and insight in
 Only reviewed relevant, up-to-date, primary literature that identifying a problem or employ his personal experience
supports your explanation of current base of knowledge. of the field in locating the problem. He may take help of
supervisor or expertee of the field.
Step 2: Show the gap in knowledge  Step 6 : He should pin-point specific aspect of the
1. Highlight areas of two little available information. problem which is to be investigated.
2. Explain why and how we should fill in that gap. SOURCES OF PROBLEMS
3. Explain what logical steps can be developed based on
existing research. 1. Personal experiences of the investigator
2. Extensive study of available literature-research
Here you should also: abstracts, journals, hand-books of research
 So you have examined current data and devised a plan. international abstracts etc.
 Show your peers your awareness of the direction of your 3. The new innovations, technological changes and
field. curricular developments are constantly bringing new
problems and new-opportunities for Social Studies
 Show confidence in pursuing your study.
Research.
Step 3: Show how your study fills in the knowledge gaps? 4. The most practical source of problem is to consult
(Purpose and hypothesis) supervisor, experts of the field and most experienced
person of the field.
1. State your purpose and give a clear hypothesis of
objective of the study. CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE PROBLEM
2. Hypothesis should be one to two sentences.
The factors are to be considered in the selection of a research
3. Tell what useful knowledge will be gained.
problem both the criteria external and personal. Criteria for the
Introduction Writing Tips selection of the problem are as follows:

 Write in the active voice when possible. 1. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplications.
 Write concise sentences. 2. Importance for the field represented and implementation.
 Use stronger verbs when possible. 3. Availability of data and method.
 Don't overuse first person pronouns. 4. Sponsorship and administrative cooperation.
5. Cost and returns.
 Organize your thoughts from broad to specific.
6. Time factor
LECTURE 3:
LECTURE 4
RESEARCH PLANNING AND SAMPLING
MEANING OF RESEARCH PLAN/DESIGN

 “research design is a mapping strategy. It is essentially a

statement of the object of the inquiry and the strategies for
collecting the evidences, analysing the evidences and
reporting the findings.”
The Research Type: Qualitative Approach
THE RESEARCH DESIGN
 Ethnography
 Research Philosophy  Grounded Theory
 Research Type  Case Study
 Research Strategy  Phenomenological Research
 Time Horizon  Narrative Research
 Sampling Strategy
 Data Collection Method Time Horizon
 Data Analysis Technique
 Cross Sectional: The Cross-sectional technique requires at
Design choice number one: The Research Philosophy least a single measurement for everyone within the groups
represented.
The research philosophy refers to the underlying beliefs  Longitudinal: method is used in the repeated observations
regarding how data about a phenomenon should be gathered, or measurements of the same child or the same group of
analyzed and used. Your research philosophy will serve as the children over a period of years.
core of your study.

 Positivism
 Constructivist
 Transformative
 Pragmatists
Research Philosophy
This study will utilize Social Constructionism Philosophy
since the researcher believes that human experience and
perception is mediated historically, culturally, and Sampling Strategy
linguistically. The researcher holds the belief that the Probability sampling involves a random and therefore
respondents have different ways of perceiving and representative selection participants, whereas nonprobability
understanding their bereavement. sampling entails selecting participants in a non-randomized
Design choice number two: The Research Type and therefore non representative manner.

