18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

Module – 1
Characteristic equation – Eigen values of a real matrix – Eigen vectors of a real matrix – Properties of Eigen
values – Cayley-Hamilton theorem – Finding A–1 using Cayley-Hamilton theorem – Finding higher powers
of A using Cayley-Hamilton theorem – Orthogonal reduction of a symmetric matrix to diagonal form –
Reduction of quadratic form to canonical form by orthogonal transformations – Orthogonal matrices –
Applications of Matrices in Engineering.

BASIC CONCEPTS
CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION
The characteristic equation of any square matrix A is A  I  0 .

For 2  2 matrix, the characteristic equation is 2 – S1  + S2 = 0.

where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements
S2 = Determinant of the matrix
For 3  3 matrix, the characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0 .

where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements

S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.

S3 = Determinant of the matrix

EIGEN VALUES
The roots of the characteristic equation are called eigen values.
EIGEN VECTOR
 x1 
 
The eigen vector of the matrix A is  A   I  X  0 , X   x2  , a non-zero column vector.
x 
 3
SINGULAR & NON-SINGULAR MATRIX
A square matrix A is said to be singular if A  0, otherwise it is a non-singular matrix.

PROPERTIES OF EIGEN VALUES

1. Sum of the eigen values is equal to sum of the main diagonal elements.
2. Product of the eigen values is equal to determinant of the matrix.
3. A square matrix A and its transpose have the same eigen values.
4. If the matrix is singular, then one of its eigen value is 0.
5. If the matrix is upper or lower triangular, then the eigen values are its main diagonal values.
1
6. If  is an eigen value of an orthogonal matrix, then is also its eigen value.


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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

7. If 1 , 2 , 3 are the eigen values of the matrix A , then 1 , 2 , 3

k k k
are the eigen values of Ak .

8. If 1 , 2 , 3 are the eigen values of the matrix A , then k 1 , k 2 , k 3 are eigen values of matrix kA .

1 1 1
9. If 1 , 2 , 3 are the eigen values of the matrix A , then , , are the eigen values of A1 .
1 2 3
10. If 1 , 2 , 3 are the eigen values of the matrix A , then 1 – K, 2 – K, 3 – K are the eigenvalues of

matrix A – K I.
11. The eigen values of a real symmetric matrix are real numbers.

PROPERTIES OF EIGEN VECTORS

1. If the eigen values of a matrix are distinct, then the corresponding eigen vectors are linearly
independent. If | A |  0, then the eigenvectors are linearly independent. If | A | = 0, then the
eigenvectors are linearly dependent.
2. The eigen vectors corresponding to distinct eigen values of a real symmetric matrix are orthogonal.
3. The eigen vector corresponding to an eigenvalue is not unique.
4. If two or more eigen values are equal, then the eigen vectors may be linearly dependent or linearly
independent.

ORTHOGONAL MATRIX
A square matrix A with real entries is said to be orthogonal if AAT  AT A  I , where AT is the
transpose of the matrix A . (i.e.) AT  A1 for an orthogonal matrix.

PROPERTIES OF AN ORTHOGONAL MATRIX

1
1. If  is an eigen value of an orthogonal matrix, then is also an eigen value.

2. If A is an orthogonal matrix, then A  1.

3. The transpose of an orthogonal matrix is also orthogonal.

4. The inverse of an orthogonal matrix is also orthogonal.

CONDITIONS FOR PAIRWISE ORTHOGONAL VECTORS

In a real symmetric matrix, the eigen vectors X 1 , X 2 , X 3 are said to be pair wise orthogonal, if

X 1 X 2T  0, X 2 X 3T  0, X 3 X 1T  0.

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

PROBLEMS
EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN VECTORS
1 1 
1. Find the Eigen values and Eigen vectors of the matrix A   .
 3 1
Solution:
1 1 
Let A   .
 3 1
Step 1: To find the characteristic equation
The Characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
(i.e.) λ2 – S1λ + S2 = 0 where
S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements = (1) + ( –1) = 0
1 1
S2 = | A | = = –1–3= –4
3 1
Hence the characteristic equation is
λ2 – (0)λ + ( – 4 ) = 0
λ2 – 4 = 0

Step 2: To solve the characteristic equation

λ2 – 4 = 0
λ2 = 4
λ =±2
Hence, the Eigen values are – 2, 2.
Step 3: To find the Eigenvectors:
To find the Eigenvectors, solve  A   I  X  0
1 1   1 0    x1  0
       
  3 1   0 1    x2  0
1   1   x1  0
  
1     x2  0
______________________________(1)
 3
Case 1. If λ = – 2, then Eqn. (1) becomes
 3 1  x1  0 
     
 3 1  x2  0 
3x1  x2  0
3x1  x2  0
i.e., we get, only one equation 3x1  x2  0
i.e.,3x1   x2
x1 x2

1 3

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

1
Hence the corresponding Eigenvector is X 1   
 3
Case 2. If λ = 2, then equation (1) becomes
 1 1   x1  0 
     
 3 3   x2  0 
 x1  x2  0
3x1  3 x2  0
i.e., we get, only one equation x1  x2  0
i.e., x1  x2
x1 x2

1 1
1
Hence the corresponding Eigenvector is X 2   
1 
TYPE – 1 NON-SYMMETRIC MATRIX WITH NON-REPEATED EIGENVALUES
 1 0  1
 
2. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix A   1 2 1  .
2 2 3 
 

Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0
where S1 = Sum of the diagonal elements=1+2+3 = 6
S 2 = Sum of the minors of the diagonal elements.
2 1 1 1 1 0
=    4  5  2  11
2 3 2 3 1 2
1 0 1
S3 = A  1 2 1  6
2 2 3
Therefore, the Characteristic equation is: λ3 – 6λ2 +11λ – 6 = 0
(λ – 1)(λ 2 –5λ + 6)= 0
λ=1 and λ 2 –5λ +6= 0
(λ-2) (λ-3)=0
λ=1, 2, 3
To find the Eigen Vectors:
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

1   0  1   x1   0 
    
 1 2 1   x2    0   (A)
 2 3     x3   0 
 2

(1 – λ) x1 + 0 x2 – x3 = 0
x1 + (2 – λ) x2 + x3 =0
2 x1 + 2 x2 + (3 – λ) x3 = 0

Case (1) :  = 1 Then Equation (A) becomes

 0 0  1  x1   0 
    
 1 1 1   x2    0 
 2 2 2   x  0
   3  
0 x1 + 0 x2 – x3 = 0
x1 + x2 + x3 =0
2 x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 0

Solve (1) and (2), using cross multiplication rule, we get

x1 x2 x3
 
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
x1 x 2 x3
 
1 1 0
1
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1    1 .
0
 
Case (2) :  = 2 Then Equation (A) becomes
  1 0  1  x1   0 
    
 1 0 1   x2    0 
 2 2 1   x   0
   3  
–1 x1 + 0 x2 – x3 = 0
x1 + 0 x2 + x3 = 0
2 x1 + 2 x2 + x3 = 0

Solve (2) and (3),using cross multiplication rule, we get

x1 x x3
 2 
0 1 1 1 1 0
2 1 1 2 2 2
x1 x x
 2  3
2 1 2

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

  2
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   1  .
 2 
 
Case (3) :  = 3 Then Equation (A) becomes
  2 0  1  x1   0 
    
 1  1 1   x2    0 
 2 2 0   x3   0 


–2 x1 + 0 x2 – x3 = 0
x1 – x2 + x3 =0
2 x1 + 2 x2 + 0 x3 = 0

Solve (1) and (2), using cross multiplication rule, we get

x1 x2 x3
 
0 1 1  2  2 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
x1 x 2 x3
 
1 1 2
  1
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 3   1  .
2
 
Type – 2 NON-SYMMETRIC MATRIX WITH REPEATED EIGENVALUES
  2 2  3
 
3. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix A   2 1  6 .
 1  2 0 
 
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is   S1  S2  S3  0
3 2

where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements = – 2 +1+0 = – 1

S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
1 6 2 3 2 2
=    12  3  6  21
2 0 1 0 2 1
2 2 3
S3 = A  2 1  6  45
1  2 0
Therefore, the Characteristic equation is λ3 + λ2 – 21 λ – 45 = 0.

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

To solve the Characteristic equation

λ3 + λ2 – 21 λ – 45 = 0
If  = –3, then λ3 + λ2 – 21 λ – 45 = 0.
Therefore,  = –3 is a root.
By Synthetic division
–3 1 1 –21 –45
0 –3 6 45
1 – 2 –15 0

Other roots are given by λ2 – 2 λ – 15 = 0.

(– 5) ( + 3) = 0
Hence , the Eigen values of A are λ = 5, –3, –3.
To find the Eigen Vectors:
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0
 2   2  3   x1   0 
    
 2 1    6   x2    0   (A)
 1  2 0     x3   0 


Case (1) :  = 5 Then equation (A) becomes

 7 2  3   x1   0 
    
 2 4  6   x2    0 
 1  2  5   x3   0 


–7 x1 + 2 x2 –3 x3 = 0
2x1 – 4 x2 – 6 x3 = 0
– x1 – 2 x2 –5 x3 = 0

Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get

x1 x2 x3
 
2 3 3 7 7 2
 2  5  5 1 1  2
x1 x x
 2  3
 16  32 16
x1 x2 x3
 
1 2 1
1
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   2  .
  1
 

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

Case (2) :  = –3 Then equation (A) becomes

1 2  3   x1   0 
    
2 4  6   x2    0 
 1  2 3   x   0
   3  
x1 + 2 x2 –3 x3 =0
2x1 + 4 x2 – 6 x3 = 0
– x1 – 2 x2 +3 x3 = 0
All are same equations.
Put x1 = 0.
2 x2 –3 x3 =0
2 x2 =3 x3
x2 x3

3 2
0
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   3  .
 2
 
Put x2 = 0.
x1 –3 x3 =0
x1 = 3 x3
x1 x3

3 1
 3
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 3   0  .
1
 

 6 6 5 
 
4. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix A  14  13 10  .
 7 6 4 
 
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0
Where S1 = Sum of the diagonal elements = 6 – 13 + 4 = – 3
S 2 = Sum of the minors of the diagonal elements.
 13 10 6 5 6  6
=    8  11  6  3
 6 4 7 4 14  13
=4 – 0 + 4 – 0 + 4 – 0 = 12
6 6 5
S3 = A  14  13 10  1
7 6 4

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

Therefore, The Characteristic equation is λ3 +3 λ2 +3λ +1 = 0.

To Solve the Characteristic equation
λ3 +3 λ2 +3λ +1 = 0.
(λ + 1) 3 =0
Hence , the Eigen values are λ = –1, –1, –1.
To find the Eigen Vectors:
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0
6   6 5   x1   0 
    
 14  13   10   x2    0   (A)
 7 6 4     x3   0 


Case (1) :  = –1 Equation (A) becomes

 7  6 5   x1   0 
    
14  12 10   x2    0 
 7  6 5   x   0
   3  
7x1 – 6 x2 + 5 x3 =0
14x1 – 12 x2 +10 x3 = 0
7x1 – 6 x2 + 5 x3 =0
All are same equations.

Put x1 = 0.
– 6 x2 + 5 x3 =0
5 x3 = 6 x2
x2 x3

5 6
0
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   5  .
6
 
Put x2 = 0.
7x1 + 5 x3 = 0
7x1 = – 5 x3

x1 x
 3
5 7
  5
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   0  .
 7 
 
Put x3 = 0.
7x1 – 6 x2 + 5 x3 =0

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

7x1 = 6 x2
x1 x2

6 7
6
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 3   7  .
0
 
TYPE – 3 SYMMETRIC MATRIX WITH NON-REPEATED EIGEN VALUES
 3 1 1 
5. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix A   1 5 1 .
 1 1 3 
 
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is   S1  S2  S3  0
3 2

where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements=3 + 5 + 3 = 11

S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
3 1 5 1 3 1
=  
1 5 1 3 1 3
= (15 – 1) + (15 – 1) + (9 – 1) = 36
3 1 1
S3 = A  1 5 1
1 1 3
= 3(15 1)  1(3  1)  1(1  5)  42  2  4  36
Therefore, The Characteristic equation is λ3 – 11 λ2 +36λ – 36 = 0.

To Solve the Characteristic equation

λ3 – 11 λ2 + 36λ –36 = 0
If   2, then λ3 – 11 λ2 +36λ – 36 = 0
Therefore,   2 is a root.
By Synthetic division
1  11 36  36
2
0 2  18 36
1 9 18 0
Other roots are given by  2  9  18  0
(  3)(  6)  0
i.e.,   3,   6
Hence , the Eigen values are λ = 2, 3, 6

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

To find the Eigen Vectors:

To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0
 3   1 1  x1   0 
    
 1 5   1  x 2    0  _____________(A)
 1 1 3      
  x 3   0 

Case (1) :  = 2 Then equation (A) becomes

 3 1 1  x1   0  x1  x2  x3  0  (1)
    
 1 5 1 x 2    0  ,  x1  3x2  x3  0  (2)
 1 1     x1  x2  x3  0  (3)
 3  x 3   0 

Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get

x1 x x
 2  3
1  3 1  1 3  1
x1 x2 x3
 
2 0 2
x1 x2 x3
i.e.,  
1 0 1
1
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   0  .
 
 1
 
Case (2) :  = 3 Then equation (A) becomes
 3 1 1  x1   0 
    
 1 5 1 x 2    0 
 1 1 3  x   0 
  3   
0 x1  x2  x3  0  (4)
 x1  2 x2  x3  0  (5)
x1  x2  0 x3  0  (6)
Solving (4) & (5) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
x1 x2 x
  3
1  2 1  0 0  1
x1 x x
 2  3
1 1 1
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
1 1 1
1
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2  1 .
 
1
 

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

Case (3) :  = 6 then equation (A) becomes

 3 1 1  x1   0 
    
 1 5 1 x 2    0 
 1 1 3  x   0 
  3   
 3x1  x2  x3  0  (7)
 x1  x2  x3  0  (8)
x1  x2  3x3  0  (9)
Solving (7) & (8) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
x1 x x
 2  3
1  1 1  3 3  1
x1 x2 x3
 
1 2 1
1
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 3   2  .
 
1
 
TYPE – 4 SYMMETRIC MATRIX WITH REPEATED EIGEN VALUES
 6 2 2 
 
6. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix A    2 3  1 .
 2 1 3 
 
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is   S1  S2  S3  0
3 2

where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements=6 + 3 + 3 = 12

S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
3 1 6 2 6 2
=  
1 3 2 3 2 3
=( 9 – 1) + (18 – 4 ) + ( 18 – 4 ) = 8+ 14 + 14 = 36
6 2 2
S3 = A  2 3 1
2 1 3
= 6(9  1)  2(6  2)  2(2  6)
= 6(8)  2(4)  2(4)  48  8  8  32
Therefore, the characteristic equation is λ3 – 12 λ2 + 36λ – 32 = 0.

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

To Solve the Characteristic equation

λ3 – 12 λ2 + 36λ – 32 = 0.
If   2, then λ3 – 12 λ2 + 36λ – 32 = 8 – 42 +72 – 32 = 0
Therefore,   2 is a root.
By Synthetic division
1 12 36 32
2
0 2 20 32
1 10 16 0
The other roots are given by  2  10  16  0
(  8)(  2)  0
i.e.,   8,   2
Hence , the Eigen values are λ = 8, 2, 2
To find the Eigen Vectors:
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0
 6 2 2  x1   0 
    
 2 3 1  x 2    0   (A)
 2 1 3      
  x 3   0 

Case (1) :  = 8 Equation (A) becomes

 2 2 2  x1   0 
    
 2  5 1  x 2    0 
 2 1 5    
  x 3   0 
2 x1  2 x2  2 x3  0  (1)
2 x1  5 x2  x3  0  (2)
2 x1  x2  5 x3  0  (3)
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
x1 x2 x
  3
2  10 4  2 10  4
x1 x2 x3
 
12 6 6
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
2 1 1

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2
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   1
1
 

Case (2) :  = 2 Equation (A) becomes

 4 2 2  x1   0 
    
 2 1 1  x 2    0 
 2 1 1  x   0 
  3   
4 x1  2 x2  2 x3  0  (4)
2 x1  x2  x3  0  (5)
2 x1  x2  x3  0  (6)
(4) , (5) & (6) are same as
2 x1  x2  x3  0
If
x1  0 , we get  x2  x3  0
 x2   x3
x2  x3
x2 x3
i.e., 
1 1
0
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector X 2  1 
1 
 
Case (3) :  = 2
a 
 
Let the third eigen vector be X 3   b  and X 3 should be orthogonal with X 1 and X 2
c 
 
X1 X 3  0  2a  b  c  0  (7)
T

X 2 X 3  0  0a  b  c  0  (8)
T

Solving (7) & (8) by rule of cross multiplication, we get

a b c
 
1  1 0  2 2  0
a b c
 
2 2 2
a b c
i.e.,  
1 1 1

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 1
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector X 3   1 .
 1 
 

PROBLEMS BASED ON PROPERTIES

8 6 2
7. Find the sum and product of all the eigen values of A =  6 7 4  .

 2 4 3 
Solution : Sum of the eigen values = Sum of the main diagonal elements = 8+7+3 = 18
Product of the eigen values = A = 8(5)+6(–10)+2(10) = 0
2 1 0
8.  
Find the eigen values of the inverse of the matrix A =  0 3 4  .
 0 0 4 
Solution : In a triangular matrix, the main diagonal values are the eigen values of the matrix.
1 1 1
 2, 3, 4 are the eigen values of A. Hence the eigen values of A1 = , , .
2 3 4
2 1 0
 
9. Find the eigen vector of A   0 2 1  corresponding to the eigen value 2.
 0 0 2
 
 x1 
 
Solution : Let X =  x2  be the eigen vector of the matrix corresponding to the eigen value.
x 
 3
The eigen vectors are obtained from the equation (A - I)X = 0
2 1 0  x1   0 
    
 0 2 1  x2    0 
 0 2      
 0  x3   0 
 0 1 0  x1   0 
    
When  = 2,  0 0 1  x2    0   x2 = 0, x3 = 0 and x1 takes any value, say k  0.
 0 0 0  x   0 
  3   
 k  1
   
Therefore the eigenvector is X1 =  0    0  .
 0 0
   
 8 6 2 
 
10. If 3 and 5 are two eigen values of the matrix A  6 7 4 then find its third eigen
 
 2 4 3 
 

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

value and hence find A .

Solution:
Let the third eigen value of A be 3
Sum of the eigen values = 3 + 5 + 3 =8 + 3 =trace of A
8 + 3 =8 + 7 + 3
3 =18 – 8 =10, 3 = 10.
Hence, A  product of the eigen values of A
A  3  5 10  150 .
11. If the eigen values of the matrix A of order 3 × 3 matrix are 2,3 and 1, then find the eigen
values of adjoint of A.
Solution: We know that, adjoint of A = A 1 A .
A = product of the eigen values = (2)(3)(1) = 6.
1 1
Eigen values of A1 = , ,1.
2 3
1 1
 Eigen values of adjA = (6), (6),(1)(6)  3, 2,6
2 3
2 0 1
12. If 1 and 2 are the two eigen values of A  0 2 0  , find A without expanding the
 
1 0 2 
determinant.
Solution: Let λ be the third eigen value of the given matrix.
We know that, sum of the eigen values = sum of the main diagonal elements.
i.e. 1 + 2 + λ = 2+2+2  λ = 3
Now, A = product of all eigen values = (1)(2)(3) = 6
7 4 4
13. One of the eigen values of 4  8  1 is –9, find the other two eigen values.
 
4  1  8

Solution: Let 1, 2 be the other two eigen values.

We know that, sum of the eigen values = sum of the main diagonal elements
i.e. 1 + 2 – 9 = 7 – 8 – 8 = – 9
 1 + 2 = 0   1 = –  2 …(1)
We know that, product of the eigen values = A
–912 = |A| = 441
12 = – 49  1  49 … (2)
2

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

substitute in (1) we get, 2  49

2
2  49  2   7
2

(1)  1   7 . Hence the other two eigen values are 7 and -7.
 1    2 2  3
  2
14. If  2  is an eigen vector of
 1  6 , find the corresponding eigen value.
  1   1  2 0 
 
 2   2  3   x1   0    2   2  3   1   0
         
Solution: (A - I)X = 0   2 1   6   x 2   0   2 1   6   2    0
 1  2     x 3   0    1  2      1  0 

 (–2–)(1)+2(2)+(-3)(-1) = 0  = 5.
a 4
15. Find the constants ‘a’ & ‘c’ such that the matrix   has 3 & –2 as its eigen values.
 1 c 
Solution:
Sum of the eigen values = sum of the main diagonals  a + c = 3–2 = 1-----(1)
product of the eigen values = A  (3)(-2) = ac – 4
i.e. –6 = ac – 4  ac = -2
 c = -2/a
sub c in (1) a + c = 1  a + (-2/a) =1  a2-2 = a i.e. a2-a-2 =0
solving a = -1, 2  c = 2,-1
16. If  is the eigen value of the matrix A, then prove that 2 is the eigen value of A2.
Solution:
Let X be the eigen vector of the matrix A corresponding to the eigen value , then AX =  X.
Multiply by A  A2 X = A (X)
= (AX)
= ( X)
=  2X
Hence,  is the eigen value of A2.
2

17. If 2,-1,-3 are the eigen values of the matrix A, find the eigen values of the matrix A2  2I .
Solution : The eigen values of A2 are 22, (-1)2 ,(-3)2 = 4, 1, 9.
The eigen values of A2-2I are 4 – 2,1–2,9 –2 = 2,–1,7
2 0 1
 
18. If 2,3 are the two eigen values of  0 2 0  ,then find the value of b.
b 0 2
 
Solution: Let  be the third eigen value of the given matrix.
Sum of the eigen values = sum of the main diagonals
i.e. 2+3+ = 6  = 1.
product of the eigen values = A
(1)(2)(3) = 2(4) +1(-2b)  6 = 8-2b  b=1.

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

DIAGONALIZATION
The process of transforming a square matrix A in to a diagonal matrix D is called
diagonalization. A real symmetric matrix A is said to be orthogonal diagonalizable, if there
exists an orthogonal matrix N such that D = N–1 A N = NT A N, where N is the modal matrix
and NT is the transpose of the modal matrix. Diagonisation by orthogonal transformation is
possible only for a real symmetric matrix.
 2 1 1 
 
19. Diagonalize the matrix A=  1 2 1 by means of an orthogonal transformation.
 1 1 2 
 
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is:  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0
where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements=2 + 2 + 2 = 6
S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
2 1 2 1 2 1
=  
1 2 1 2 1 2
=( 4-1) + (4 - 1 ) + ( 4 - 1 ) = 3+3+3 = 9
2 1 1
S3 = A  1 2 1
1 1 2
= 2(4 1)  1(2  1)  1(1  2) =  6 1 1  4
Therefore, The Characteristic equation is λ3 – 6 λ2 + 9λ – 4 = 0.
To Solve the Characteristic equation
λ3 – 6 λ2 + 9λ – 4 = 0.
If   1, then λ3 – 6λ2 + 9λ – 4= 1 – 6 +9 – 4 = 0
Therefore,   1 is a root.
By Synthetic division
1 6 9 4
1
0 1 5 4
1 5 4 0
Other roots are given by  2  5  4  0

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(  1)(  4)  0
i.e.,   1,   4
Hence , the Eigen values are λ = 1, 1, 4
To find the Eigen Vectors:
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0
 2 1 1  x1   0 
    
 1 2 1  x 2    0   (A)
 1 1 2      
  x 3   0 

Case (1) :  = 4 Equation (A) becomes

  2 1 1  x1   0 
    
 1  2 1  x 2    0 
 1 1 2    
  x 3   0 
2 x1  x2  x3  0  (1)
 x1  2 x2  x3  0  (2)
x1  x2  2 x3  0  (3)
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
x1 x2 x
  3
1  2 1  2 4  1
x1 x2 x3
 
3 3 3
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
1 1 1
1
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   1
1
 
Case (2) : = 1 Equation (A) becomes
 1 1 1  x1   0 
    
 1 1 1 x 2    0 
 1 1 1  x   0 
  3   
4 x1  2 x2  2 x3  0  (4)
2 x1  x2  x3  0  (5)
2 x1  x2  x3  0  (6)
(4) , (5) & (6) are same as
x1  x2  x3  0
If
x3  0 , x1  1 we get x2  1

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

1 
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector X 2  1 
0
 
Case (3) :  = 1
a 
 
Let the third eigen vector be X 3   b  and X 3 should be orthogonal with X 1 and X 2 .
c 
 
X 3 X1  0  a  b  c  0  (7)
T

X X 2  0  a  b  0c  0  (8)
T
3

Solving (7) & (8) by rule of cross multiplication, we get

a b c
 
0 1 1  0 1 1
a b c
 
1 1 2
  1
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector X 3   1 
 2
 

Eigenvector Normalized form

1  1 
 
   3
X 1   1   1 
1  
   3
 1 
 
 3
1   1 
 
   2
X 2  1   1 
0  2
   
 0 
 
 2

  1  1 
 
   6
X3   1   1 
 2  
   6
 2 
 
 6

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 1 1 1   1 1 1 
   
 3 2 6   3 3 3 
Normalized modal matrix N=  1 1 1  1 1 0 
 , N 
T

 3 2 6  2 2 2 
 1 0 2   1 1 2 
 3   6 6 
 2 6  6

To find AN:
 1 1 1 
 
3 2 6 
 2 1 1 
   1 1 1
AN   1 2 1  
 1 1 2   3 2 6
  1
 2 
 3 0
 6 
 2 11 2 1  0 2  1  2   4 1 1 
   
 3 2 6   3 2 6
 1  2  1 1  2  0 1  2  2   4 1 1 
 
 3 2 6   3 2 6 
 11 2 1 1  0 1  1  4   4 2 
 0
 3 2 6   3 6 
D  N T AN :
 1 1 1  4 1 1 
  
 3 3 3  3 2 6
 1 1 0   4 1 1 
D  N AN  
T
 
 2 2 2   3 2 6
 1 1 2  4 2 
0

 6 6 6   3 6 
 4  4  4 1 1  0 1  1  2 
 3 
 6 18  4 0 0
 
 4  4  0 11 0 1  1  0   
   0 1 0   D ( 4 , 1 , 1)
 6 2 12  
 0 0 1 
 4  4  8 1  1  0 11 4  
 
 18 12 6 
QUADRATIC FORM
A homogeneous polynomial of second degree in any number of variables is called quadratic
form. Every quadratic form can be expressed as 𝑋𝐴𝑋 𝑇 , where A is a symmetric matrix of the

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 2 1 1 
 coeff .x 2
coeff .xy
2
coeff .xz 
 
form A=  coeff . yx coeff . yz 
1 1
coeff . y 2
2 2 
 
 1 coeff .zx 1
coeff .zy coeff .z 
2 .
2 2 

CANONICAL FORM

Canonical form is equal to the sum or difference of squares of any number of variables.

Matrix form of the Canonical Form: Every canonical form can be expressed as Y TDY where

D is a diagonal matrix.

ORTHOGONAL REDUCTION

The orthogonal transformation X=NY reduces the quadratic form to canonical form provided

NTAN = D where N is normalized modal matrix.

Quadratic form = XTAX = (NY)TA(NY) = (YTNT)A(NY) = YT(NTAN)Y

= YT(D)Y

 y121  y222  y323

RANK OF THE QUADRATIC FORM (r)

The number of nonzero terms in the canonical form is called rank of the quadratic form.

INDEX OF THE QUADRATIC FORM (p)

The number of positive terms in the canonical form is called index of the quadratic form.

SIGNATURE OF THE QUADRATIC FORM (s)

The difference between positive and negative terms in the canonical form is called signature.

NATURE OF THE QUADRATIC FORM

Nature If the eigen values are known If the eigen values are unknown
Positive definite All the eigen values are positive D1,D2,D3 are positive

Negative definite All the eigen values are negative D1, D3 are negative D2 is positive

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

All the eigen values are positive and D10 , D2 0, D30 and
Positive semi definite
atleast one is zero atleast one is zero
All the eigen values are negative D1≤0 , D2 ≤0, D3 ≤ 0and atleast
Negative semi definite
and atleast one is zero one is zero
eigen values are positive and
Indefinite All the other cases
negative
a11 a12 a13
a11 a12
Where, D1  a11 , D2  , D3  a21 a22 a23 .
a21 a22
a31 a32 a33

REDUCTION OF QUADRATIC FORM TO CANONICAL FORM

20. Reduce the quadratic form x1  x2  2 x1 x2 into a canonical form by using orthogonal
2 2

transformation. Hence find its rank, index, signature and nature.

Solution:
 2 1 
 coeff .x 2
coeff .xy 
1 1
The symmetric matrix A=   = 
 1 coeff . yx coeff . y 2  1 1
 2 
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is  2  S1  S2  0
where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements = 1+1 = 2
1 1
S2 = A  0
1 1
Therefore, The Characteristic equation is λ2 -2λ = 0.
To solve the characteristic equation
λ2 -2λ = 0.
    2  0
 (  2)  0
i.e.,   0,   2
Hence , the Eigen values are λ = 0, 2.

To find the Eigen Vectors:

To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0

1   1   x1   0 
       (A)
 1 1    x2   0 

Case (1) :  = 0 Equation (A) becomes

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1 1  x1   0 
     
 1 1  x 2   0 
x1  x2  0  (1)
x1  x2  0  (2)
x1 x2
 x1   x2 ,  
1 1
 1
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   
1

Case (2) :  = 2 Then equation (A) becomes

 1 1   x1   0   x1  x2  0  (3)
      , x1  x2  0  (4)
 1 1  x 2   0 
Solving (4) & (5) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
  x1   x2
x1 x2

1 1
 1
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   
 1
Orthogonal Condition:
 1
X 1 X 2    1 1  0
T

1
They are pairwise Orthogonal.

Eigenvector Normalised form Eigen vector Normalized form

 1  1   1 
X1     2   1  2 
1   X2    
 1   1  1 
   
 2   2

 1 1   1 1 
 2 
2  2 2 
Normalized modal matrix N=  , N 
T

 1 1   1 1 
 2   2 2 
 2 

To find AN:

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 1 1   1 1 1 1 
   
 1 1  2 
2  2  2 2 2  0 2
AN      
 1 1  1 1   1
 
1 1

1  0 2 
 2 2   2 2 
 2 2
D  N AN :
T

 1 1 
 2 2  0 2
D  N AN  
T
 
 1 1  0 2 
 2 2 

0 1  1 0 0 
    D ( 0, 2 )
0 1  1  0 2 
0 0   y1 
Canonical Form is Y T (N T AN)Y = Y T DY =  y1 y2    
 0 2   y2 
 0y1  2y2
2 2

Rank (r) = 1 ( No. of non zero terms in the canonical form)

Index (p) = 1 ( No. of Positive terms in the canonical form )
Signature (s) = 2p – r = 2(1) – 1= 1
Nature: Positive Semi-definite.
21. Reduce the quadratic form 8x1  7 x2  3x3  12 x1 x2  8x2 x3  4 x3 x1 into a canonical form by
2 2 2

using orthogonal transformation. Hence find its rank, index, signature and nature.
Solution:
 2 1 1 
 coeff .x 2
coeff .xy
2
coeff .xz 
   8 6 2 
 
The symmetric matrix A =  coeff . yx coeff . y coeff . yz  =  6 7 4 
1 2 1
2 2 
   2 4 3 
1
 coeff .zx 1
coeff .zy coeff .z 2 
2 2 
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is   S1  S2  S3  0
3 2

where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements=8+7+3 = 18

S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
8 6 7 4 8 2
=  
6 7 4 3 2 3
=(56 – 36)+(21 – 16)+(24 – 4)=20+5+20 = 45

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2 1 1
S3 = A  1 1 2
1 2 1
= 8(21 16)  6(18  8)  2(24 14)  40  60  20  0
Therefore, the characteristic equation is λ3 – 18 λ2 +45λ = 0.

To solve the characteristic equation

λ3 – 18 λ2 +45λ= 0.
   2  18  45  0
 (  3)(  15)  0
i.e.,   0,   3,   15
Hence , the eigen values of A are λ = 0, 3, 15

To find the Eigen Vectors:

To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0
 8 6 2  x1   0 
    
 6 7 4  x 2    0   (A)
 2 4 3      
  x 3   0 

Case (1) :  = 0 Equation (A) becomes

 8 6 2  x1   0 
    
 6 7 4  x 2    0 
 2 4 3  x   0 
  3   
8 x1  6 x2  2 x3  0  (1)
 6 x1  7 x2  4 x3  0  (2)
2 x1  4 x2  3x3  0  (3)
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
x1 x2 x3
 
24  14 12  32 56  36
x1 x2 x3
 
10 20 20
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
1 2 2

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1
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   2 
 2
 
Case (2) :  = 3 Equation (A) becomes
 5 6 2  x1   0 
    
 6 4 4  x 2    0 
 2 4 0  x   0 
  3   

5 x1  6 x2  2 x3  0  (4)
 6 x1  4 x2  4 x3  0  (5)
2 x1  4 x2  0 x3  0  (6)
Solving (4) & (5) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
x1 x2 x3
 
24  8 12  20 20  36
x1 x2 x
  3
16 8 16
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
2 1 2
 2
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   1 
 2 
 
Case (3) :  = 15 Equation (A) becomes
  7 6 2  x1   0 
    
  6  8 4  x 2    0 
 2 4 12    
  x 3   0 

 7 x1  6 x2  2 x3  0  (7)
 6 x1  8 x2  4 x3  0  (8)
2 x1  4 x2  12 x3  0  (9)

Solving (7) & (8) by rule of cross multiplication, we get

x1 x2 x3
 
24  16 12  28 56  36
x1 x x
 2  3
40 40 20
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
2 2 1

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 2
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 3   2 
1
 

Eigenvector Normalised form

1 1
  3
X1   2   
 2 2
 
3
 
 2 
3
 2  2 
   3 
X2   1   
 2   1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 3 
 2  2 
   3 
X 3   2   
1
   2 
 3 
 
 1 
 3 

1 2 2  1 2 2 
3 3 3  3 3 3 
   
2 2
Normalized modal matrix N=   , NT   2 
2 1 1
3 3 3  3 3 3 
   
 2 2 1   2 2 1 
 3 3 3   3 3 3 
To find AN:

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1 2 2
3 3 3 
 8 6 2  
   2 1 2 
AN   6 7 4 
3 3 3 
 2 4 3   

 2 2 1 
 3 3 3 
 8  12  4 16  6  4 16  12  2 
 3 3 3 
  0 2 10 
6  14  8 12  7  8 12  14  4  
   0 1 10 
 3 3 3 
  0 2 5 
 28 6 446 483  
 3 3 3 
D  N T AN :
 1 2 2 
 3 3 3 
  0 2 10 
2  0 1
D  N AN   10 
T 2 1
3 3 3 
  0 2 5 
 2 2 1 
 3 3 3 
 224 10  20  10 
0 3 3 
  0 0 0
4 1 4 20  10  10  
 0  0 3 0   D ( 0,3,15)
 3 3  
  0 0 15
0 4  2 2 20  20  5  
 3 3 
 y1 
0 0 0   
 
Canonical Form is Y T (N T AN)Y = Y T DY =  y1 y2 y3   0 3 0   y 2 
0 0 15  
 y3 
 0y1  3y2  15y3
2 2 2

Rank (r) = 2 (No. of non zero terms in the canonical form)

Index (p) = 2 ( No. of positive terms in the canonical form )
Signature (s) = 2p – r = 2(2) – 2= 2
Nature: Positive Semi-definite.
22. Reduce the quadratic form 6 x  3 y  3z  4 xy  2 yz  4 xz into a canonical form by using
2 2 2

orthogonal transformation. Hence find its rank, index, signature and nature.
Solution:

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 2 1 1 
 coeff .x 2
coeff .xy
2
coeff .xz 
   6 2 2 
The symmetric matrix A=  coeff . yx coeff . yz  =  2 3 1 
1 1
coeff . y 2
2 2 
   2 1 3 
 1 coeff .zx 1
coeff .zy coeff .z 
2

2 2 
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0
where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements=6 + 3 + 3 = 12
S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
3 1 6 2 6 2
=  
1 3 2 3 2 3
=( 9 – 1) + (18 – 4 ) + ( 18 – 4 ) = 8+ 14 + 14 = 36
6 2 2
S3 = A  2 3 1
2 1 3
= 6(9  1)  2(6  2)  2(2  6)
= 6(8)  2(4)  2(4)  48  8  8  32
Therefore, the characteristic equation is λ3 – 12 λ2 + 36λ – 32 = 0.
To Solve the Characteristic equation
λ3 – 12 λ2 + 36λ – 32 = 0.
If   2, then λ3 – 12 λ2 + 36λ – 32 = 8 – 42 +72 – 32 = 0
Therefore,   2 is a root.
By Synthetic division
1 12 36 32
2
0 2 20 32
1 10 16 0
The other roots are given by  2  10  16  0
(  8)(  2)  0
i.e.,   8,   2
Hence , the Eigen values are λ = 8, 2, 2
To find the Eigen Vectors:
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0

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 6 2 2  x1   0 
    
 2 3 1  x 2    0   (A)
 2 1 3      
  x 3   0 

Case (1) :  = 8 Equation (A) becomes

 2 2 2  x1   0 
    
 2  5 1  x 2    0 
 2 1 5    
  x 3   0 
2 x1  2 x2  2 x3  0  (1)
2 x1  5 x2  x3  0  (2)
2 x1  x2  5 x3  0  (3)
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
x1 x2 x
  3
2  10 4  2 10  4
x1 x2 x3
 
12 6 6
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
2 1 1
2
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   1
1
 
Case (2) :  = 2 Equation (A) becomes
 4 2 2  x1   0 
    
 2 1 1  x 2    0 
 2 1 1  x   0 
  3   
4 x1  2 x2  2 x3  0  (4)
2 x1  x2  x3  0  (5)
2 x1  x2  x3  0  (6)
(4) , (5) & (6) are same as
2 x1  x2  x3  0
If
x1  0 , we get  x2  x3  0
 x2   x3
x2  x3
x2 x3
i.e., 
1 1

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

0
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector X 2  1 
1 
 
Case (3) :  = 2
a 
 
Let the third eigen vector be X 3   b  and X 3 should be orthogonal with X 1 and X 2
c 
 
X1 X 3  0  2a  b  c  0  (7)
T

X 2 X 3  0  0a  b  c  0  (8)
T

Solving (7) & (8) by rule of cross multiplication, we get

a b c
 
1  1 0  2 2  0
a b c
 
2 2 2
a b c
i.e.,  
1 1 1
 1
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector X 3   1
 1 
 
Eigenvector Normalised form
2  2 
   
X 1   1   6
1  1 
 
 
 6
 1 
 
 6
0  0 
   
X 2  1   2
1   1 
 
 2 

 1 
 
 2

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 1  1 
   
X 3   1  3
 1   1 
 
 
 3
 1 
 
 3

 2 1  2 1 1 
 0   
 6 3  6 6 6 
 1 1 1  1 1 
 , N  0
T
Normalized modal matrix N= 
 6 2 3  2 2 
 1 1 1   1 1 1 
 6   3 3 3 
 2 3 

To find AN:
 2 1 
 0 
6 3
 6 2 2   
   1 1 1
AN   2 3 1   
 2 1 3   6 2 3
  1 1 1 

 6 2 3 

12  2  2 022 6  2  2   16 2 
   0 
 6 2 3   6 3
 4  3  1 0  3 1 2  3  1   8 2 2 
 
 6 2 3   6 2 3 
 4 1 3 0 1  3 2 1  3   8 2 2 
 3   6 3 
 6 2 2
D  N T AN :

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 2 1 1   16 2 
  0 
 6 6 6  6 3
 1 1   8 2 2 
D  N AN  
T
0  
 2 2   6 2 3
 1 1 1   8 2 2 

 3 3 3   6 2 3 
 32  8  8 022 422
 6 
 12 18  8 0 0
 
 088 022 0 22  
   0 2 0   D (8, 2, 2 )
 12 2 6  
0 0 2 
 16  8  8 022 2 2 2 
 3 
 18 6

8 0 0   1 
y
   
Canonical Form is Y T (N T AN)Y = Y T DY =  y1 y2 y3   0 2 0   y 2 
0 0 2   
 y3 
 8y12  2y22  2y32
Rank (r) = 3 (No. of non zero terms in canonical form)
Index (p) = 3 ( No. of Positive terms in canonical form)
Signature (s) = 2p – r = 2(3) – 3 = 3
Nature: Positive definite.

23. Reduce the quadratic form 2 x1  x2  x3  2 x1 x2  4 x2 x3  2 x3 x1 into a canonical form by

2 2 2

using orthogonal transformation. Hence find its rank, index, signature and nature.
Solution:

 2 1 1 
 coeff.x 2
coeff.xy
2
coeff.xz   2 1  1
   
The symmetric matrix A=  1 coeff. yx 2 
coeff. yz  
coeff. y 2
1 = 1 1
 
2

2
  1 2 1 
 1 coeff.zx 1
coeff.zy coeff.z 
2

2 2 
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0
where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements=2 + 1 + 1 = 4
S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
1 2 2 1 2 1
=  
2 1 1 1 1 1

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

=1 – 4 + 2 - 1 + 2 – 1 = -3 +1 +1 = - 1
2 1 1
S3 = A  1 1 2
1 2 1
= 2(1  4) 1(1  2) 1(2  1)
=  6  1  1  4
Therefore, The Characteristic equation is λ3 – 4 λ2 – λ +4 = 0.
To Solve the Characteristic equation
λ3 – 4 λ2 – λ +4 = 0
If   1, then λ3 – 12 λ2 + 36λ – 32 = 1– 4 –1 +4 = 0
Therefore,   1 is a root.
By Synthetic division
1  4 1 4
1
0 1 3 4
1 3 4 0
Other roots are given by  2  3  4  0
(  4)(  1)  0
i.e.,   4,   1
Hence , the Eigen values are λ = –1 , 1, 4
To find the Eigen Vectors:
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0
 2 1  1  x1   0 
    
 1 1  2  x 2    0   (A)
 1 2 1      
  x 3   0 

Case (1) :  = –1 Equation (A) becomes

 3 1  1 x1   0 
    
 1 2 2  x 2    0 
  1 2 2  x   0 
  3   
3x1  x2  x3  0  (1)
x1  2 x2  2 x3  0  (2)
 x1  2 x2  2 x3  0  (3)
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

x1 x2 x
  3
2  2 1  6 6  1
x1 x2 x3
 
0 5 5
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
0 1 1
0
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   1 
1
 
Case (2) :  = 1 Then equation (A) becomes
 1 1  1 x1   0 
    
 1 0 2  x 2    0 
  1 2 0  x   0 
  3   
x1  x2  x3  0  (4)
x1  0 x2  2 x3  0  (5)
 x1  2 x2  0 x3  0  (6)
Solving (4) & (5) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
x1 x2 x
  3
2  0 1  2 0  1
x1 x2 x3
 
2 1 1
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
2 1 1
2
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   1
1
 
Case (3) :  = 4 Then equation (A) becomes
 2 1  1 x1   0 
    
 1  3 2  x 2    0 
  1 2 3  x   0 
  3   
 2 x1  x2  x3  0  (7)
x1  3x2  2 x3  0  (8)
 x1  2 x2  3x3  0  (9)
Solving (7) & (8) by rule of cross multiplication, we get

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

x1 x2 x
  3
2  3 1  4 6  1
x1 x2 x3
 
5 5 5
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
1 1 1
1
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 3   1 
 1
 
Eigenvector Normalised form
 0 
 
0  2
   1 
X1   1   2
1  
   1 
 
 2
 2 
 
2  6
   1 
X 2   1  
1  6
   1 
 
 6
 1 
 
 3
1
   1 
X3   1   
 1  3
   1 
 
 3
 2 1   1 1 
 0  0 
 6 3   2 2 
 1 1 1   2 1 1 
 , N 
T
Normalized modal matrix N=  
 2 6 3   6 6 6 
 1 1 1   1 1 1 
   3 
 2 6 3   3 3 

To find AN:

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 2 1 
 0 
 1  6 3 
 2 1
  1 1 1 
AN   1 1 2   
 1 2 1  
2 6 3 
 1 1
 1 
 
 2 6 3 
 0 11 4 11 2 11   2 4 
   0 
 2 6 3   6 3
 0 1 2 2 1 2 1  1  2   1 1 4 
 
 2 6 3   2 6 3 
 0  2 1 2  2  1 1  2  1   1 1 4 
 3   2 3 
 2 6 6
D  N T AN :

 y1 
 1 0 0   
 
Canonical Form is Y T (N T AN)Y = Y T DY =  y1 y2 y3   0 1 0   y 2 
 0 0 4   
 
 y3 
 1y1  y2  4y3
2 2 2

Rank (r) = 3 (No. of non zero terms in the canonical form)

Index (p) = 2 ( No. of positive terms in the canonical form )
Signature (s) = 2p – r = 2(2) – 3= 1
Nature: indefinite.
24. Reduce the quadratic form 2 x  5 y  3z  4 xy to canonical form through orthogonal
2 2 2

transformation. Find also its nature.

Solution:

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 2 1 1 
 coeff .x 2
coeff .xy
2
coeff .xz 
   2 2 0
 
The symmetric matrix A=  coeff . yx coeff . yz  =  2
1 2 1
coeff . y 5 0
2 2 
   0 0 3 
 1 coeff .zx 1
coeff .zy coeff .z 
2

2 2 
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0
where S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements=2 + 5 + 3 = 10
S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
5 0 2 0 2 2
=    15  6  (10  4)  27
0 3 0 3 2 5
2 2 0
S3 = A  2 5 0  2(15  0)  2(6  0)  0  18
0 0 3
Therefore, the Characteristic equation is λ3 – 10 λ2 + 27λ -18 = 0.
To Solve the Characteristic equation
λ3 – 10 λ2 – 27λ +18 = 0
If   1, then λ3 – 10 λ2 – 27λ +18 = 1- 10 +27 -18 = 0

Therefore,   1 is a root.
By Synthetic division
1  10 27  18
1
0 1 9 18
1 9 18 0

The other roots are given by  2  9  18  0

(  6)(  3)  0
i.e.,   6,   3
Hence , the Eigen values are λ = 1, 3, 6
To find the Eigen Vectors:
To get the Eigenvectors, solve ( A   I ) X  0

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 2 2 0  x1   0 
    
 2 5 0  x 2    0   (A)
 0 3      
 0  x 3   0 
Case (1) :  = 1 Then equation (A) becomes
1 2 0  x1   0 
    
2 4 0  x 2    0   (A)
0 0 2    
  x 3   0 
x1  2 x2  0 x3  0  (1)
2 x1  4 x2  0 x3  0  (2)
0 x1  0 x2  2 x3  0  (3)
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
x1 x x
 2  3
4 0 0 2 2 4
0 2 2 0 0 0
x1 x2 x3
 
8 4 0
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
2 1 0
2
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 1   1
0
 
Case (2) :  = 3 Then equation (A) becomes
 1 2 0  x1   0 
    
 2 2 0  x 2    0   (A)
 0 0 0  x   0 
  3   
 x1  2 x2  0 x3  0  (4)
2 x1  2 x2  0 x3  0  (5)
0 x1  0 x2  0 x3  0  (6)
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

x1 x2 x3
 
2 0 0 1 1 2
2 0 0 2 2 2
x1 x2 x3
 
0 0 6
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
0 0 1
0 0
   
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   0   X2  0
 1 1
   
Case (3) :  = 6 Then equation (A) becomes
 4 2 0  x1   0 
    
 2  1 0  x 2    0   (A)
0   
0 3  x 3   0  

 4 x1  2 x2  0  (4)
2 x1  x2  0  (5)
0 x1  0 x2  3x3  0  (6)
Solving (1) & (2) by rule of cross multiplication, we get
x1 x2 x3
 
1 3 3 2 2 1
0 3 3 0 0 0
x1 x2 x3
 
3 6 0
x x x
i.e., 1  2  3
1 2 0
1
 
Hence, the corresponding Eigen vector is X 2   2 
0
 

Eigenvector Normalised form

2  2 
   5 
X 1   1  
0  1 
 
 5 

 0 
 
 

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

0 0
   
X2  0 0
1 1
   

1  1 
   5 
X2   2 
0  2 
 
 5 

 0 
 
 
Normalized modal matrix

 2 1 
 5 0  2 1 
5  0
  5 5
 1 2   
N 0 , NT   0 0 1
5 5  
  1 2
 0 1 0   0
   5 5 
To find AN :
 2 6 
 2 1  420 240   0
 0 0 5
5   5  
5

 2 2 0  5 5
 1 12 
   1 2   45 2  10  0    0
AN   2 5 0  0  0 5
5  5  
5
0 0 
3  
5 5
     0 3 0 
 0 1 0   0 3 0   
    
D  N T AN :
 2
6 
 2 1   0
 0 5 1 0 0
5
5 5    
   1
12  
D  N T AN   0 0 1  
0   0 3 0   D
   5 5
 0 0 6 
3 0  
1 2
 0  0
 5 5   

Thus A has been diagonalized by N through the orthogonal transformation.

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 y1 
1 0 0  
 
Canonical Form is Y T (N T AN)Y = Y T DY =  y1 y2 y3   0 3 0   y 2 
0 0 6  
 
 y3 
 y1  3 y2  6 y3
2 2 2

Nature: Positive definite.

25. The Eigen vectors of a 33 real symmetric matrix A corresponding to the eigen values 2,3,6
are (1,0,-1)T, (1,1,1)T and (1,-2,1)T respectively. Find the matrix A.
Solution:
We know that the eigen vectors of a real symmetric matrix
 1  1  1 
 0  , 1 ,  2  are pairwise orthogonal
     .
 1 1  1 

The normalized modal matrix

 1 1 1 
 
 2 3 6
 1 2
N=  0 
 3 6 
 1 1 1 
 2 6 
 3

Also D = NT A N

Now N D NT = N (NT A N) NT
= (N NT) A (N NT)
=IAI
Hence N D NT = A, since N is an orthogonal matrix and N NT = I.

 1 1 1   1 1 
   0 
 2 3 6 2 0 0  2 2 
 
 1  2   1 1 1 
A  0  0 3 0  3
 3 6  3 3 
 0 0 6  
 1 1 1   1 2 1 
   6 6 
 2 3 6   6

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 200 03 0 006  1 1 

  0 
 2 3 6  2 2 
 000 030 0  0  12   1 1 1 

 2 3 6   3 3 3 
 2  0  0 03 0 006  1 2 1 
 6   6 
 2 3 6 6
 2 3 6  1 1 
  0 
 2 3 6  2 2 
 3 12   1 1 1 
 0
 3 6   3 3 3 
 2 3 6  1 2 1 
 2 6   6 
 3 6 6
 2 3 6 3 12 2 3 6 
 236 0 
3 6
 
2 3 6   3 1 1 
 
3 12   
 0 
3 12 3 24
0  0  =  1 5 1
 3 6 3 6 3 6 
   1 1 3 

 36
2 3 12 2 3 6 
0   
 2 3 6 3 6 2 3 6 
 3 1 1 
Therefore, the matrix A=  1 5 1
 1 1 3 
26. Identify the nature, index and signature of the quadratic form 2 x1 x2  2 x2 x3  2 x3 x1 .
Solution:
0 1 1
 1  .
The matrix of the quadratic form is given by A  1 0
1 1 0 
The characteristics equation is λ3 – S1 λ2 + S2 λ – S3 = 0.
S1 = Sum of the main diagonal elements = 0
S2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal element  (0 1)  (0 1)  (0 1)  3 ;
S3 = A = –1(0 – 1) + 1(1 – 0) = 2
The characteristics equation is λ3 –3λ – 2 = 0.
(λ + 1)2( λ–2) = 0  The eigen values of A are λ = –1,–1,2.
Nature: indefinite
Rank (r) = Number of non-zero eigen values = 3
Index (p) = Number of positive eigen values = 1
Signature (s) = 2p – r =2(1) – 3 = –1.

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

27. Find the rank, index and signature of the Quadratic form whose Canonical form is
x12  2x 22  3x 32 .
Solution :
Rank (r) = Number of non-zero terms in the C.F = 3
Index (p) = Number of Positive terms in the C.F = 2
Signature (s) = 2p – r =1

28. Write down the matrix of the quadratic form 2 x2  8z 2  4 xy  10 xz  2 yz .

Solution :
The matrix of the quadratic form is given by
a11 = coeff of x 2 = 2 , a 22 = coeff of y 2 = 0 , a 33 = coeff of z 2 = 8
1 4 1 10
a12 =a 21 = (coeff of xy) = =2, a13 = a 31 = (coeff of xz) = =5
2 2 2 2
1 -2
a 23 =a 32 = (coeff of yz) = =-1
2 2
2 2 5
  1
 A  2 0
5 1 8 
29. Determine  so that  (x2 + y2 +z2) + 2xy – 2xz + 2zy is positive definite.
  1  1
 
Solution: The matrix of the given quadratic form is A   1  1 
 1 1  
 
The principal sub determinants are given by
 1
D1 = , D2 =  2  1  (  1)(  1) & D3 = |A| = (+1)2( -2)
1 
The Quadratic form is +ve definite if D1, D2& D3> 0 > 2.
30. What is the nature of the quadratic form x2 + y2 + z2 in four variables?
1 0 0 0
 
 0 1 0 0
Solution: The matrix of the given quadratic form is A  .
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 0
Since the matrix is the diagonal matrix, its main diagonal elements are its eigen values.
The eigen values are 1,1,1,0. Hence the nature is positive semi definite.
 0 5  1
 1 6  .
31. Write down the quadratic form corresponding to the matrix A   5
 1 6 2 

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

Solution :
 0 5  1  x1 
 6  x 
Quadratic form of A is given by XTAX =  x1 x2 x3   5 1  2
 1 6 2   x3 
= 0x12  x 22 +2x 32  10 x1 x2  12 x2 x3  2 x3 x1 .
CAYLEY-HAMILTON THEOREM
Statement: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
1 2  4
32. Verify that A=   satisfies its own characteristic equation and hence find A .
 2 1
Solution:
1 2 
Let A   
 2 1
The Characteristic equation of A is: A  I  0
λ2 – S1λ + S2 = 0
i.e.,
where, S1 = Sum of the diagonal elements = (1) + ( –1) = 0
1 2
S2 = |A| = = –1–4= –5
2 1
Hence the characteristic equation is
λ2 – (0)λ + ( – 5 ) = 0
λ2 – 5 = 0
Cayley-Hamilton theorem states that “ Every Square matrix satisfies its own characteristic
equation “
 A2 – 5I  0 ________________________________________ (1)
 1 2  1 2   1  4 2  2   5 0 
Verification: Find A2 as A2 =A*A=    =  = 
 2 1 2 1  2  2 4  1   0 5 
and then prove A2 – 5I = 0
 5 0 1 0  0 0
   5  
 0 5  0 1  0 0
Hence, Cayley-Hamilton theorem is verified.
To find A4: Pre multiply A2 on both sides of Eqn. (1) and get A4 – 5A2 = 0
A4 = 5A2
 5 0
=5  
 0 5
 25 0 
 A4   
 0 25 
1 2 1
33. Given A    , Find A using Cayley – Hamilton theorem.
 4 3 

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

Solution : The characteristic equation of A is  2 - S1   S2 = 0 ,

Here, S1 = 4 and S2 = - 5  2 - 4  - 5 = 0 .
By Cayley – Hamilton theorem A2 – 4 A – 5I = 0.
 3 2
1 5 5
Multiply by A1 , we get A – 4 I – 5 A1 = 0  A 1  [ A  4I ]   
5 4 1 
 5 5 
1 3 7
 
34. Verify Cayley- Hamilton theorem for the matrix A=  4 2 3  and hence find A4 and A–1.
1 2 1 

Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0

Where S1 = Sum of the diagonal elements=1+2+1=4

S 2 = Sum of the minors of the diagonal elements.
2 3 1 7 1 3
=   =(2-6)+(1-7)+(2-12)=-4-6-10=-20
2 1 1 1 4 2
1 3 7
S3 = A  4 2 3 = 1(2  6)  3(4  3)  7(8  2)  4  3  42  35
1 2 1
Therefore, the Characteristic equation is: λ3 –4λ2 -20λ-35 = 0 __________(1)
Verification:
Replace λ by A in Eqn. (1)
A3 –4A2 -20A- 35I = 0 _____________________________(2).
To find A2
 1 3 7  1 3 7 
  
A  A  A   4 2 3  4 2 3 
2

 1 2 1  1 2 1 
  
1  12  7 3  6  14 797 
 
  483 12  4  6 28  6  3 
 1 8 1 3  4  2 7  6  1 

 20 23 23 
 
  15 22 37 
 10 9 14 


SRM IST, Ramapuram. 47 Department of Mathematics

18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

 20 23 23  1 3 7 
  
A  A  A   15 22 37  4 2 3 
3 2

 10 9 14  1 2 1 
  
 20  92  23 60  46  46 140  69  23 
 
  15  88  37 45  44  74 105  66  37 
 10  36  14 30  18  28 70  27  14 
 
 135 152 232 
 
 140 163 208 
 60 76 111 
 
Substituting A3 , A2& A in (2)
A3 –4A2 -20A- 35I = 0
 135 152 232   20 23 23  1 3 7 1 0 0 0 0 0
         
140 163 208  -4  15 22 37  -20  4 2 3  -35  0 1 0  =  0 0 0 
 60 76 111   10 9 14  1 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
         
135 152 232   80 92 92   20 60 140   35 0 0   0 0 0 
         
140 163 208    60 88 148    80 40 60  -  0 35 0  =  0 0 0 
 60 76 111   40 36 56   20 40 20   0 0 35   0 0 0 
         
Therefore, L. H. S = R. H. S
Hence, Cayley-Hamilton theorem is verified.
To find A4
A3 –4A2 -20A- 35I = 0 ______________________________(3)
Pre-Multiply ‘A’ in Eqn. (3)
A4 –4A3 -20 A2- 35A = 0
A4 = 4A3 +20 A2+35A
 135 152 232   20 23 23  1 3 7
     
=4 140 163 208  +20  15 22 37  +35  4 2 3 
 60 76 111   10 9 14  1 2 1
     
 540 608 928   400 460 460   35 105 245 
     
=  560 652 832  +  300 440 740  + 140 70 105 
 240 304 444   200 180 280   35 70 35 
     
 975 1173 1633 
 
= 1000 1162 1677 
 475 554 759 
 
-1
To find A
From Eqn. (3), A3 –4A2 -20A- 35I = 0 _____________________________(4)
-1
Pre-Multiply ‘A ’ in Eqn. (4)
A2 –4A -20 I- 35 A-1 = 0

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 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

A1 
1
35
 A2  4 A  20 I 

 20 23 23   1 3 7   1 0 0 
1      
  15 22 37   4  4 2 3   20  0 1 0  
35 
 10 9 14   1 2 1   0 0 1 
 
 20 23 23   4 12 28   20 0 0  
1      
  15 22 37   16 8 12    0 20 0  
35 
 10 9 14   4 8 4   0 0 20  
 4 11 5 
1  
A   1 6 25 
-1

35  
 6 1 10 
 1 2 2 
 
35. Using Cayley- Hamilton theorem for the matrix A=  2 5 4  and hence find A4 and A–1.
 3 7 5 
 
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is:   S1  S2  S3  0
3 2

Where, S1 = Sum of the diagonal elements: 1+5-5=1

S 2 = Sum of the minors of the main diagonal elements.
5 4 1 2 1 2
=   =(-25+28)+(-5+6)+(5-4)=3+1+1=5
7 5 3 5 2 5
1 2 2
S3 = A  2 5 4 = 1(25  28)  2(10  12)  2(14 15)  3  2(2)  2(1)  3  4  2  1
3 7 5

Therefore, The Characteristic equation is λ3 –λ2 +5λ-1 = 0 ___________(1)

Replace λ by A in Eqn. (1)
A3 –A2 +5A- I= 0 ___________________________ (2)
To find A4
A3 –A2 +5A- I = 0 ___________________________(3)
Pre-Multiply ‘A’ in Eqn. (3)
A4 –A3 +5A2- A = 0
A4 = A3 -5 A2+A _________________________(4)

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18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

To find A2
 1 2 2  1 2 2 
  
A  A  A   2 5 4  2 5 4 
2

 3 7 5  3 7 5 
  
 1 4  6 2  10  14 2  8  10 
 
  2  10  12 4  25  28 4  20  20 
 3  14  15 6  35  35 6  28  25 
 
 1 2 0 
 
  0 1 4 
 2 6 9 
 

Substituting A3 , A2& A in Eqn. (4)

 1 2 0  1 2 2 
  
A  A  A   0 1 4  2 5 4 
3 2

 2 6 9  3 7 5 
  
 1  4  0 2  10  0 280 
 
4
A =A   0  2  12 0  5  28 0  4  20  3 -5 A2+A
 2  12  27 4  30  63 4  24  45 
 
 5 12 10 
 
  10 23 16 
 13 29 17 
 
 5 12 10   1 2 0   1 2 2 
     
=  10 23 16  -5  0 1 4  +  2 5 4 
 13 29 17   2 6 9   3 7 5 
     
 5 12 10   5 10 0   1 2 2 
     
=  10 23 16  -  0 5 20  +  2 5 4 
 13 29 17   10 30 45   3 7 5 
     
 1 0 8
 
=  8 23 32 
 20 52 57 
 
-1
To find A
From Eqn. (3), A3 –A2 +5A- I = 0
Pre-Multiply ‘A-1’ in Eqn. (3)
A2 –A +5 I- A-1 = 0

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 50 Department of Mathematics

 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

A1  A2  A  5I
 1 2 0   1 2 2   5 0 0 
     
  0 1 4    2 5 4    0 5 0 
 2 6 9   3 7 5   0 0 5 
     
 3 4 2 
 
A   2 1 0 
-1

 1 1 1 
 
 1 2 1
 
36. Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem find the inverse of the given matrix A   2 2 1  .
 1 1 3
 
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0

Where S1 = Sum of the diagonal elements=1+2+3=6

S 2 = Sum of the minors of the diagonal elements.
2 1 1 1 1 2
=    (6  1)  (3  1)  (2  4)  5  2  2  5
1 3 1 3 2 2
1 2 1
S3 = A  2 2 1  1(6  1)  2(6  1)  1(2  2)  5  2(5)  0  5
1 1 3

Therefore, the Characteristic equation is:   6  5  5  0

3 2

Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem, [Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation]
A3  6 A2  5 A  5I  0
Multiply by A1 we get
A1  A3  6 A2  5 A  5I   0
A1 A3  6 A1 A2  5 A1 A  5 A1I  0
IA2  6 IA  5I  5 A1  0
A2  6 A  5I  5 A1  0

A1   6 A  A2  5I 
1
5

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 51 Department of Mathematics

 18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

To find A1 :
A2  A  A
 1 2 1  1 2 1  6 7 6 
  2 2 1    2 2 1    7 9 7 
 1 1 3   1 1 3   6 7 11
     
6 A  6I  A
 1 0 0   1 2 1   6 12 6 
  0 1 0    2 2 1   12 12 6 
 0 0 1   1 1 3   6 6 18 
     
 6 12 6   6 7 6  0 5 0 
6 A  A2  12 12 6    7 9 7    5 3 1
 6 6 18   6 7 11  0 1 7 
  
0 5 0  5 0 0   5 5 0 
6 A  A  5I   5 3 1   0
2
5 0    5 2 1
 0 1 7   0 0 5   0 1 2 
  
 5 5 0 
A1   5 2 1
1
5 
 0 1 2 
37. Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem, find the matrix represented by
2 1 1
 
A8  5 A7  7 A6  3 A5  A4  5 A3  8 A2  2 A  I when A   0 1 0  .
1 1 2
 
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is A  I  0
 The characteristic equation is  3  S1 2  S2  S3  0

Where S1 = Sum of the diagonal elements=2+1+2=5

S 2 = Sum of the minors of the diagonal elements.
1 0 2 1 2 1
=  
1 2 1 2 0 1
=(2-0)+(4-1)+(2-0)=2+3+2=7

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 52 Department of Mathematics

18MAB101T Calculus and Linear Algebra Matrices

2 1 1
S3 = A  0 1 0
1 1 2
= 2(2  0) 1(0  0)  1(0 1)  4 1  3
Therefore, The Characteristic equation is λ3 –5λ2 +7λ-3 = 0 _____________(1)
Replace λ by A in (1)
A3 –5A2 +7A- 3I= 0 ___________________________(2)

Cayley-Hamilton theorem states that “ Every Square matrix satisfies its own characteristic
equation “
 A3 – 5A2 + 7A – 3I = 0
A8  5 A7  7 A6  3 A5  A4  5 A3  8 A2  2 A  I

 A5 A3 – 5 A2  7 A – 3I  
 A A3 – 5 A2  7 A – 3I  – 15 A2  5 A – I
[from Eqn. (2)]
 – 15 A  5 A – I
2

To find A2
2 1 1 2 1 1
  
A  A* A   0
2
1 00 1 0
1 1 2   11 2 

 4  0 1 2 11 2  0  2
 
  0  0 1 0 1 0 0  0  0 
20 2 1  1  2 1  0  4 

5 4 4
 
 0 1 0
4 4 5
 

5 4 4  2 1 1 1 0 0
     
– 15 A  5 A – I  15  0
2
1 0   5 0 1 0  0 1 0
4 4 5   1 1 2   0 0 1 

 75 60 60  10 5 5  1 0 0
     
  0 15 0    0 5 0  0 1 0
 60 60 75   5 5 10   0 0 1 
  
 66 55 55 
 
  0 11 0 
 55 55 66 
 

*****

SRM IST, Ramapuram. 53 Department of Mathematics