Admas University, CoSc2032, Lecture Note

DATA COMMUUNICATION AND COMPUTER

NETWORKING BASICS

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the exchange of data between two parties.
Figure 1.1 presents one particular example, which is communication between a workstation and a server
over a public telephone network.
Another example is the exchange of voice signals between two telephones over the same network. The
key components of the model are as follows:
 Source. This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are telephones and personal
computers.
 Transmitter: Usually, the data generated by a source system are not transmitted directly in the
form in which they were generated. Rather, a transmitter transforms and encodes the information
in such a way as to produce electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort of
transmission system. For example, a modem takes a digital bit stream from an attached device
such as a personal computer and transforms that bit stream into an analog signal that can be
handled by the telephone network.
 Transmission system: This can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting
source and destination.
 Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a
form that can be handled by the destination device. For example, a modem will accept an analog
signal coming from a network or transmission line and convert it into a digital bit stream.
 Destination: Takes the incoming data from the receiver.

Figure 1.1 Simplified Communications Model

To get some flavor for the focus of data communication, Figure 1.2 provides a new perspective on the
communications model of Figure 1.1a. We trace the details of this figure using electronic mail as an
example. Suppose that the input device and transmitter are components of a personal computer. The
user of the PC wishes to send a message m to another user. The user activates the electronic mail
package on the PC and enters the message via the keyboard (input device). The character string is
briefly buffered in main memory. We can view it as a sequence of bits (g) in memory. The personal
computer is connected to some transmission medium, such as a local network or a telephone line, by an
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I/O device (transmitter), such as a local network transceiver or a modem. The input data are
transferred to the transmitter as a sequence of voltage shifts [g(t)] representing bits on some
communications bus or cable. The transmitter is connected directly to the medium and converts the
incoming stream [g(t)] into a signal [s(t)] suitable for transmission; specific alternatives will be
described later on coming sections.

The transmitted signal s(t) presented to the medium is subject to a number of impairments, discussed
in later section, before it reaches the receiver. Thus, the received signal r(t) may differ from s(t). The
receiver will attempt to estimate the original s(t), based on r(t) and its knowledge of the medium,
producing a sequence of bits These bits are sent to the output personal computer, where they are briefly
buffered in memory as a block of bits In many cases, the destination system will attempt to determine
if an error has occurred and, if so, cooperate with the source system to eventually obtain a complete,
error-free block of data. These data are then presented to the user via an output device, such as a printer
or screen. The message as viewed by the user will usually be an exact copy of the original message (m).

Now consider a telephone conversation. In this case the input to the telephone is a message (m) in the
form of sound waves. The sound waves are converted by the telephone into electrical signals of the
same frequency. These signals are transmitted without modification over the telephone line. Hence the
input signal g(t) and the transmitted signal s(t) are identical. The signals (t) will suffer some distortion
over the medium, so that r(t) will not be identical to s(t). Nevertheless, the signal r(t) is converted back
into a sound wave with no attempt at correction or improvement of signal quality. Thus, is not an exact
replica of m. However, the received sound message is generally comprehensible to the listener. The
discussion so far does not touch on other key aspects of data communications, including data link
control techniques for controlling the flow of data and detecting and correcting errors, and multiplexing
techniques for transmission efficiency

Figure 1.2 Simplified Data Communications Model

Modes of Data Transmission

Transmission Terminology
Data transmission occurs between transmitter and receiver over some transmission medium.
Transmission media may be classified as guided or unguided. In both cases, communication is in the
form of electromagnetic waves. With guided media, the waves are guided along a physical path;
examples of guided media are twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber. Unguided media, also
called wireless, provide a means for transmitting electromagnetic waves but do not guide them;
examples are propagation through air, vacuum, and seawater.
The term direct link is used to refer to the transmission path between two devices in which signals
propagate directly from transmitter to receiver with no intermediate devices, other than amplifiers or
repeaters used to increase signal strength. Note that this term can apply to both guided and unguided
media.

A guided transmission medium is point to point if it provides a direct link between two devices and

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those are the only two devices sharing the medium. In a multipoint guided configuration, more than
two devices share the same medium.
A transmission may be simplex, half duplex, or full duplex. In simplex transmission, signals are
transmitted in only one direction; one station is transmitter and the other is receiver. In half-duplex
operation, both stations may transmit, but only one at a time. In full-duplex operation, both stations may
transmit simultaneously. In the latter case, the medium is carrying signals in both directions at the same
time. How this can be is explained in due course. We should note that the definitions just given are the
ones in common use in the United States (ANSI definitions). Elsewhere (ITU-T definitions)
Transmission Media
In a data transmission system, the transmission medium is the physical path between transmitter and
receiver. For guided media, electromagnetic waves are guided along a solid medium, such as copper
twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, and optical fiber. For unguided media, wireless transmission occurs
through the atmosphere, outer space, or water.
The characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined both by the characteristics of the
medium and the characteristics of the signal. In the case of guided media, the medium itself is more
important in determining the limitations of transmission.
For unguided media, the bandwidth of the signal produced by the transmitting antenna is more important
than the medium in determining transmission characteristics. One key property of signals transmitted
by antenna is directionality. In general, signals at lower frequencies are omnidirectional; that is, the
signal propagates in all directions from the antenna. At higher frequencies, it is possible to focus the
signal into a directional beam.
In considering the design of data transmission systems, key concerns are data rate and distance: the
greater the data rate and distance the better. A number of design factors relating to the transmission
medium and the signal determine the data rate and distance:
 Bandwidth: All other factors remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a signal, the
higher the data rate that can be achieved.
 Transmission impairments: Impairments, such as attenuation, limit the distance. For guided
media, twisted pair generally suffers more impairment than coaxial cable, which in turn suffers
more than optical fiber.
 Interference: Interference from competing signals in overlapping frequency bands can distort
or wipe out a signal. Interference is of particular concern for unguided media, but is also a
problem with guided media. For guided media, interference can be caused by emanations from
nearby cables. For example, twisted pairs are often bundled together and conduits often carry
multiple cables. Interference can also be experienced from unguided transmissions. Proper
shielding of a guided medium can minimize this problem.
 Number of receivers: A guided medium can be used to construct a point-to-point link or a
shared link with multiple attachments. In the latter case, each attachment introduces some
attenuation and distortion on the line, limiting distance and/or data rate.