The starting point for this is to indicate whether the research Probability sampling Method of sampling which gives the
you conducted is inductive or deductive. You will also need to probability that our sample is representative of population
indicate whether your study adopts a qualitative or 1. Simple random sampling
quantitative or mixed methods methodology. 2. Systematic sampling
 Inductive moves forward from particular to the general. 3. Stratified Sampling
 Deductive is backward movement from general to 4. Cluster Sampling
particular. Design choice number two: Sampling Strategy
 Qualitative: word-based data
 Quantitative: number-based data Simple random sampling
 Mixed Methods: combination of qualitative and
 A simple random sample is one in which each element of
quantitative data
the population has an equal and independent chance of
being included in the sample.
 i.e. tossing a coin, throwing a dice, lottery method, blind
folded method
Systematic Sampling
 determine the members of your sample based on a CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE
random starting point and a consistent sampling interval.
The following are the main characteristics of a good sample:
 Let sample size = n
 and population size = N 1. A good sample is the true representative of the population
corresponding to its properties. The population is known
Stratified Sampling
as aggregate of certain properties and sample is called
 the researcher divides his population in strata on the basis sub-aggregate of the universe.
of some characteristics and from each of these smaller 2. A good sample is free from bias, the sample does not
homogeneous strata draws at random a predetermined permit prejudices the learning and preconception,
number of units. imaginations of the investigator to influence its choice.
3. A good sample is an objective one, it refers objectivity in
Cluster Sampling selecting procedure or absence of subjective elements
from the situation.
 In Cluster sampling the sample units contain groups of 4. A good sample maintains accuracy. It yields an accurate
elements (clusters) instead of individual members or estimates or statistics and does not involve errors.
items in the population. 5. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature
Non-Probability sampling of a sample is closely linked with true-representativeness.
Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which is
Nonprobability sampling- sampling techniques for which a controlled by specific purpose of the investigation. A
person’s likelihood of being selected for membership in the sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not be a
sample is unknown good representative of the population.
6. A good sample is also economical from energy, time and
1. Purposive sample. money point of view.
2. Quota sample. 7. The subjects of good sample are easily approachable. The
3. Judgement sample. research tools can be administered on them, and data can
be collected easily.
Incidental or Accidental Assignment
8. The size of good sample is such that it yields an accurate
 The term incidental or accidental applied to those samples results. The probability of error can be estimated.
that are taken because they are most frequently available, 9. A good sample makes the research work more feasible.
 i.e. this refers to groups which are used as samples of a 10. A good sample has the practicability for research situation
population because they are readily available or because Data Analysis Methods and Techniques: Data Gathering
the researcher is unable to employ more acceptable
sampling methods. 1. Qualitative Interview
2. Focus Group Discussion
3. Ethnography/Participant Observation
Judgement Sampling QUALITATIVE INTERVIEW
 This involves the selection of a group from the population Interview can be broadly defined as a face-to-face verbal
based on available information thought. It is to be interchange in which there are two persons, that is the
representative of the total population. Or the selection of a researcher or the interviewer and the other is the respondent or
group by intuition based on criterion deemed to be self- the interviewee. It appears to be like a conversation, but this
evident conversation is more with a specific purpose.
Purposive Sampling Qualitative Interview involves the researcher or his
 The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary investigators interacting on a one- to-one level with a
method because it is known to be representative of the respondent, who has been selected by the researcher as one of
total population, or it is known that it will produce well the subjects for the study. The interviewer puts questions to
matched groups. the respondent on a particular subject matter and the
respondent’s replies are noted down verbatim, where possible
Quota Sampling or recorded as an audio report.

 This combined both judgement sampling and probability a. INFORMAL In the informal conversational interview, as
sampling. The population is classified into several is implied, the respondents are identified and are involved
categories: based on judgement or assumption or the in a pleasant conversation. This conversation is with a
previous knowledge, the proportion of population falling specific research purpose that has been already
into each category is decided. determined.
b. GENERAL INTERVIEW GUIDE In this, every effort is  Narrative interviews are open‐ended, relatively
put in to ensure that no important points are left out and unstructured interviews that encourage participants to tell
the manner in which the questions should be asked and stories rather than just answer questions. Stories might
the sequences are kept up. relate to the participants, their experiences, or the events
c. STANDARD, OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS This type of they have witnessed
interviews gives considerable scope for the respondent to  Life‐story interviews/Biographic interviews. life‐story
answer fairly in detail his own ideas and opinions on the interviewees discuss their life as a whole, their memories,
particular topic instead of answering or tick marking the and what they want others to know. Life‐story interviews
answers only. may be particularly interesting to conduct with members
d. CLOSED, FIXED RESPONSE INTERVIEW In this the of your own family or with famous personalities who
answers are provided to all the questions, and the have caught the public imagination
respondents are required to select from within them, that  Discursive interview pays attention to large structures of
response which is most applicable to them. power that construct and constrain knowledge and truth –
and to how interviewees draw upon larger structural
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
discourses in creating their answer
a. Behavior
INTERVIEW STANCES
b. Opinions/Values
c. Feelings  Deliberate naïveté. It asks interviewers to drop any
d. Knowledge presuppositions and judgment while maintaining
e. Sensory f. Background openness to new and unexpected findings
SEQUENCE OF QUESTIONS  Collaborative/interactive interviewing interviews are
jointly created, so that the researcher and the participant
 The rule is that, the researcher should start with some are on an even plane and can ask questions of each other
factual information such as the date of birth, where they  Pedagogical interviews not only ask participants for their
live etc. and move on to other more subjective questions. viewpoints, but also encourage researchers to offer
expertise in the form of knowledge or emotional support
PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED DURING INTERVIEW:  Responsive interviewing suggests that researchers have
responsibilities for building a reciprocal relationship,
 Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.
honoring interviewees with unfailingly respectful
 Ask one question at a time.
behavior, reflecting on their own biases and openly
 Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. acknowledging their potential effect, and owning the
 Encourage responses. emotional effect of interviews
 Be careful about the appearance when note taking.  Confrontational interviews. The interviewer may
 Provide transition between major topics. contradict or challenge the interviewee and, in doing so,
 Don’t lose control of the interview. highlight their differences of opinion
Interviewers need to know more than simply how to conduct  Wording Good Questions. Research questions often
the interview itself. They should have background of the study include conceptual theoretical constructs, whereas
and why the study is important. interview questions must be simple, jargon‐free, and
attend directly to the interests and knowledge of
INTERVIEW TYPES interviewees.

 Ethnographic interviews are informal conversational

interviews; they are emergent and spontaneous. They
usually occur in the field and sound as though they are a
casual exchange of remarks. Participants in such contexts
often welcome ethnographic interviews to pass the time
 Informant interviews. Despite the pejorative connotations
of the word, “informants” are not always snitches or
moles. Rather, the qualifier “informant” is used here to
characterize participants who are veterans, experienced
insiders, key connectors within the scene and/or mavens
who “hoard and dispense certain kinds of cultural capital
in a scene”
 Respondent interviews are those that take place among
social actors who all hold similar subject positions and
have experiences that directly attend to the research goals.
Wording Good Questions  In summary, interview guides can include a large range of
questions. I encourage you to experiment with different
 They are simple and clear. They avoid acronyms, types, as they all can work in different ways with each
abbreviations, jargon, and scholarly talk. interviewee
 They are not double‐barreled but rather inquire about one
thing at a time.
 They keep participants focused on concrete details.
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
 In most cases, yes/no questions should be followed by “In
what ways?” or “How did that experience unfold?” • They Focus group is a sort of collective interview, directed by the
are straightforward, neutral, and non‐leading. researcher (moderator), which exploits the interactive potential
 They uphold rather than threaten the interviewees’ of the situation in order to generate rich data.
preferred identity.
 They are accompanied by appropriate follow‐ups and KEY FEATURES OF A FOCUS GROUP
probes
 organised discussion;
Interview Questions:  collective activity;
 social events;
 Types  interaction.
 Purpose
 Examples
 Sequencing
Opening the interview

 asking what and how about certain factual issues is a good

way to open an interview
 experience questions that prompt stories are also helpful
in the early part of an interview, in part, because
interviewers can relate back to them later in the interview.
Generative questions

 an umbrella category for non‐directive, non‐threatening

queries that serve to generate (rather than dictate) So, focus groups have their dynamic quality as a defining
frameworks for talk. feature.
Generative Questions Focus groups may be used in at least three different ways:
 Tour questions  As an early stage of research in order to explore and
 Timeline Questions identify what the significant issues are.
 Hypothetical questions  To generate broadly conversational data on a topic to be
 Behavior and action questions analyzed.
 Posing the ideal  To evaluate the findings of research in the eyes of the
 Compare-contrast question people that the research is about: that is, in discussions of
 Motives research conclusions.
 Future predictions
HOW TO CONDUCT FOCUS GROUP
Directive Questions