Protocols and Standards

 A protocol architecture is the layered structure of hardware and software that supports the
exchange of data between systems and supports distributed applications, such as electronic mail
and file transfer.
 At each layer of a protocol architecture, one or more common protocols are implemented in
communicating systems. Each protocol provides a set of rules for the exchange of data between
systems.
 The most widely used protocol architecture is the TCP/IP protocol suite, which consists of the
following layers: physical, network access, internet, transport, and application.

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 Another important protocol architecture is the seven-layer OSI model.

The Need for a Protocol Architecture

When computers, terminals, and/or other data processing devices exchange data, the procedures
involved can be quite complex. Consider, for example, the transfer of a file between two computers.
There must be a data path between the two computers, either directly or via a communication network.
But more is needed. Typical tasks to be performed are as follow:
1. The source system must either activate the direct data communication path or inform the
communication network of the identity of the desired destination system.
2. The source system must ascertain that the destination system is prepared to receive data.
3. The file transfer application on the source system must ascertain that the file management
program on the destination system is prepared to accept and store the file for this particular user.
4. If the file formats used on the two systems are different, one or the other system must perform
a format translation function.

It is clear that there must be a high degree of cooperation between the two computer systems. Instead
of implementing the logic for this as a single module, the task is
broken up into subtasks, each of which is implemented separately. In a protocol architecture, the
modules are arranged in a vertical stack. Each layer in the stack performs a related subset of the
functions required to communicate with another system. It relies on the next lower layer to perform
more primitive functions and to conceal the details of those functions. It provides services to the next
higher layer. Ideally, layers should be defined so that changes in one layer do not require changes in
other layers.
Of course, it takes two to communicate, so the same set of layered functions must exist in two systems.
Communication is achieved by having the corresponding, or peer, layers in two systems communicate.
The peer layers communicate by means of formatted blocks of data that obey a set of rules or
conventions known as a protocol. The key features of a protocol are as follows:
 Syntax: Concerns the format of the data blocks
 Semantics: Includes control information for coordination and error handling
 Timing: Includes speed matching and sequencing

The TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

The TCP/IP protocol architecture is a result of protocol research and development conducted on the
experimental packet-switched network, ARPANET, funded by the Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA), and is generally referred to as the TCP/IP protocol suite. This protocol suite
consists of a large collection of protocols that have been issued as Internet standards by the Internet
Activities Board (IAB).
The TCP/IP Layers
In general terms, communications can be said to involve three agents: applications, computers, and
networks. Examples of applications include file transfer and electronic mail. The applications that we
are concerned with here are distributed applications that involve the exchange of data between two
computer systems. These applications, and others, execute on computers that can often support multiple
simultaneous applications. Computers are connected to networks, and the data to be exchanged are
transferred by the network from one computer to another. Thus, the transfer of data from one application
to another involves first getting the data to the computer in which the application resides and then
getting the data to the intended application within the computer. With these concepts in mind, we can
organize the communication task into five relatively independent layers.
 Physical layer
 Network access layer
 Internet layer

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 Host-to-host, or transport layer
 Application layer
The physical layer covers the physical interface between a data transmission device (e.g., workstation,
computer) and a transmission medium or network. This layer is concerned with specifying the
characteristics of the transmission medium, the nature of the signals, the data rate, and related matters.
The network access layer is concerned with the exchange of data between an end system (server,
workstation, etc.) and the network to which it is attached. The sending computer must provide the
network with the address of the destination computer, so that the network may route the data to the
appropriate destination Regardless of the nature of the applications that are exchanging data, there is
usually a requirement that data be exchanged reliably. That is, we would like to be assured that all of
the data arrive at the destination application and that the data arrive in the same order in which they
were sent. As we shall see, the mechanisms for providing reliability are essentially independent of the
nature of the applications. Thus, it makes sense to collect those mechanisms in a common layer shared
by all applications; this is referred to as the host-to-host layer, or transport layer. The Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) is the most commonly used protocol to provide this functionality.
Finally, the application layer contains the logic needed to support the various user applications. For
each different type of application, such as file transfer, a separate module is needed that is peculiar to
that application.

The OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO)2 as a model for a computer protocol architecture and as a
framework for developing protocol standards. The OSI model consists of seven layers:
Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data link, Physical. Figure1.3 below illustrates
the OSI model and provides a brief definition of the functions performed at each layer. The intent of
the OSI model is that protocols be developed to perform the functions of each layer.

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Figure 1.3: The OSI Layers

Standardization of Protocols Architectures

The principal motivation for the development of the OSI model was to provide a framework for
standardization. Within the model, one or more protocol standards can be developed at each layer. The
model defines in general terms the functions to be performed at that layer and facilitates the standards-
making process in two ways:
 Because the functions of each layer are well defined, standards can be developed independently
and simultaneously for each layer. This speed up the standards-making process.
 Because the boundaries between layers are well defined, changes in standards in one layer need
not affect already existing software in another layer. This makes it easier to introduce new
standards.

Data Transmission and Representation Techniques

Digital Transmission
Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital. For a computer to use the data, it must
be in discrete digital form. Similar to data, signals can also be in analog and digital form. To transmit data
digitally, it needs to be first converted to digital form.

Digital-to-Digital Conversion
This section explains how to convert digital data into digital signals. It can be done in two ways, line

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coding and block coding. For all communications, line coding is necessary whereas block coding is
optional.

Line Coding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding. Digital data
is found in binary format. It is represented (stored) internally as series of 1s and 0s.

Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital data. There are three types
of line coding schemes available:

Unipolar Encoding
Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data. In this case, to represent
binary 1, high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no voltage is transmitted. It is also called
Unipolar-Non-return-to-zero, because there is no rest condition i.e. it either represents 1 or 0.

Polar Encoding
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values. Polar encodings is
available in four types:
Polar Non Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)
It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values. Generally, positive voltage represents 1
and negative value represents 0. It is also NRZ because there is no rest condition. NRZ scheme has two
variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.

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NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered whereas NRZ-I changes voltage
when a 1 is encountered.
Return to Zero (RZ)
Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and when the next bit is started,
in case when sender and receiver’s clock are not synchronized.

RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1, negative voltage to represent 0 and zero
voltage for none. Signals change during bits not between bits.

Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided into two halves. It transits
in the middle of the bit and changes phase when a different bit is encountered.
Differential Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also transits at the middle of the bit but changes
phase only when 1 is encountered.
Bipolar Encoding
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative, and zero. Zero voltage represents binary 0
and bit 1 is represented by altering positive and negative voltages.

Block Coding

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To ensure accuracy of the received data frame, redundant bits are used. For example, in even-parity, one
parity bit is added to make the count of 1s in the frame even. This way the original number of bits is
increased. It is called Block Coding.
Block coding is represented by slash notation, mB/nB. Means, m-bit block is substituted with n-bit block
where n > m. Block coding involves three steps:
1. Division
2. Substitution
3. Combination.
After block coding is done, it is line coded for transmission.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos, which are treated is analog data. To
transmit this analog data over digital signals, we need analog to digital conversion.
Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas digital data is discrete. To convert
analog wave into digital data, we use Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
PCM is one of the most commonly used method to convert analog data into digital form. It involves three
steps:
 Sampling
 Quantization
 Encoding.
Sampling

The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in sampling is the rate at
which analog signal is sampled. According to Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate must be at
least two times of the highest frequency of the signal.

Quantization
Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete pattern shows the amplitude
of the analog signal at that instance. The quantization is done between the maximum amplitude value
and the minimum amplitude value. Quantization is approximation of the instantaneous analog value.

Circuit Switching and packet Switching

Switching
Switching is a mechanism by which data/information sent from source towards destination which are not
directly connected. Networks have interconnecting devices, which receives data from directly connected

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sources, stores data, analyze it and then forwards to the next interconnecting device closest to the
destination.

Switched and Communication Networks

For transmission of data beyond a local area, communication is typically achieved by transmitting data
from source to destination through a network of intermediate switching nodes; this switched network
design is typically used to implement LANs as well. The switching nodes are not concerned with the
content of the data; rather, their purpose is to provide a switching facility that will move the data from
node to node until they reach their destination. Figure 1.4 below illustrates a simple network. The
devices attached to the network may be referred to as stations. The stations may be computers,
terminals, telephones, or other communicating devices. We refer to the switching devices whose
purpose is to provide communication as nodes. Nodes are connected to one another in some topology
by transmission links. Each station attaches to a node, and the collection of nodes is referred to as a
communications network.

In a switched communication network, data entering the network from a station are routed to the
destination by being switched from node to node. For example, in Figure 1.4, data from station A
intended for station F are sent to node 4. They may then be routed via nodes 5 and 6 or nodes 7 and 6
to the destination. Several observations are in order:
1. Some nodes connect only to other nodes (e.g., 5 and 7). Their sole task is the internal (to the
network) switching of data. Other nodes have one or more stations attached as well; in addition
to their switching functions, such nodes accept data from and deliver data to the attached
stations.
2. Node-station links are generally dedicated point-to-point links. Node-node links are usually
multiplexed, using either frequency division multiplexing (FDM) or time division multiplexing
(TDM).
3. Usually, the network is not fully connected; that is, there is not a direct link between every
possible pair of nodes. However, it is always desirable to have more than one possible path
through the network for each pair of stations. This enhances the reliability of the network.

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Figure 1.4 Simple Switching Network
Two different technologies are used in wide area switched networks: circuit switching and packet
switching. These two technologies differ in the way the nodes switch information from one link to
another on the way from source to destination.

Circuit Switched Network

Communication via circuit switching implies that there is a dedicated communication path between two
stations. That path is a connected sequence of links between network nodes. On each physical link, a
logical channel is dedicated to the connection. Communication via circuit switching involves three
phases, which can be explained with reference to Figure above simple Switching Network.
1. . Circuit establishment. Before any signals can be transmitted, an end-to-end (station-to-station)
circuit must be established. For example, station A sends a request to node 4 requesting a
connection to station E. Typically, the link from A to 4 is a dedicated line, so that part of the
connection already exists. Node 4 must find the next leg in a route leading to E. Based on routing
information and measures of availability and perhaps cost, node 4 selects the link to node 5,
allocates a free channel (using FDM or TDM) on that link, and sends a message requesting
connection to E. So far, a dedicated path has been established from A through 4 to 5. Because a
number of stations may attach to 4, it must be able to establish internal paths from multiple
stations to multiple nodes. How this is done is discussed later in this section. The remainder of
the process proceeds similarly. Node 5 allocates a channel to node 6 and internally ties that
channel to the channel from node 4. Node 6 completes the connection to E. In completing the
connection, a test is made to determine if E is busy or is prepared to accept the connection.
2. Data transfer. Data can now be transmitted from A through the network to E. The transmission
may be analog or digital, depending on the nature of the network. As the carriers evolve to fully
integrated digital networks, the use of digital (binary) transmission for both voice and data is
becoming the dominant method. The path is A-4 link, internal switching through 4, 4-5 channel,
internal switching through 5, 5-6 channel, internal switching through 6, 6-E link. Generally, the
connection is full duplex.
3. Circuit disconnects. After some period of data transfer, the connection is terminated, usually by
the action of one of the two stations. Signals must be propagated to nodes 4, 5, and 6 to
deallocate the dedicated resources

Circuit switching was developed to handle voice traffic but is now also used for data traffic. The best-
known example of a circuit-switching network is the public telephone network. A public
telecommunications network can be described using four generic architectural components:
 Subscribers: The devices that attach to the network. It is still the case that most subscriber
devices to public telecommunications networks are telephones, but the percentage of data traffic
increases year by year.
 Subscriber line: The link between the subscriber and the network, also referred to as the
subscriber loop or local loop. Almost all local loop connections use twisted-pair wire. The length
of a local loop is typically in a range from a few kilometers to a few tens of kilometers.
 Exchanges: The switching centers in the network. A switching center that directly supports
subscribers is known as an end office. Typically, an end office will support many thousands of
subscribers in a localized area. There are over 19,000 end offices in the United States, so it is
clearly impractical for each end office to have a direct link to each of the other end offices; this
would require on the order of links. Rather, intermediate switching nodes are used.
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 Trunks: The branches between exchanges. Trunks carry multiple voice frequency circuits using
either FDM or synchronous TDM.

Packet Switching
The long-haul circuit-switching telecommunications network was originally designed to handle voice
traffic, and the majority of traffic on these networks continues to be voice. A key characteristic of
circuit-switching networks is that resources within the network are dedicated to a particular call. For
voice connections, the resulting circuit will enjoy a high percentage of utilization because, most of the
time, one party or the other is talking. However, as the circuit-switching network began to be used
increasingly for data connections, two shortcomings became apparent:
 In a typical user/host data connection (e.g., personal computer user logged on to a database
server), much of the time the line is idle. Thus, with data connections, a circuit-switching
approach is inefficient.
 In a circuit-switching network, the connection provides for transmission at a constant data rate.
Thus, each of the two devices that are connected must transmit and receive at the same data rate
as the other. This limits the utility of the network in interconnecting a variety of host computers
and workstations.

To understand how packet switching addresses these problems, let us briefly summarize packet-
switching operation. Data are transmitted in short packets. A typical upper bound on packet length is
1000 octets (bytes). If a source has a longer message to send, the message is broken up into a series of
packets in figure 1.5 . Each packet contains a portion (or all for a short message) of the user’s data plus
some control information. The control information, at a minimum, includes the information that the
network requires to be able to route the packet through the network and deliver it to the intended
destination. At each node in route, the packet is received, stored briefly, and passed on to the next node.

Figure1.5: The Use of Packets

Let us return to Figure 1.4, simple packet switching, but now assume that it depicts a simple packet
switching network. Consider a packet to be sent from station A to station E. The packet includes control
information that indicates that the intended destination is E. The packet is sent from A to node 4. Node
4 stores the packet, determines the next leg of the route (say 5), and queues the packet to go out on that
link (the 4–5 link). When the link is available, the packet is transmitted to node 5, which forwards the
packet to node 6, and finally to E. This approach has a number of advantages over circuit switching:
 Line efficiency is greater, because a single node-to-node link can be dynamically shared by
many packets over time. The packets are queued up and transmitted as rapidly as possible over
the link. By contrast, with circuit switching, time on a node-to-node link is pre-allocated using
synchronous time division multiplexing. Much of the time, such a link may be idle because a
portion of its time is dedicated to a connection that is idle.
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 A packet-switching network can perform data-rate conversion. Two stations of different data
rates can exchange packets because each connects to its node at its proper data rate.
 When traffic becomes heavy on a circuit-switching network, some calls are blocked; that is, the
network refuses to accept additional connection requests until the load on the network decreases.
On a packet-switching network, packets are still accepted, but delivery delay increases.
 Priorities can be used. If a node has a number of packets queued for transmission, it can transmit
the higher-priority packets first. These packets will therefore experience less delay than lower-
priority packets.

Switching Technique

If a station has a message to send through a packet-switching network that is of length greater than the
maximum packet size, it breaks the message up into packets and sends these packets, one at a time, to
the network. A question arises as to how the network will handle this stream of packets as it attempts
to route them through the network and deliver them to the intended destination. Two approaches are
used in contemporary networks: datagram and virtual circuit.
In the datagram approach, each packet is treated independently, with no reference to packets that have
gone before.

Each node chooses the next node on a packet’s path, taking into account information received from
neighboring nodes on traffic, line failures, and so on. So the packets, each with the same destination
address, do not all follow the same route, and they may arrive out of sequence at the exit point. In this
example, the exit node restores the packets to their original order before delivering them to the
destination. In some datagram networks, it is up to the destination rather than the exit node to do the
reordering. Also, it is possible for a packet to be destroyed in the network. For example, if a packet-
switching node crashes momentarily, all of its queued packets may be lost. Again, it is up to either the
exit node or the destination to detect the loss of a packet and decide how to recover it. In this technique,
each packet, treated independently, is referred to as a datagram.

In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned route is established before any packets are sent. Once the
route is established, all the packets between a pair of communicating parties follow this same route
through the network. somewhat similar to a circuit in a circuit-switching network and is referred to as
a virtual circuit. Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier as well as data. Each node on the
preestablished route knows where to direct such packets; no routing decisions are required. At any time,
each station can have more than one virtual circuit to any other station and can have virtual circuits to
more than one station. So the main characteristic of the virtual circuit technique is that a route between
stations is set up prior to data transfer. Note that this does not mean that this is a dedicated path, as in
circuit switching. A transmitted packet is buffered at each node, and queued for output over a line, while
other packets on other virtual circuits may share the use of the line. The difference from the datagram
approach is that, with virtual circuits, the node need not make a routing decision for each packet. It is
made only once for all packets using that virtual circuit.

If two stations wish to exchange data over an extended period of time, there are certain advantages to
virtual circuits. First, the network may provide services related to the virtual circuit, including
sequencing and error control. Sequencing refers to the fact that, because all packets follow the same
route, they arrive in the original order. Error control is a service that assures not only that packets arrive
in proper sequence, but also that all packets arrive correctly. For example, if a packet in a sequence
from node 4 to node 6 fails to arrive at node 6, or arrives with an error, node 6 can request a
retransmission of that packet from node 4. Another advantage is that packets should transit the network
more rapidly with a virtual circuit; it is not necessary to make a routing decision for each packet at each
node
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COMPUTER NETWORKING
A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as printers is called computer
network. This interconnection among computers facilitates information sharing among them.
Computers may connect to each other by either wired or wireless media.

Classification of Computer Networks

Computer networks are classified based on various factors. They include:
 Geographical span
 Inter-connectivity
 Administration
 Architecture

Geographical Span
Geographically a network can be seen in one of the following categories:
 It may be spanned across your table, among Bluetooth enabled devices, Ranging not more than
few meters.
 It may be spanned across a whole building, including intermediate devices to connect all floors.
 It may be spanned across a whole city.
 It may be spanned across multiple cities or provinces.
 It may be one network covering whole world.
Inter-Connectivity
Components of a network can be connected to each other differently in some fashion. By
connectedness we mean either logically, physically, or both ways.
 Every single device can be connected to every other device on network, making the
network mesh.
 All devices can be connected to a single medium but geographically disconnected,
created bus-like structure.
 Each device is connected to its left and right peers only, creating linear structure.
 All devices connected together with a single device, creating star-like structure.
 All devices connected arbitrarily using all previous ways to connect each other, resulting
in a hybrid structure.
Administration
From an administrator’s point of view, a network can be private network which belongs a single
autonomous system and cannot be accessed outside its physical or logical domain. A network can be
public, which is accessed by all.

Network Architecture
Computer networks can be discriminated into various types such as Client-Server, peer-to-peer or
hybrid, depending upon its architecture.
 There can be one or more systems acting as Server. Other being Client, requests the Server to
serve requests. Server takes and processes request on behalf of Clients.
 Two systems can be connected Point-to-Point, or in back-to-back fashion. They both reside at the
same level and called peers.
 There can be hybrid network which involves network architecture of both the above types.
Network Applications
Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network. They provide numerous
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advantages:
 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging

Types of Computer Networks based on Geographical Span

Generally, networks are distinguished based on their geographical span. A network can be as small as
distance between your mobile phone and its Bluetooth headphone and as large as the internet itself,
covering the whole geographical world.
Personal AreaNetwork
A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a user. This may include
Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters.
PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless
printers, and TV remotes.

For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network which may contain up to 8
devices connected together in a master-slave fashion.

LocalArea Network
A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single administrative system
is generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN). Usually, LAN covers an organization offices,
schools, colleges or universities. Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from as least
as two to as much as 16 million. LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end
users. The resources such as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable
among computers.

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LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment. It may contains local servers
serving file storage and other locally shared applications. It mostly operates on private IP addresses and
does not involve heavy routing. LAN works under its own local domain and controlled centrally.
LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is most widely employed LAN technology
and uses Star topology, while Token-ring is rarely seen. LAN can be wired, wireless, or in both forms
at once.
Metropolitan AreaNetwork
The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a city such as cable TV network.
It can be in the form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).
Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to expand their
Local Area Networks. For example, MAN can help an organization to connect all of its offices in a city.

Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works in between Local Area
Network and Wide Area Network. MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs or internet.

Wide AreaNetwork
As the name suggests, the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which may span across
provinces and even a whole country. Generally, telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network.
These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they are equipped with very high speed
backbone, WANs use very expensive network equipment.

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WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay, and
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). WAN may be managed by multiple administration.

Types of Computer Networks based on Architecture

Two remote application processes can communicate mainly in two different fashions:

 Peer-to-peer: Both remote processes are executing at same level and they exchange data using
some shared resource.
 Client-Server: One remote process acts as a Client and requests some resource from another
application process acting as Server.

In client-server model, any process can act as Server or Client. Itis not the type of machine, size of the
machine, or its computing power which makes it server; it is the ability of serving request that makes a
machine a server.

A system can act as Server and Client simultaneously. That is, one process is acting as Server and
another is acting as a client. This may also happen that both client and server processes reside on the
same machine.
Communication
Two processes in client-server model can interact in various ways:
 Sockets
 Remote Procedure Calls (RPC)
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Sockets
In this paradigm, the process acting as Server opens a socket using a well-known (or known by client)
port and waits until some client request comes. The second process acting as a Client also opens a socket;
but instead of waiting for an incoming request, the client processes ‘requests first’.

When the request is reached to server, it is served. It can either be an information sharing or resource
request.
Remote Procedure Call
This is a mechanism where one process interacts with another by means of procedure calls. One process
(client) calls the procedure lying on remote host. The process on remote host is said to be Server. Both
processes are allocated stubs. This communication happens in the following way:
 The client process calls the client stub. It passes all the parameters pertaining to program local
to it.
 All parameters are then packed (marshalled) and a system call is made to send them to other side
of the network.
 Kernel sends the data over the network and the other end receives it.
 The remote host passes data to the server stub where it is unmarshalled.
 The parameters are passed to the procedure and the procedure is then executed.
 The result is sent back to the client in the same manner.

NETWORK COMPONENTS
Networking hardware components

Network interface card

The Network Interface Card (NIC), also known as a network adaptor, acts as the interface between the
computer and the physical network connection. In most networks, every computer must have a network
interface card to be able to connect to the network. NICs are usually specific to a particular type of
cabling – for example, a NIC may have either an RJ45 connector or a BNC connector – although it is
possible to get combo cards, which include more than one type of connector.

Transceivers
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A transceiver is a networking device that converts from one cabling technology to another. For example,
a transceiver may act as an interface between a network based on coaxial cable and one using fibre-
optic cable.
Repeater
In a bus topology, signal loss can occur if the segments are too long. A repeater is a
device that connects two network segments and broadcasts data between them. It
amplifies the signal, thereby extending the usable length of the bus.

Hub
One network component that has become standard equipment in networks is the hub. A hub acts as the
central component in a star topology, and typically contains 4, 8, 16 or even more different ports for
connecting to computers or other hubs. It is similar in operation to a repeater, except that it broadcasts
data received by any of the ports to all other ports on the hub. Hubs can be active, passive or hybrid.

Most hubs are active; that is, they regenerate and retransmit signals in the same way as a repeater does.
Because hubs usually have eight to twelve ports for network computers to connect to, they are
sometimes called multiport repeaters. Active hubs require electrical power to run. Some types of hubs
are passive. They act as connection points and do not amplify or regenerate the signal; the signal passes
through the hub. Passive hubs do not require electrical power to run. Advanced hubs that will
accommodate several different types of cables are called hybrid hubs.

Bridges, switches and routers

For large networks it is often necessary to partition it into smaller groups of nodes to help isolate traffic
and improve performance. A bridge is a device that acts as an interface between two sets of nodes. For
example, if a company’s network has been partitioned into two subnets, for the sales department and
administration department respectively, a bridge will be placed between the two networks. If a computer
on the sales subnet sends data to another computer on the sales subnet, the bridge will not pass on the
data to the administration subnet. However, if the same computer sends data to a computer on the
administration subnet, it will be forwarded by the bridge. Because not all data is passed onto the other
subnet, network traffic is reduced.

A switch is similar to a bridge, except that it has multiple ports. A switch can also be seen as a more
intelligent hub – whereas a hub passes on all data to every port, a switch will only pass data on to the
port that it is intended for.

A router is also used for connecting networks together. However, unlike a bridge, a router can be used
to connect networks that use different network technologies. Routers are very commonly found in the
hardware infrastructure that forms the basis of the Internet.

The topic of routing in computer networking is a crucial one and has been the subject of much research.
We will return to this important topic in Handout 4 (Network Architecture).

Wireless networking
Although most networks use physical connections between the network components, recently wireless
networking has been increasing in popularity. Wireless networks can use infrared light, line-of-sight
lasers, or radio waves to transmit data between nodes without the need for physical cabling. They
eliminate the need to install physical cabling and offer a lot of flexibility for users using the network.
However, they are currently more expensive and slower than cable-based networks. As costs drop and
performance increases, wireless networks are sure to be increasingly popular in the future.

There are two main types of hardware associated with wireless communication in
computing: Bluetooth and 802.11. Bluetooth only allows very short-range transmission

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(typically less than 10m) and is intended primarily for cable-free peripherals, such as
mouses and keyboards. 802.11, or wireless Ethernet, is the standard for wireless
networking of computers, and will be discussed in more detail in Handout 4 (Network
Architecture

Network Software Components

Network Operating Systems

Just as a computer cannot operate without a computer operating system, a network of computers cannot
operate without a network operating system. Without a network operating system of some kind,
individual computers cannot share resources, and other users cannot make use of those resources. This
section provides a general introduction to network operating systems (sometimes referred to as NOSs).
It describes the basic features and functions of a NOS and contrasts these with the capabilities of a stand-
alone operating system.

Novell's NetWare is the most familiar and popular example of a NOS in which the client computer's
networking software is added on to its existing computer operating system. The desktop computer needs
both operating systems in order to handle stand-alone and networking functions together.

Network operating system software is integrated into a number of popular operating systems including
Windows 2000 Server/Windows 2000 Professional, Windows NT Server/Windows NT Workstation,
Windows 98, Windows 95, and AppleTalk.

A computer's operating system coordinates the interaction between the computer and the programs
(applications) it is running. It controls the allocation and use of hardware resources such as:
 Memory
 CPU time
 Disk space
 Peripheral devices

In a networking environment, servers provide resources to the network clients, and client network
software makes these resources available to the client computer. The network and the client operating
systems are coordinated so that all portions of the network function properly.
Multitasking

A multitasking operating system, as the name suggests, provides the means for a computer to process
more than one task at a time. A true multitasking operating system can run as many tasks as there are
processors (CPUs). If there are more tasks than processors, the computer must arrange for the available
processors to devote a certain amount of time to each task, alternating between tasks until all are
completed. With this system, the computer appears to be working on several tasks at once.

There are two primary forms of multitasking:

 Pre-emptive: In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system can take control of the CPU
whenever it wants to, without the task's cooperation.
 Non-pre-emptive (cooperative): In non-pre-emptive multitasking, the task
itself decides when to give up the CPU. Programs written for non-pre-emptive
multitasking systems must include provisions for yielding control of the processor.
No other program can run until the non-pre-emptive program has given up control
of the processor.

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Because the interaction between the stand-alone operating system and the NOS is ongoing, a pre-
emptive multitasking system offers certain advantages. For example, when the situation requires it, the
pre-emptive system can shift CPU activity from a local task to a network task.

Client software

In a stand-alone system, when the user types a command that requests the computer to perform a task,
the request goes over the computer's local bus to the computer's CPU. For example, if you want to see
a directory listing on one of the local hard disks, the CPU interprets and executes the request and then
displays the results in a directory listing in the window. In a network environment, however, when a
user initiates a request to use a resource that exists on a server in another part of the network, the request
has to be forwarded, or redirected, away from the local bus, out onto the network, and from there to the
server with the requested resource. This forwarding is performed by the redirector.

The redirector

A redirector processes forwarding requests. Depending on the networking software, this redirector is
sometimes referred to as the "shell" or the "requester." The redirector is a small section of code in the
NOS that:
 Intercepts requests in the computer
 Determines if the requests should continue in the local computer's bus or be
redirected over the network to another server

Redirector activity originates in a client computer when the user issues a request for a network resource
or service. Figure 1.6 shows how a redirector forwards requests to the network. The user's computer is
referred to as a client because it is making a request of a server. The request is intercepted by the
redirector and forwarded out onto the network. The server processes the connection requested by client
redirectors and gives them access to the resources they request. In other words, the server services - or
fulfils - the request made by the client.

Figure 1.6 – The operation of a redirector in the client operating system

Using the redirector, users don't need to be concerned with the actual location of data or peripherals, or
with the complexities of making a connection.

1.3 Server software

The role of the NOS on a server is to process and act upon requests from clients (redirectors) for network
resources managed by the server. For example, in Figure 1.7, a user is requesting a directory listing on
a shared remote hard disk. The request is forwarded by the redirector on to the network, where it is
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passed to the file and print server containing the shared directory. The request is granted, and the
directory listing is provided.

Figure 1.7 – A request for a directory listing over a network

The server is also responsible for controlling the way in which resources are shared over the network.
Sharing is the term used to describe resources made publicly available for access by anyone on the
network. Most NOSs not only allow sharing, but also determine the degree of sharing. For example, an
office manager wants everyone on the network to be familiar with a certain document (file), so she
shares the document. However, she controls access to the document by sharing it in such a way that:
 Some users will be able only to read it
 Some users will be able to read it and make changes in it

Security models

It is the responsibility of the network administrator to ensure that network resources will be safe from
both unauthorised access and accidental or deliberate damage. Policies for assigning permissions and
rights to network resources are at the heart of securing the network.

Two security models have evolved for keeping data and hardware resources safe:
 Password-protected shares
 Access permissions
These models are also called "share-level security" (for password-protected shares) and "user-level
security" (for access permissions).

Implementing password-protected shares requires assigning a password to each shared

resource. Access to the shared resource is granted when a user enters the correct
password. In many systems, resources can be shared with different types of
permissions. The password-protected share system is a simple security method that
allows anyone who knows the password to obtain access to that particular resource.

Access-permission security involves assigning certain rights on a user-by-user basis. A user types a
password when logging on to the network. The server validates this user name and password
combination and uses it to grant or deny access to shared resources by checking access to the resource
against a user- access database on the server. Access-permission security provides a higher level of
control over access rights. It is much easier for one person to give another person a printer password, as
in share-level security. It is less likely for that person to give away a personal password. Because user-
level security is more extensive and can determine various levels of security, it is usually the preferred
model in larger organizations.
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Managing users
Network operating systems also allow a network administrator to determine which people, or groups of
people, will be able to access network resources. A network administrator can use the NOS to:
 Create user privileges, tracked by the network operating system, that indicate who gets to use
the network
 Grant or deny user privileges on the network
 Remove users from the list of users that the network operating system tracks

To simplify the task of managing users in a large network, NOSs allow for the creation of user groups.
By classifying individuals into groups, the administrator can assign privileges to the group. All group
members have the same privileges, which have been assigned to the group as a whole. When a new user
joins the network, the administrator can assign the new user to the appropriate group, with its
accompanying rights and privileges.

Overview of NOSs

The major server-based network operating systems are Microsoft Windows NT 4 Server, Windows
2000 Server, Windows 2003 Server, Novell NetWare 3.x, 4.x and 5.x, and UNIX (including Linux and
Solaris). The principal peer-to-peer network operating systems are AppleTalk, Windows 95, 98, ME
and XP, and UNIX. Each operating system has its own strengths and weaknesses, and its own supporters
and detractors.

Network Applications

Computer networking has revolutionised the way people use computers. This section will briefly
examine some of the applications of computer networking that have led to this massive change. In
particular we will look at the Internet and electronic mail (or email).

The Internet

The Internet is a vast network of networks, the ultimate WAN, consisting of tens of
thousands of businesses, universities, and research organizations with millions of
individual users and using a variety of different network architectures.

What is now known as the Internet was originally formed in 1970 as a military network
called ARPAnet (Advanced Research Projects Agency network) as part of the United
States Department of Defence. The network opened to non-military users in the 1970s,
when universities and companies doing defence-related research were given access, and
flourished in the late 1980s as most universities and many businesses around the world
started to use the Internet. In 1993, when commercial Internet service providers were
first permitted to sell Internet connections to individuals, usage of the network grew
tremendously. There were millions of new users within months, and a new era of
computer communications began. Today, it is estimated that over 500 million people
use the Internet worldwide. The table below breaks this number down by region.

Continent Number of Internet

users
Africa 4.15 million

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Asia/Pacific 143.99 million
Europe 154.63 million
Middle East 4.65million
Canada & USA 180.68 million
Latin America 25.33 million
World Total 513.41 million

Every site on the Internet has an address, just like people have PO Box numbers at their local post office.
On the Internet addresses are called URLs (Uniform Resource Locators). URLs are written as a number
of words separated by dots, for example www.yahoo.com. The word after the final dot (e.g. com) is the
domain of the address. The domain indicates the category of the web site. The table below lists some of
the more common categories of address on the Internet.

Domain type Organisation type

edu Educational institution
com Commercial organisation
gov Governmental
mil Military
net Network providers and support
org Other organisations
country code A country code, for example .et for Ethiopia,
.uk for the United Kingdom

2.1.1 The World Wide Web

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a way of browsing the information on the Internet in a pleasant, easy
to understand. Text can be mixed with graphics, video, and audio to provide multimedia (i.e. many
different media) Internet content.

This is all made possible by using a special communications protocol, called the Hypertext Transport
Protocol (HTTP). You may have noticed when using the Internet that many URLs begin with the letters
“http://” - this means that the page of information will be transmitted using the Hypertext Transport
Protocol. Pages of multimedia Internet content are commonly written in a special language called
HTML (the Hypertext Markup Language)

Instant messaging

One of the more recent innovations in the use of the Internet is instant messaging. Using instant
messaging software two users in different parts of the world can take part in an on-line conversation
using their personal computers. Text typed at one computer will be “instantly” transmitted to the screen
of the other. Instant messaging provides for much faster and interactive communication than electronic
mail.

Electronic mail

When most people think of applications of the Internet they probably think first of electronic mail, or
email. Originally email was a way of sending simple text messages to different users over local area
networks. However, nowadays email can be used to send multimedia content such as audio, video or
even computer software to a user anywhere in the world.

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Email is made possible by using the Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP). SMTP specifies how
electronic mail messages are exchanged between computers using TCP. In order to use email, it is
necessary to install software on both the sending and receiving computer. Email uses the client-server
method to allow mail to be exchanged. Client computers exchange messages with a mail server that is
responsible for ensuring that the message reaches its destination. On the server computer each user is
assigned a specific mailbox. This electronic mailbox is just like a normal PO Box – mail is stored there
until a user logs on to collect their mail. Each electronic mailbox has a unique email address. Email
addresses are divided into two parts: the user name and the mailbox name. These two parts are separated
by an “@” character. For example, Elizabeth@telecom.net.et is a valid email address. The user name is
“Elizabeth”, and the mail server that is responsible for collecting the mail is located at the computer
called “telecom.net.et”. In this case “telecom.net.et” is a mail server running at Ethiopian Telecom in
Addis Ababa. Remember that this computer name will also have an associated IP address to identify it
on the Internet.

SMTP is the protocol used to send email on the Internet. The user receiving the email will need to use
another protocol to access the incoming mail from the mail server. Two different protocols exist for this
purpose: the Post Office Protocol (POP3) and the newer alternative, Internet Message Access Protocol
(IMAP).

Computer Network Topologies

A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network. Both
logical and physical topologies could be same or different in a same network.

Point-to-Point
Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches, routers, or servers
connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is connected
to sending end of the other and vice versa

If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple intermediate devices. But
the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and see each other as if they are connected directly.

Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable. Bus topology may have
problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore, Bus topology either uses
CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is one of the simple
forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect the other devices. But failure of the
shared communication line can make all other devices stop functioning.

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Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one direction and as soon
as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from the line.

Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a point-to-point
connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection between hosts and hub. The hub device can
be any of the following:
 Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater
 Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
 Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of all hosts to all other
hosts fails. Every communication between hosts takes place through only the hub. Star topology is not
expensive as to connect one more host, only one cable is required and configuration is simple

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.Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a circular network
structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is not adjacent to it,
the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the existing structure, the
administrator may need only one more extra cable.

Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus, every connection in the ring is a point of
failure. There are methods which employ one more backup ring.
Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. This topology has hosts in point-
to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection
with few hosts only.

Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct point-to-point links.
Mesh technology comes into two types:
 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the
network. Thus, for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides the
most reliable network structure among all network topologies.
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 Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts
connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need
to provide reliability to some hosts out of all.
Tree Topology
Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network topology in use
presently. This topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits properties of Bus topology.
This topology divides the network into multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly in LANs, a network
is bifurcated into three types of network devices. The lowermost is access-layer where computers are
attached. The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper layer
and lower layer. The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the network, i.e. root
of the tree from which all nodes fork.

All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between them. Similar to the Bus topology, if the
root goes down, then the entire network suffers even though it is not the single point of failure. Every
connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the network into unreachable segment.

Hybrid Topology
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid topology.
Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.

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The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining topologies may contain
attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain topologies. Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-
Ring topology and networks connected to them are mostly Star topology networks. Internet is the best
example of largest Hybrid topology.

Computer Network Model

Network engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, firmware, chip level engineering,
hardware, and electric pulses. To ease network engineering, the whole networking concept is divided
into multiple layers. Each layer is involved in some particular task and is independent of all other
layers. But as a whole, almost all networking tasks depend on all of these layers. Layers share data
between them and they depend on each other only to take input and send output.
Layered Tasks
In layered architecture of Network Model, one whole network process is divided into small tasks. Each
small task is then assigned to a particular layer which works dedicatedly to process the task only. Every
layer does only specific work.
In layered communication system, one layer of a host deals with the task done by or to be done by its
peer layer at the same level on the remote host. The task is either initiated by layer at the lowest level
or at the top most level. If the task is initiated by the topmost layer, it is passed on to the layer below it
for further processing. The lower layer does the same thing, it processes the task and passes on to lower
layer. If the task is initiated by lowermost layer, then the reverse path is taken.

Every layer clubs together all procedures, protocols, and methods which it requires to execute its piece
of task. All layers identify their counterparts by means of encapsulation header and tail.
OSI Model
Open System Interconnect is an open standard for all communication systems. OSI model is
established by International Standard Organization (ISO). This model has seven layers:

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Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing interface to the application user. This layer
encompasses protocols which directly interact with the user.
Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the native format of remote host should be
presented in the native format of host.
Session Layer: This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts. For example, once user/password
authentication is done, the remote host maintains this session for a while and does not ask for
authentication again in that time span.
Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery between hosts.
Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and uniquely addressing hosts in a
network.
Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing data from and onto the line. Link
errors are detected at this layer.
Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling, wiring, power output, pulse rate etc.
TCP/IP Model
Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite, also known as Internet suite. This defines Internet Model which
contains four layered architecture. OSI Model is general communication model but Internet Model is
what the internet uses for all its communication. The internet is independent of its underlying network
architecture so is its Model. This model has the following layers:

Application Layer: This layer defines the protocol which enables user to interact with the network.
For example, FTP, HTTP etc.

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Transport Layer: This layer defines how data should flow between hosts. Major protocol at this layer
is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This layer ensures data delivered between hosts is in-order
and is responsible for end- to-end delivery.
Internet Layer: Internet Protocol (IP) works on this layer. This layer facilitates host addressing and
recognition. This layer defines routing.
Link Layer: This layer provides mechanism of sending and receiving actual data. Unlike its OSI
Model counterpart, this layer is independent of underlying network architecture and hardware.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Guided Media
The transmission media is nothing but the physical media over which communication takes place in
computer networks.
Magnetic Media
One of the most convenient way to transfer data from one computer to another, even before the birth of
networking, was to save it on some storage media and transfer physical from one station to another.
Though it may seem old-fashion way in today’s world of high speed internet, but when the size of data
is huge, the magnetic media comes into play. For example, a bank has to handle and transfer huge data
of its customer, which stores a backup of it at some geographically far-away place for security reasons
and to keep it from uncertain calamities. If the bank needs to store its huge backup data, then its transfer
through internet is not feasible. The WAN links may not support such high speed. Even if they do; the
cost is too high to afford.
In these cases, data backup is stored onto magnetic tapes or magnetic discs, and then shifted physically
at remote places.
Twisted PairCable
A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper wires twisted together to form a single
media. Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used for ground reference.
The twists between wires are helpful in reducing noise (electro-magnetic interference) and crosstalk.

There are two types of twisted pair cables:

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
STP cables comes with twisted wire pair covered in metal foil. This makes it more indifferent to noise
and crosstalk.

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UTP has seven categories, each suitable for specific use. In computer networks, Cat- 5, Cat-5e, and Cat-
6 cables are mostly used. UTP cables are connected by RJ45 connectors.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies in the center and it is made of solid conductor.
The core is enclosed in an insulating sheath. The second wire is wrapped around over the sheath and
that too in turn encased by insulator sheath. This all is covered by plastic cover.

Because of its structure, the coax cable is capable of carrying high frequency signals than that of twisted
pair cable. The wrapped structure provides it a good shield against noise and cross talk. Coaxial cables
provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450 mbps.
There are three categories of coax cables namely, RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58 (Thin Ethernet), and RG-
11 (Thick Ethernet). RG stands for Radio Government. Cables are connected using BNC connector
and BNC-T. BNC terminator is used to terminate the wire at the far ends.

Fiber Optics
Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. When light ray hits at critical angle, it tends to refracts at
90 degree. This property has been used in fiber optic. The core of fiber optic cable is made of high
quality glass or plastic. From one end of it light is emitted, it travels through it and at the other end light
detector detects light stream and converts it to electric data.
Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed. It comes in two modes, one is single mode fiber and
second is multimode fiber. Single mode fiber can carry a single ray of light whereas multimode is
capable of carrying multiple beams of light.

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 Fiber Optic also comes in unidirectional and bidirectional capabilities. To connect and access
fiber optic special type of connectors are used. These can be Subscriber Channel (SC), Straight
Tip (ST), or MT-RJ.

Unguided Media
Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no physical link
established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless signals are spread over
in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts the digital
data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range. The receptor on the other end
receives these signals and converts them back to digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

Radio Transmission
Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate through walls
and structures alike. Radio waves can have wavelength from 1mm – 100,000km and have frequency
ranging from 3Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely High Frequency). Radio
frequencies are sub-divided into six bands.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in straight line
and bounce back. The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they cover long distance.
High frequency radio waves have more power.
Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000 kilometers, over
the earth’s surface.

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Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They use
Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands are spread
upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.

Microwave Transmission
Electromagnetic waves above 100MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over them can be
sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because Microwaves travels in straight
lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight.
Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1mm – 1meter and frequency ranging from 300MHz to
300GHz.

Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture above, multiple
antennas can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and do not penetrate
wall like obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it is using.

Infrared Transmission
Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength of 700nm to
1mm and frequency ranges from 300GHz to 430THz.
Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as television and its remote.
Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of high frequency range,
Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.

Light Transmission
Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for data transmission is light or optical
signaling. This is achieved by means of LASER.

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Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line. Hence the sender and receiver
must be in the line-of-sight. Because laser transmission is unidirectional, at both ends of communication
the laser and the photo-detector needs to be installed. Laser beam is generally 1mm wide hence it is a
work of precision to align two far receptors each pointing to lasers source.

Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors works as Rx (receiver).

Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally, laser beam is distorted
by wind, atmosphere temperature, or variation in temperature in the path.
Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to tap 1mm wide laser without interrupting the
communication channel.

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