 Closed-ended questions
 Data-referencing questions
 Member reflection questions
 Potentially threatening questions
Closing the Interview

 Catch-all questions
 Identity enhancing questions
Interview Question Wrap-up FLOW OF A FOCUS GROUP
1. THE WELCOME ETHNOGRAPHIC/PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
2. OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC
3. THE GROUND RULES
4. OPENING QUESTIONS
5. INTRODUCTORY QUESTIONS
6. TRANSITION QUESTIONS
7. KEY QUESTIONS
8. ENDING QUESTIONS
THINGS THAT A MODERATOR DOES
There are a number of characteristics which researchers see as
important in a moderator (Gibbs, 1997): POSSIBLE ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY/
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
 avoids expressing personal opinions;
 avoids appearing judgemental
ETHNOGRAPHY/PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
ETHNOGRAPHY

 Detailed description of events + insights into their

meaning
 A method of discovery – the obscure – small samples. THE ROLE OF THE OBSERVER
 Comparative method – official/unofficial, formal/informal
• Naturalistic stance – natural setting – empathy
 Understand the symbolic world of the people studied.
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
data collection technique that requires the researcher to be
present at, involved in and recording the routine daily
activities with people in the field setting.
ENTRY, FIELD, & BUILDING RAPPORT

 Participant observation refers to a wider set of methods

including intensive observation which are also known as
ethnographic methods.
 Ethnography is the better term to use as it is in keeping
with other disciplines.
 Participant observation specifically refers to observational
techniques by which researchers involve themselves
extensively and in depth with a group or community.
Ethnography/participant observation is one of the most
complex research methods and places both intellectual and
interpersonal demands on the researcher.
VARYING DIMENSIONS OF
ETHNOGRAPHIC/PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION STAGES IN PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
STEP 1: Formulating the research question
Participant observation will be employed where the researcher
has a broad area of study to address, though it is unlikely that
at the initial stages they will have a focused research question
in mind.
STEP 2: Question whether a particular area of interest lends
itself to participant observation
There are many activities which are regarded as essentially  When one wishes to understand the operation of a
private, and these are unlikely to be amenable to investigation naturally occurring group, community or culture.
using participant observation.  When broad observations are appropriate rather than
narrowly focused ones.
STEP 3: Define what is to be addressed in the observation
process Data Analysis, Methods, and Techniques
The clear definition of the research question will be of use  Qualitative Content Analysis
here since it will help identify the aspects of the situation that  Narrative Analysis
the researcher will study
 Discourse Analysis
STEP 4: Defining the researcher’s role  Thematic Analysis
 Grounded Theory
A major consideration is for the researcher to define a viable  Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
role which permits him or her to participate in a setting or to
be sufficiently at its periphery to enable the observation to
take place.
STEP 5: Entry to the research location/entry to the community
The research locations for participant observation/ethnography
vary in the extent to which they are formal settings such as a
factory or informal settings in the community such as, say, a
foot- ball match.
STEP 6: Continuing access
Participant observation/ethnography involves maintaining
relations with the group studied and not just the entry process
to the research location.
STEP 7: The use of key informants
The key informant (a) may play a more central role in most
aspects of the group’s activities than others, (b) may have an
interest in the research which is greater than that of the others,
or (c) may have a special rapport with the researcher and so
forth.
STEP 8: Field notes/data logging
The objective of taking field notes is to have a comprehensive
database of one’s observations in the field setting.
STEP 9: How to sample
In ethnography/participant observation, the objective of the
researcher is to understand better the community or group
under observation.
STEP 10: When to stop fieldwork
The term ‘theoretical saturation’ is used to describe the
situation where additional data collection produces nothing
additional relevant to the concepts, ideas and theories which
are guiding the research.
STEP 11: Leaving the research site
Participants have trusted the researcher with information, and
so, he/she must provide reassurances about the future actions
of the researcher.
USING ETHNOGRAPHY/PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION