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A Text Book on Agricultural Meteorology
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A Text Book
on
Agricultural Meteorology
AICRP on Agrometeorology
Department of Agricultural Meteorology
Hisar – 125 004, India
http://hau.ernet.in/agromet.htm
A Text Book
on
Agricultural Meteorology
By
Ram Niwas, Surender Singh, Diwan Singh
ML Khichar and Raj Singh
AICRP on Agrometeorology
Department of Agricultural Meteorology
College of Agriculture
Hisar – 125 004, India
2006
Contents
Chapter # Subject Page #

Foreword i
Preface ii
Acknowledgements iii
1. Aim, Components & Scope of Agril Meteorology 1-11
2. Atmosphere and Solar Radiation 12-36
3. Air Temperature 37-44
4. Atmospheric Pressure 45-53
5. Wind 54-64
6. Humidity and Evaporation 65-76
7 Condensation and Precipitation 77-85
8. Clouds and their Classification 86-93
9. Monsoons 94-101
10. Weather Forecasting for Agriculture 102-112
11. Climate and Crop Production 113-126
12. Climatic Requirements of different Crops 127-131
13. Climate Change 132-138
14. Agroecological Classification 139-151
Sample Questions 152-169
Foreword
Agriculture is one field of the human activity which is specially sensitive
to weather and climate. The study of these two aspects in relation to agriculture is
referred as Agricultural Meteorology and is a multidisciplinary science.
Agricultural meteorology when properly applied can achieve the sustainability of
agricultural production system through efficient management of agro-climatic
resources and crop microclimate modification. Each and every plant
developmental phase is decided by meteorological parameters. Every genotype
has its own optimum climatic requirements for expression of its full potential.
Therefore, the knowledge of meteorological parameters and their influence on
crop growth and yield is essential for agricultural students.
A separate department of Agricultural Meteorology was created in
February, 1982 at College of Agriculture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University,
Hisar on the recommendations of National Commission on Agriculture (1976).
Department offers courses in discipline of Agricultural Meteorology at MSc and
PhD levels. However, the undergraduate courses in the discipline of Agricultural
Meteorology were framed even before the inception of the department.
There are few text books on or related to Agricultural Meteorology and no
single text book cover the course fully at undergraduate level. Therefore, the
present effort of the authors in bringing out a comprehensive and informative text
book covering complete syllabus at undergraduate level in Agril Meteorology is
laudable. The book has been organized in 14 Chapters covering different aspects
of Agril Meteorology. The contents are highly relevant and cover both, the basic
and applied aspects of agrometeorology.
The faculty members in the Dept of Agricultural Meteorology under the
guidance of Dr Diwan Singh, Professor and Head have prepared ‘A Text Book on
Agricultural Meteorology’, deserve compliments for their efforts. The book
dwells upon various basic and applied knowledge of meteorology which forms
the syllabi for the students of BSc (Hons) Agriculture. I do hope that the present
book will be a valuable source of information for students and teachers engaged
in various applications of Agricultural Meteorology.
(D C Gupta)
December, 2006 Dean, College of Agriculture
CCS HAU Hisar
Preface
Agricultural Meteorology is an important discipline in the field of
agriculture and is taught at undergraduate level in all agricultural universities.
Some of the SAUs have separate department of Agricultural Meteorology and
imparts education for Master and Doctorate degrees in this discipline. Quite a few
text books have been published in the subject of Agricultural Meteorology. The
syllabus in Agricultural Meteorology at undergraduate level covers elementary
aspects of applied branch of meteorology and climatology in agriculture.
Therefore, the present text book entitled ‘Agricultural Meteorology’ brought out
with latest information and illustrations in accordance with the syllabus framed at
undergraduate level by ICAR.
This book is organized with a series of pictures that illustrate the
principles of Agricultural Meteorology which are fundamental to the
understanding of the subject by students and other readers. The text book contains
fourteen chapters which have been organized in order of increasing complexity.
The chapters contain the definitions, aim, scopes and importance of Agricultural
Meteorology, various meteorological parameters viz., radiation, air temperature,
air pressure, winds, humidity and evaporation/evapotranspiration. The book also
includes chapters on processes of condensation and precipitation, cloud
classification monsoon winds, their types, Indian monsoon, significance of
weather forecasting in agriculture, its different types and methods and climate of
Haryana and India, the impact of climatic elements on crop production and
agroclimatic requirements of major crops of Haryana. Significant and relevant
issues pertaining to climate change and its impact on crop production, climatic
classification, soil agroclimatic zones of Haryana and agroecological zones of
India have also been discussed in the book.
The present text book on ‘Agricultural Meteorology’ prepared by my
colleagues in the department of Agricultural Meteorology contains basic and
various applied aspect of meteorology in agriculture. I wish to congratulate the
authors for highly useful and relevant publication of immense use.
(Diwan Singh)
Professor and Head
Dept of Agril Meteorology
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial assistance received from

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) for publication “A Text Book
on Agricultural Meteorology” under the Development Assistance Plan Scheme.
Special gratitude is expressed to Dr D C Gupta, Dean, College of Agriculture,
CCS HAU Hisar for his able guidance and encouragement for preparation of this
text book. The subject matter used/quoted in the manual is from many books,
journals, technical bulletins and manuals in India and abroad. The original
contribution from all the authors and institutions, thus, is due fully acknowledged.
We are highly indebted to the undergraduate students of the College of
Agriculture, CCS HAU, Hisar of the past 30 years, who served as critics in the
development of a functional approach to the teaching of the discipline of
Agricultural Meteorology.
The authors anticipate that the text book will be of immense use to
students of agricultural stream who desire to further devote their career for
protection of natural ecosystems and for increasing agricultural productivity with
sustainability. The suggestions and comments from students, teachers and
researchers for further improvement of this book are welcomed.
Hisar Authors
December, 2006
Aim, Components and Scope of Agricultural Meteorology, Pp 7
1. AIM, COMPONENTS AND SCOPE OF AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY
The weather and climate are the most important components of our physical environment,
which determines the plant growth, development and yield. So, it is most important to
understand the effect of weather/climate on the life processes of plants and animals and to
optimize food production through understanding of crop-weather-pest interactions and by
minimizing losses through weather vagaries.
Definitions
Weather refers to the physical state of atmosphere (envelop of gasses surrounding the earth)
at a given time over a place. Weather may be defined as instaneous condition of
atmosphere over a place. It is highly variable and constantly changing from hour to hour or
day to day. The entity that determines the state of weather is called as factor/element of
weather. Weather elements are not separate rather they are interrelated.
The word climate comes from the Greek word 'klima', which literally means
inclination/slope. Climate may be defined as the sum total of the different weather conditions
of a place from day to day or climate may be defined simply as average state of weather. The
term climate refers to a description of aggregate weather conditions. It also includes
deviations from average condition as well as the extreme weather conditions. Therefore,
climate may be defined as the average of weather informations of a particular area
during a specified period of time i.e. more than 30 years.
Trewartha defined climate as a composite of day-to-day weather conditions, and of the
atmospheric elements, within a specified area over a long period of time.
Critchfield defined climate as "The processes of exchange of heat and moisture between the
earth and atmosphere over a long period of time result in conditions which we call climate."
G.F.Taylor defined climate is the integration of weather and weather is the differentiation of
climate. The distinction between weather and climate is, therefore, mainly one of time.
Climatology is the combination of two Greek words, klima and logos. 'klima' means slope of
earth and 'logos' means study. According to D.S. Lal, climatology is that seeks to describe
and explain the nature of climate. According to Critichfied, it is the science that seeks to
describe and explains the nature of climate, why it differs from place to place, and how it is
related to other elements of the natural environment and human activities. Climatology may
be defined as the study of distribution of climatic elements over a region for a long
period of time. Briefly, climatology may be defined as study of climate.
Meteorology is the branch of science, which study day-to-day atmospheric conditions and
their causes. In brief, it may be defined as the physics of atmosphere or the science, which
studies weather. Meteorology is the science, which study the physical processes occurring
in the atmosphere, those produce weather.
Agricultural meteorology is the branch of meteorology which studies the impact of weather
on agricultural farming. It may be defined as the science which studies the interaction
between weather and agriculture including field crops, horticultural crops, vegetables, animal
husbandry etc. G.S.L.H.V. Prasada Rao defined agricultural meteorology as the science
which deals with the influence of weather on crop husbandry and animal husbandry.
Physical climatology is the branch of climatology which seeks to describe the factors
responsible for bringing about the temporal and spatial variations in heat, moisture and
momentum exchange between earth surface and its atmosphere and within atmosphere.
Observations on climatic elements such as insolation, sunshine duration, temperature, air
pressure, winds, etc. help to study physical environment. These climatic elements,
individually or in combination are the resultant of complex exchange processes of heat,
moisture and momentum.
1
Regional climatology is the branch of climatology, which determines and describes the
different types of climates. On the basis of spatial scale climatic region is divided into macro-
climatic region, meso-climatic region and micro-climatic region. Continental or oceanic
factors control macroclimate whereas meso and microclimates are influenced by local factors.
Microclimatology is the branch of science which study climatic elements in a particular
location e.g. in field crops, orchards, animal shed etc. Applied climatology is the branch of
climatology, which study the application of climatological knowledge to specific practical
problems.
Agricultural climatology may be defined as the science, which applies climatic knowledge
to understand agricultural problems, or it may be defined as study of climatic elements in
relation to agriculture.
Weather elements
Any entity that controls the weather is called as element or factor of weather. There are
various factors which individually on in combination control the weather, which are given
below:
1. Solar radiation
2. Temperature
3. Air pressure
4. Wind
5. Sunshine
6. Humidity
7. Cloudiness
8. Precipitation, etc.
All these elements are highly variable and constitute the weather. Day to day or hour-
to-hour changes in weather are mainly the result of variations in the amount, intensity and
distribution over earth of weather elements listed above.
Importance of weather elements
The weather elements constitute a physical environment in which an organism or a plant
grows. Success or failure of a bio-system depends upon the weather conditions. The rate of
growth and development of a bio-system is largely depend upon its ambient temperature and
moisture. The management and execution of agricultural farm practices is also weather
dependent. The maximum efficiency of farm practices can be achieved with knowledge of
prevailing and anticipated weather. Some of the farm practices are listed below:
1. Selection of animals, breeds, crops and varieties.
2. Management of farm inputs, machinery and labour, etc.
3. Sowing of seeds, nursery preparation, planting of seedlings etc.
4. Scheduling of irrigation.
5. Spraying of biofertilizers, weedicides and pesticides on crops, germicides in case
of animals, birds, etc.
6. Application of fertilizers in crops and feeds in case of dairy animals and poultry
birds, etc.
7. Harvesting and threshing of field crops, plucking of vegetables and fruits, etc.
8. Transportation of crop produce, vegetables, fruits, animals and their products, etc.
9. Post harvest processing of crop produce, vegetable, fruits, animal products,
mushrooms, etc.
If the anticipated weather is not favorable as forecasted by meteorological office, the above
said farm practices can be managed accordingly. For example coming weather is associated
with hot and dry winds or rough weather, then harvesting and transportation of perishable
farm products may be withheld for time to be fine weather or may be transported with special
care in case rough weather prolongs, to avoid losses due to unfavourable weather. Also
2
efficiency of farm inputs such as fertilizers, seeds, labour, pesticide spray, etc. can be
improved if applied with the knowledge of weather. Heavy rainfall after fertilizer application
in crop field causes leaching losses in nitrogenous fertilizers. Rainy weather is not favorable
for spraying chemicals in crops as it washes out the spray material from the crop plants.
Effects of weather elements on crops
Light
Light is the primary source of energy, without which living organism could not exist. It is a
vital factor to all living things. Green plant obtains the energy necessary for life directly from
sunlight. Light is the visible portion of solar spectrum having wavelength range from 0.4 to
0.7 μm. It is also called as photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
The light intensity affects the crop plants through its effect on photosynthesis. Very low light
intensity reduces the photosynthesis as stomata are closed which restrict the intake of CO2
gas. The rate of photosynthesis increases with increase in light intensity. The light intensity at
which respiration equals photosynthesis is called as light compensation point. The light
saturation point is the light intensity at which rate of photosynthesis becomes constant.
The amount of light received by plant is determined by intensity of light and its duration. In
natural environment the length of day may have an even greater effect on the total amount of
light received than does light intensity. The response of plants to relative length of day and
night is known as photoperiodism. On the basis of response of day length the plants are
classified as:
Long day plant: Plant develops/flowers normally when photoperiod is greater than 12 hours
e.g. Cereals (wheat, barley), potato and sugarcane.
Short day plant: The plant flowers normally when photoperiod is less than 12 hours e.g.
Tobacco, soybean, maize
Day natural plant/Indeterminate plant: Not affected by the photoepriod e.g. Tomato,
cotton, pineapple etc.
Light plays an important role in orienting the growth of plants. This movement or orientation,
if caused by light is called phototropism. Leaves are usually oriented at right angles to the
incident light, in a position to receive maximum radiation e.g. sunflower.
Temperature
Temperature is the intensity aspect of heat energy. Solar radiation is the primary source of
both light and heat energy for living organisms. Transfer of heat energy between the plant
and its environment is of great importance. When the sun's rays strike the surface of the earth,
much of the radiation is degraded into heat energy. Only small portion of light energy
absorbed by a green plant is used for food energy. Temperature of day and night also affects
the crop. If the days are warm, good for photosynthesis but if nights are warm, the loss of
respiration is higher. High night temperature favors growth of shoots and leaves and also
affects plant metabolism. Plants, which are adapted to hot climate, if exposed to low
temperature for sometime, are found to be killed or injured. Some effects of chilling are
development of chloratic condition (yellowing) in sugarcane, sorghum and maize in winter
months when night temperature is below 200C. When the plants are exposed to very low
temperature, water freezes into ice crystals in intercellular spaces of the plants and resulting
into the death of cells e.g. frost damages in potato, brinjal etc. The temperature range of 10-
40oC is the favorable range for crop plants. The plant cells get killed when they are exposed
to the temperature range from 50 to 600C. This point of temperature called thermal death
point. This varies from plant to plant and species to species. Higher temperature disturbs the
physiological activities like photosynthesis and respiration. Higher temperature increases
respiration leading to rapid depletion of reserved food. It also increases transpiration loss of
water and causes water deficit in crop plants under limited water supply.
3
Moisture
Its presence in the atmosphere plays a significant role. An abundance of moisture results in a
rich natural flora and makes possible a wide choice of crops. Deficiency of moisture, on the
other hand, permits only narrow range of potential crops, and is accompanied by hazards to
efficient crop production. The presence of moisture in atmosphere is termed as humidity.
Increasing relative humidity decreases the rate of transpiration. Reduction in transpiration
reduces the translocation of food material and uptake of nutrients. The relative humidity
range from 60 to 80 per cent is good for crop growth. A very high relative humidity is
beneficial to maize, sorghum, sugarcane and it is harmful to gram, sunflower and tobacco.
Humidity also affects the water requirement through evapotranspiration. High humidity with
high temperature favours the outbreak of pest and disease.
Functioning of stomata is often greatly reduced under low moisture/moisture stress condition.
Photosynthesis is hampered by reduction of stomatal opening limiting CO2 absorption. Cell
size and shape are reduced under moisture deficient condition and ultimately plant growth
and yield is reduced.
Too much water may be harmful to plants just as too little. High soil moisture and humidity
condition cause failure in establishing stand of legumes and grasses. Excess of soil moisture
in earlier growing season may result in more vegetative growth and delayed flowering.
Rainfall
Rainfall spread is very uneven. Some area is desert receives less than 12 cm and some places
receive more than 1000 cm rainfall. Rainfed crops directly depend on rain. The water source
such as rivers, tanks and wells, which supply water for irrigation also depend on the rain.
Rain occurring during the flowering and grain filling period is very harmful. After the spray it
reduces the efficiency of agrochemical. Heavy rain induces soil erosion and leaching of
nutrient. Deficient rain causes drought and limits the crop growth and production.
Dew
The condensation of water vapor from adjacent air layer upon surface cooled by radiation
loss is called dew. As a result of rapid radiation loss from the earth's surface, the adjacent
layer of air is cooled to point of saturation (dew point) and condensation takes place. If the
dew point is above 00C, the condensed water vapour will be in the form of dew. If it is below
00C, white frost will form. Dew acts as a source of moisture for the crop plants. It causes
reduction in transpiration rate and saving of soil moisture reserves. Dew fall helps in insect-
pest and diseases spread in crop plants.
Fog
When air masses of high moisture content close to the earth surface are cooled, fog may
form. Thick fog is more frequent in smoky cities. Fog is important for natural vegetation as
moisture source. Fog can also benefit crop plants through a contribution to its water balance.
Fog also favours pest and diseases incidence in crops.
Wind
Horizontal movement of air is called wind. Winds are named after direction from which it
comes. It blows from north-east to south east, it is named as north east wind. windward
refers to the direction from which the wind comes and leeward refers to the direction in
which the wind blows.
Wind influences the plant life both physiologically and mechanically. Wind affects plant
directly by increasing the transpiration and intake of CO2. Thus raising the supply of CO2 to
the plants and thereby increase in photosynthesis. However, the increase in photosynthesis is
again upto a certain wind speed beyond which its rate become constant. The warm and dry
winds increase evaporative loss and cause moisture stress when soil temperature is very low.
Lodging is one of severe injury caused by strong winds which causes great yield loss
depending upon the stage of crop. This injury is common in paddy, maize, wheat, sorghum
4
and sugarcane. Strong winds damage fruit trees extensively by breaking leaves and twigs and
causing fruit drops.
Aim and Scopes of Agricultural Meteorology
Aim
Agricultural meteorology studies the interaction between physical environment on one hand
and agriculture including dairy farming, poultry, bee keeping etc. on the other hand. So, the
knowledge of physical environment can be used for increasing production of an agricultural
farm. Crop production can be maximized by reducing the crop losses due to pest-disease
attack, with the use of pest-weather interaction in timely management of pest and diseases.
The ultimate aim of agricultural meteorology is to increase the crop production to maximum
level with efficient use of available natural climatic resources and through weather based
management of biotic and abiotic stress.
Scopes
1. It is concerned with interactions between meteorological and hydrological variables, on
the one hand, and agriculture in the widest sense, including horticulture, animal
husbandry and forestry, on the other.
2. To apply knowledge of atmospheric phenomena to practical agricultural use from soil
layer of deepest plant roots to higher levels of atmosphere.
3. Exploitation of natural climatic resources and their modification to increase the
efficiency of ecosystem.
Agricultural Meteorology is the application of meteorology in various disciplines of
agriculture listed below:
1. Agronomy and Agroforestry
2. Plant pathology
3. Entomology and Nematology
4. Horticulture and Vegetables
5. Soil Science
6. Animal Husbandry
7. Water Management Engineering
The scopes of Agricultural Meteorology in above mentioned fields are summarized as below:
1.Efficient and effective agronomic practices can be adopted based on current and
probable weather knowledge.
2.Effective crop planning with efficient utilization of climatic resources can be made with
proper delineation of agro-ecological zoning.
3.The utilization efficiency of agro-chemicals can be improved with knowledge of
physical environment.
4.Weather-crop-pest interaction can be studied, which will help in management of crop
insect-pest and diseases.
5.Livestock production can be maximized by proper modification of micro climate of
animal and birds sheds.
6.Losses in transport and storage of farm products can be minimized to some extent with
knowledge of probable weather.
7.Water management in crops can be improved with the aid of knowledge of physical
environment.
Challenges and responsibilities of Agricultural Meteorology
1. To provide food for the population by applying all available meteorological
knowledge in solving the problems of agricultural food production and distribution in
cooperation with other scientists.
2. Quantitative information in the form of crop condition reports and yield prospects is
essential for planning and managing national food production and distribution.
5
3. Efficient use of global natural resources for food production and on better distribution
systems.
Responsibilities
1. To specify the meteorological and biological observations which are required for
agricultural meteorology and to organize a special network of agro meteorological
observation stations.
2. To collect and process such observations whether of a permanent or temporary nature.
3. To collect from other divisions such of the routine meteorological observations as are
required for agricultural meteorological research and investigations.
4. To specify and issue the weather forecasts required for agriculture, and dissemination
to agricultural interests.
5. To coordinate research and investigations in agricultural meteorology in close
collaboration with other scientific institutions having related responsibilities, and to
carry out such research and investigations as are required.
6. To maintain close contacts with agriculturists with a view of keeping them informed
of the services which meteorologists can provide to agriculture and in order to be kept
informed of the changing needs of agriculturists arising.
7. To prepare and arrange for the publication and wide distribution among agriculturists
of bulletins containing meteorological advice and information of interest to
agriculturists, to keep those publications upto date by revision, as necessary and to
assist, as require, in arranging for the free exchange of these pamphlets among
members of meteorological organization.
Components of Agricultural Meteorology
1. Agrometeorological monitoring - Techniques, data collection and networks,
experiments.
2. Plant environment and crop production - Effect of meteorological elements on growth
and development of plants, quantity and quality of yields, climate requirements of
crops and operational crop condition assessments.
3. Plant injury and crop losses - Pests and diseases, pollution, effects of weather hazards
on crops, cold hardiness and frost and freezing damage.
4. Livestock health and production - Environmental problems of livestock housing and
health and production.
5. Animal diseases and parasites - Direct and indirect effects of weather on the various
types of animal diseases, injury and death, economic losses and forecasting incidence
and intensity of animal disease.
6. Climatic resource - Climatological surveys, ecosystem assessment, landuse pattern,
climatic analogues, climatic variability, climatological statistics and processed data
and agroclimatic resource analysis.
7. Soil resources - Soil deterioration and erosion, loss of farm land through urbanization
and land reclamation.
8. Water resources - Agricultural water needs, water-use efficiency of crops, irrigation
requirements and scheduling, water surplus and drainage and agricultural drought.
9. Management operations - Weather-climate analysis in relation of field work-days,
forage crop harvest conditions, hay drying, frost and disease control and weather
forecasting requirements of agriculture.
10. Artificial modification of meteorological and hydrological regimes - Protection
against adverse weather conditions, controlled climate and weather modification.
11. Forest meteorology - Protection and conservation of forest resources and farm
forestry.
6
12. Economic value of agro-meteorological information and advice - Services used in

farm planning and operations.
Roles
1. To co-operate with and seek advice from agricultural services in all matters of
common interest.
2. To supply available meteorological data required by agricultural scientists in their
research, experimental or advisory work.
3. To advice on best utilization of agroclimatic resources in improving the agricultural
production, introduction of new species of plants and animals and increasing the area
in efficient farming use.
4. To assist agricultural and allied interests in combating unfavourable weather and
climate.
5. To assist in fight against agricultural pests and diseases by considering both the
environmental factors during their life histories and the meteorological factors which
may influence the effectiveness of the protective measures taken.
6. To advise on the protection of agricultural products, in storage and in transit against
damage by weather.
7. Operationally useful forecasts of meteorological variables that are important to
current farming operations together with an agricultural interpretations of such
forecasts.
8. Education programmes for farmers to demonstrate the usefulness of weather
information for agricultural planning and operations.
9. Joint research projects on agriculture-weather relationships and their applications to
farming practices.
10. Joint training and extension programmes on crop-weather aspects for better utilization
of weather resources.
Climatic controls
Variation in weather factors is caused by climatic control. The factors, which control the
climate of place, are called controls of climate. These controls may operate in different
combinations with different intensities. The variation of weather or climatic elements is both
spatial and vertical. The following are some of the most important climatic controls:
1. Latitude
2. Land and water distribution over earth
3. Altitude
4. High and low pressure systems
5. Winds
6. Air masses
7. Ocean currents
8. Mountain barriers
9. Distance from sea
10. Topography
11. Soil type and its color
12. Vegetation
7
The Atmosphere and Solar Radiation, Pp 16
2. THE ATMOSPHERE AND SOLAR RADIATION
A blanket of gasses, suspended liquids and solids covers the planet earth. This gaseous
envelop around earth is called as atmosphere. This comprised of three spheres i.e.
1. Lithosphere: It comprises of land.
2. Hydrosphere: It comprises of water.
3. Atmosphere: It comprises of gases.
The atmosphere is a very thin layer in comparison with radius of earth. It is
inseparable from earth because of the gravitational force. The atmosphere extends outward
several thousand kilometers. It is transparent to many forms of radiation and it can absorb
others. Although air is not so dense as that of land and water, it has weight and exerts
pressure but its density decreases with altitude as it is compressible. About half of the total
mass lies below 5.5 kilometer and nearly 99 per cent lies within 30 km of the earth surface.
Atmosphere acts as a shield, which protects the earth from full range of solar radiation during
day and prevent from excessive loss of heat during night. Therefore, atmosphere provides
congenial environment for life on the earth. In the absence of atmosphere there would have
been great extremes of temperature to the tune of 260oC between day and night. Such
situation might have made life impossible on the earth.
Atmospheric composition
The atmosphere is a mixture of many gases (Table 1). It also contains
Table 1. Dry air composition in lower atmosphere
Gas Per cent by volume
Nitrogen 78.08
Oxygen 20.95
Argon 0.93
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Neon 0.0018
Helium 0.0005
Ozone 0.00006
Hydrogen 0.00005
Krypton, xenome, methane Trace
solid and liquid particles, collectively called as aerosols. Four major gases namely: nitrogen,
oxygen, argon and carbon dioxide accounts for more than 99 per cent of dry air. Nitrogen
alone constitutes nearly 4/5th and oxygen nearly 1/5th by volume. Argon is chemically inert,
as are neon, helium, krypton and xenon.
1. Nitrogen: It is an important gas in atmosphere, which constitute about 78 per cent by
volume. It does not easily enter into chemical reaction with other substances, but it is
an important constituent of many organic compounds. Its main function in the
atmosphere is to regulate combustion by diluting oxygen.
2. Oxygen: It is the second most abundant gas in atmosphere. It is also one of the
important constituents necessary for life on earth. It is essential for combustion when
any substance burns it is consumed.
3. Carbon dioxide: It is a natural constituent of the atmosphere. It constitutes only
about 0.03 per cent by volume. It is an efficient absorber of radiant energy in certain
wavelengths of the infrared region. It is also important for photosynthesis in green
plants, which fix carbon from carbon dioxide in presence of light and release oxygen.
4. Ozone: It is found in very minute quantities near the earth surface. This gas is
produced in the lower environment in smog through the photochemical reaction.
1
Nitrogen oxide, a product of combustion dissociates by the action of solar radiation

and free oxygen atom, thus released combines with oxygen molecule (O+O2 → O3).
The greatest concentration of ozone is found between 20 and 25 kilometers in
stratosphere (Fig. 2.1). Ozone is a corrosive and toxic gas and cause irritation when
formed in the lower atmosphere. It is also formed by lightening discharges.
5. Water vapour: It is one of the most variable gases in the atmosphere, which is
present in small amounts but it is very important. The water vapour content of air
varies from 0.02 per cent in dry climate to nearly 4 per cent by volume in the humid
tropical climate. Like carbon dioxide, water vapour plays important role in insulating
action of atmosphere. It absorbs not only long wave terrestrial radiation but also a part
of incoming solar radiation. Water vapour is the source of all forms of condensation
and precipitation. Latent heat of condensation is ultimate driving force for most of the
weather systems.
Structure of atmosphere
The atmosphere is divided into two spheres based on the proportion of gases:
1. Homosphere: The gaseous proportion of the atmosphere remains fairly constant in

this sphere is called homosphere. The altitude of this sphere is nearly 80 km.
2. Heterosphere: The part of atmosphere above homosphere is called heterosphere
where, the proportion of gases changes with altitude.
On the basis of temperature variation with height above the earth surface, the
atmosphere is divided into four atmospheric layers (Fig. 2.2).
Troposphere
• Troposphere literally means region of turbulence, derived from Greek word tropos
means 'mixing or turbulence'.
• It is the lower layer of the atmosphere
• It extends to an elevation of 16-18 km over equator and 8 kilometers over poles above
the earth surface. It tends to be higher in summer than in winter.
• The most important feature of the layer is that there is decrease in temperature with
altitude to a minimum of –50 or –60oC with mean lapse rate of 6.5oC/km and
3.5oF/1000 feet.
• The transition zone where the decrease in temperature with altitude ceases is called
tropopause or it is the layer where troposphere ends.
2
• It is also called convective region, and convective activities ceases at tropopause.

• Wind velocities increase with height above the earth surface.
• Various types of clouds, thunder storms as well as cyclones and anticyclones occur in
this layer of atmosphere.
• Nearly 80 per cent of atmospheric mass is confined in this layer of atmosphere.
Stratosphere
• It begins at tropopause, and extends upto a height of 50 km above the earth surface.
• The lower stratosphere is isothermal (No change in temperature with elevation) in
character.
• This atmospheric layer is characterised by increase in temperature with altitude. This
increase in temperature is associated with absorption of ultra violet radiation by ozone
gas.
• Ozone is present in stratosphere, which absorbs ultraviolet radiation. Its concentration
is maximum at 20-25 km altitude.
• The increase in temperature with altitude ceases near its outer limit, called as
stratopause. Stratopause is not much cooler than at sea level.
• Cirrus clouds, called the mother of pearl clouds, occasionally from in the lower
stratosphere.
• The air in this sphere is very dry, i.e. less than 0.01 gm of water vapour/kg of air.
• Nacreous clouds are the clouds in stratosphere, which display entire spectrum of
colours when light above the earth shadow illuminates them.
Mesosphere
• Mesosphere starts from stratopause and extends upto 80 km above the earth surface.
• In this layer, again temperature decreases with elevation and drops to a minimum of –
92oC at mesopause, this is the upper limit of mesosphere.
• The lowest temperature point in atmosphere is at mesopause.
• Most of the meteors burn out, as they enters in mesosphere, due to increasing friction
in this layer.
• Noctilucent clouds are high level clouds (70-90 km) can only be seen during twilight
period. They are best seen when the sun is between 5-8° below horizon. It may be for
this reason that these clouds are observed most often at high latitudes, where there are
long twilight periods.
3
Thermosphere
• The uppermost layer of atmosphere is thermosphere.
• Above the mesopause, the temperature increases rapidly at first and then more slowly
with height. This increase in temperature may be associated with absorption of 'X'
rays in the lower part of thermosphere, called as Ionosphere.
• Ionosphere is characterised by ionization of gases by the action of highly energetic 'X'
rays coming from sun. It extends upto 400 km above the earth surface.
• Radio waves are reflected by ionized particles present in ionosphere.
• The temperature increases to 2000oC at about 500 km altitude. But one would not feel
that hot that is implied by 2000oC in thermosphere, simply because, although the
individual particles have kinetic energies that are representative of such a high
temperature, there are few gas particles at such altitudes that the total energy
transmitted to a body through collisions is indeed quite smaller compared to the
energy transmitted by much colder molecules at sea level.
• Above 500-600 km, the density of particles is so low that collisions among them are
in frequent and some of particles may escape from gravitational pull of earth. This
zone marks transition between earth surface's atmosphere and thin interplanetary gas
is called exosphere.
• The aurora borealis in northern and counter part aurora australis, apparently result
from excitation of the ionosphere by streams of high-energy particles from the sun.
• The aurora has been observed to increase with increase in sun spot activity.
Solar Radiation
The solar energy is the main source of energy for the processes occurring at the earth
surface and in its atmosphere. The amount of energy received from other celestial bodies is
negligible in comparison to the solar energy. The energy in the form of radiation that strikes
the earth is called insolation or the solar radiation that comes to the earth is called as
incoming solar radiation and the energy in the form of radiation that leaves the earth surface
is called out going radiation.
4
Definitions
1. Solar radiation: The solar energy that reaches the earth surface in the form of
electromagnetic wave is called solar radiation. It is also called short wave radiation. Ninety
nine per cent solar radiations lies within the wavelength range of 0.15 to 4.0 μm (Fig. 2.3).
2. Radiant flux: It is the amount of energy radiated, transmitted or absorbed per unit time. Its
unit is watt (Joule/sec).
3. Radiant flux density or radiation intensity: It may be defined as radiant flux per unit
area. Its unit is watt/m2.
4. Irradiance: It is the radiation intensity incident on a surface.
5. Emittance: Radiant flux density emitted by a surface.
6. Radiance: Radiation intensity (I) emitted in a particular direction divided by apparent area
(A) of the source in the same direction. Radiance = I/A
7. Isohel: It is the line joining the places having equal duration of sunshine hours.
Solar constant
The average amount of solar radiation reaching the outer limits of the atmosphere is known
as the solar constant or it may be defined as the radiation energy per unit time per unit area on
surface, which is held perpendicular to sun rays at outer limit of atmosphere at mean distance
between sun and earth. The mean value of solar constant is 1.98 cal/cm2/minute or 1398
watt/m2. You may also found in literature the value of solar constant equal to 2.0 langley per
minute.
Total radiation
__________________________
Solar constant =
Area of spherical cell
56×1026 cal min-1

____________________________
=
4 π r2
r = 150 million km (mean distance between sun & earth)
56×1026 cal min-1

____________________________
=
4 π (1.5×1013 cm)2
= 1.98 cal cm-2 min-1

Solar radiation spectrum
Radiation originates from the visible surface of the sun called photosphere in wavelengths
determined by its surface temperature of about 6000°K. The range of wavelengths of solar
radiation is called as solar radiation spectrum. It may also be defined as the spread of solar
energy over a broad band of wavelengths. Solar spectrum is part of the electromagnetic
spectrum (Fig. 2.4) of radiant energy that also includes X-rays, gamma rays and longer radio
waves. It comprises mainly ultraviolet, visible and infra-red wave lengths (Table 2). The
radiation having wavelength in the range of 0.15 to 0.4 μm, known as ultraviolet radiations. It
constitutes about 9% of the total solar radiation and divided into three parts:
Ultraviolet (UV)
1. UVA: This radiation has the longest wave length (0.32 to 0.40 μm) of the ultraviolet
radiations. It can cause some damage to living cells. It is transmitted to earth surface
and not absorbed in stratosphere.
2. UVB: The wavelength range, 0.28 to 0.32 μm of ultraviolet radiation is named as
UVB. It is absorbed in stratosphere by ozone. Depletion of ozone in stratosphere
5
results in a significant increase in UVB that reaches the earth surface. It causes
damage to living cells.
3. UVC: It has the shortest wavelength (0.15 to 0.28 μm) of ultra violet radiation.
Negligible UVC reaches the earth surface as all the UVC is absorbed by ozone. It is
lethal and kills the living cell.
Visible
The radiation which lies in the wavelength range 0.4 to 0.7 μm of solar spectrum is known as
visible radiation. These radiations are visible to human eye and constitute about 41 per cent
of total solar radiation. This part of solar radiation is most important for photosynthesis in
green plants. Therefore, it is also named as PAR i.e. photosynthetically active radiation.
Table 2. Solar spectrum
Sr. No. Radiations Wavelength Proportion
band (μm) (%)
1. UVA 0.32-0.40
UVB 0.28-0.32 9
UVC 0.15-0.28
2. Visible
Blue 0.4-0.5
Green 0.5-0.6 41
Red 0.6-0.7
3. Infra Red
NIR 0.7-1.3 50
MIR 1.3-3.0
TIR >3.0
Infra-red
These radiations lie between 0.7 to 4.0 μm wavelengths. This part of radiation spectrum
constitutes about 50 per cent of total solar radiation. These radiations are not much important
for crop plants. These are simply absorbed by plants, transmitted into heat and released into
atmosphere through reradiation and evapotranspiration.
6
Albedo
It may be defined as the ratio of solar radiation reflected by a surface to the total amount of
radiation incident on it, usually expressed in per cent. The albedo of surface is the percentage
of the incident radiation reflected by it, is also known as reflection coefficient. The reflection
coefficient in case of solar radiation is termed as albedo. Albedo of earth as a whole also
known as planetary albedo or global albedo. Its value is 34 per cent, but it varies with
latitude, season and nature of surface. The mean albedo of various surfaces (Table 3).
Reflected solar radiation by a surface
_____________________________________________________
Albedo = × 100
Total solar radiation incident on the surface
Counter radiation
It is the longwave radiation radiated by the atmosphere back to the earth surface. This
radiation prevents the earth from excessive cooling.
Terrestrial radiation
The radiation emitted by the earth is known as terrestrial radiation. Terrestrial radiation is
also known as outgoing long wave radiation. The long wave radiation (RL) can be estimated
using the formula:
RL = σT4 (0.55–0.092 √ed) (0.1+ 0.9 n/N)
Where,
σ = Stefan - Boltzman constant
T = Surface temperature (oK)
ed = Saturation vapour pressure at dew point
Table 3. Mean albedo of various surfaces

Sr. No. Surface Albedo (%)
1. Deciduous forest 18
2. Coniferous forest 13
3. Desert 28
4. Fresh snow 80-85
5. Old snow 50-60
6. Grain crops 10-25
7. Grasses 20-25
8. Sand 20-30
9. Water at 30o latitude 6-9
10. Bare rock 12-18
Long wave radiation
The radiations having the wavelength longer than 4.0 μm wavelengths, known as long wave
radiation. The radiation emitted by earth surface is long wave radiation. Pyrgeometer is used
to measure long wave radiation.
Short wave radiation
The radiations having the wave length less than or equal to 4.0 μm are termed as short wave
radiation. Solar radiation is also known as short wave radiation as 99 per cent of solar
radiation lies between 0.15 and 4.0 μm wave length. Solar radiation (Rs) is measured with the
help of pyranometer. It can be computed using the formula:
n
_____
Rs = RA (a+b )
N
Where,
RA = Solar radiation at outer limit of atmosphere,
7
a & b = Constants (a=0.32 & b=0.46 for Hisar),

n=Actual sun shine hours,
N=Maximum possible sun shine hours.
Exercise: Calculate the value of short wave radiation and long wave
radiation using the given data:
Mean air temperature = 25°C, radiation intensity outside the atm (RA) = 625.7 ly/day or 10.7
mm/day, mean relative humidity = 80%, albedo = 20%; actual sun shine hours = 11.8, actual
vapour pressure = 6.0 mm of Hg and maximum possible sunshine hours = 12.0
Solution
n
____
Rs = RA (a + b )
N
= 625.7 (0.32+0.46 (11.8/12.0) = 625.7 (0.32+0.46×0.98)
= 625.7 (0.32+0.45) = 625.7×0.77=481.1 ly/day
4 -9 4
σ T = 2.0×10 × (298) = 2.0×7.886 = 15.77 mm/day
RL = 15.77 (0.55–0.092×4.07) (0.1+0.9×11.8/12.0)
= 2.73 mm/day = 155.1 ly/day
Sky radiation
The radiations which come to the earth surface through indirect path are known as sky
radiation. Sky radiation is also known as diffuse radiation and it constitute about 23 per cent
of total short wave radiation.
Units
Watt/m2 (1 watt = 1 joule/sec)
Langley/minute (1 Langley = 1 cal cm-2)
Lux (1 kilo lux = 92.9 foot candle = 4.0 watt m-2)
1 μmole/sec/m2= 1 μE/sec/m2
One radiation unit can be converted into other radiation unit as in Table 4.
Table 4. Conversion of units of radiation
wm-2 cal s-1 m-2 mm of water s-1 langley s-1 μmol s-1m-2
1 0.239 4.12×10-7 0.239×10-4 4.6
4.19 1 1.72×10-6 10-4 10.25
24.27×105 5.68×105 1 56.8 1.12×107
4.18×104 104 17.22×10-3 1 19.25×104
0.218 0.052 0.9×10-7 5.2×10-7 1
Radiation and heat budget

Radiation is the way of transfer by which solar energy reaches the earth surface as short wave
and earth and its atmosphere losses energy to outer space in longer wavelengths (Fig. 2.5).
The basic form of radiation balance equation for the earth and its atmosphere is:
Rn = RA (1-r) - RL
Where,
Rn = Radiation balance/net radiation
r = Global albedo
RL = Outgoing long wave radiation from earth to space
(l-r) = Solar radiation absorbed by earth and its atmosphere
Out of total incoming (RA) about 25 per cent is reflected by clouds and 7 per cent
scattered back to space by clouds, dust and gas molecules without heating the air, 2 per cent
is reflected to space from the earth surface. This total 25+7+2=34 per cent reflected radiation
is called as earth albedo. Although its value at poles is greater than at equator. About 19 per
8
cent of insolation is absorbed in atmosphere by the gases, clouds and solid particles
suspended in air. Ozone absorbs most of UV radiation, which is the main source of energy for
circulation in stratosphere. Water vapour, clouds and dust are main absorber of the incoming
long wave radiation in troposphere.
The earth surface absorbs 47 per cent solar radiation of which 24 per cent as direct and 23 per
cent as indirect or diffuse radiation. Thus, 66 per cent of radiation is absorbed by earth and its
atmosphere.
The total absorbed solar energy is radiated back to space as long wave radiation. Out of
which 6 per cent is radiated back to space directly by earth and 60 per cent is radiated to
space by atmosphere.
RA = 100 units r = 34 percent = 0.34

RA (1-r) = 66 per cent RL= 66 per cent
Rn = 100 (1-0.34) – 66 = 0
Solar radiation absorbed by earth : 47 per cent

Energy radiated directly to space by earth : 6 per cent
Radiated energy from earth to atmosphere : 11 per cent
Energy lost by earth as sensible or convection to : 7 per cent
atmosphere
Energy lost by earth as latent heat by evaporation and : 23 per cent
released in atmosphere by condensation
Solar radiation absorbed by atmosphere : 19 per cent
Solar radiation reflected and scattered back space by : 34 per cent
earth and its atmosphere
Energy radiated back to space by atmosphere : 60 per cent
9
The gain and loss of energy by earth, atmosphere and space are presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Radiation budget
Earth Atmosphere Space
Gain (%) 47 19+11+7+23=60 34+66=100
Loss (%) 6+7+23+11=47 60 100
Factors affecting insolation or radiation distribution over earth surface

Radiation intensity received on the surface of earth varies according to the conditions of the
atmosphere as well as seasons. The following factors control the radiation distribution over
earth surface:
1. Angle of incidence: It is an angle between sun rays and normal to the surface at a point
of observation and also called as altitude of sun. Radiation intensity is more when the
sunrays are normal to the surface as compared to the sun rays are oblique to the surface or
as the incident angle of sun rays decreases, radiation intensity increases. This is because
of the fact that normal rays cover less surface area (A), whereas oblique rays cover more
area (B) as shown in Figure 2.6 and therefore, radiation per unit surface area is decreased.
2. Latitude: Latitude of place determines the angle of sun rays. With increase in latitude
the radiation intensity decreases. Therefore, radiation intensity is higher over equator as
compared to poles. The sunrays are normal to earth surface over equator and the
sunrays become more and oblique as we move toward the poles. The normal rays over
equator travel less path (A) whereas oblique rays over higher latitudes travel more path
(C) through atmosphere as shown in Figure 2.7. Longer atmospheric path causes more
depletion of radiation.
10
3. Duration of sunshine: It is the duration of shining of sun over a place. It also affects
the amount of radiation received at earth surface. The longer periods of sunshine
supply more radiation to the surface as compared to shorter sunshine periods. Sun
shine duration also Table 6. Maximum day length (hours) in different latitudes
Latitude Day length (hrs) Latitude Day length
° ° ’
0 12.0 66 .5 24.0
23°.5’ 13.6 90° 6 months
determines day length, which varies with latitude (Table 6)
On summer solstice (June 21) the length of the day is maximum and on winter
solstice (December 22) it is minimum and vice versa in Southern hemisphere. The day
and night are equal on autumnal (September 21) and vernal (March 21) equinoxes
(Fig. 2.8).
Figure 2.8. Solar Solstices and Equinoxes

4. Solar constant: The solar constant varies not much, rather the change in its value is
negligible and therefore, it is called constant. Periodic disturbances and explosions in
the surface of sun cause the variation in its value. As the sunspots appearance
increases, the radiation intensity over earth surface increases.
5. Distance between sun and earth: The distance between earth and sun varies because
of elliptical orbit of revolution of earth around sun. The mean distance between sun
and earth is 150 million km. The earth comes closer to sun at perihelion (the distance
is 147 million km on January 3) and goes little farther from sun at aphelion (the
distance is 152 million km on July 4). Therefore, the radiation intensity is 7 % greater
at perihelion than at aphelion position of earth.
6. Atmospheric condition: Reflection and absorption of radiation by clouds, and other
atmospheric constituents control the radiation intensity reaching the earth surface.
Therefore, areas with cloudy and turbid atmosphere receive less radiation as
compared to areas with clear and less turbid atmosphere.
7. Thickness of atmosphere: With the increase in thickness of atmosphere the radiation
has to pass more path in the atmosphere. Therefore, as the path length increases, the
depletion of radiation increases or the atmospheric absorption of radiation increases
with the thickness of atmosphere, thereby, less radiation reach the earth surface.
Energy balance
The solar energy available at the earth surface is utilized in different ways. The
equation used to express the energy balance is of the form:
Rn = LE + A + G + Mi
Where,
11
Rn = Net radiation
LE = Latent heat of evaporation. It is the energy flux used
in evaporation as latent heat. LE utilizes 70-80 per
cent of net energy available
A = Sensible heat of flux : It is the energy flux used in
heating the air. 10-15 per cent energy used as
sensible heat.
G = Soil heat flux : It is the energy flux used in heating
the soil. Soil heat flux varies from 5 to 10 per cent
Mi = Miscellaneous energy flux : The energy utilized in
photosynthesis and other biochemical processes. This
flux is very small in comparison to above mentioned
fluxes, so it is neglected.
Rn = LE + A + G
Greenhouse effect
The atmospheric gasses (water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons and
nitrous oxide) allow short wave radiation coming from sun to pass through but they absorb
the long wave radiation emitted by earth. So, they trap some of the heat energy radiated from
earth. The trapping of heat radiation and warming of atmosphere is somewhat analogues to a
green house and the effect is called green house effect. In green house the glass walls and
roof allow the short wave radiation to pass through them where it is absorbed by ground. But
the emitted long wave radiation by ground is not allowed to escape by glass walls and roof of
green house. That heat inside the green house is maintained and warms the green house. This
warming or trapping of heat energy is called green house effect.
The trapping heat in the atmosphere might better be called as atmospheric effect, because
the dominant process responsible for heating the air in a green house is quite different from
that which heats the lower atmosphere.
Radiation Laws
1. Stefan-Boltzman law
This law states that the radiation intensity emitted by a black body is directly proportional to
fourth power of its surface temperature (0K) i.e.
E = εσ T4
Where, E = Radiation emitted by the surface
σ = Stefan-Boltzman constant (8.14×10-11 ly min-1 0K-4)
T = Surface temperature (°K)
ε = Emissivity = 1 for black body
Exercise: The temperature of a hot iron plate is 500C & its emissivity is 0.90. Calculate the
intensity of radiation emitted from the hot plate.
σ =8.14×10-11ly min-1 0K-4.
Solution
The radiation emitted from a material is given by the formula:
E = ε σ T4
T = 50 °C = 50 + 273 = 323 °K
ε = 0.90
σ = 8.14 ×10-11 ly min-1 °K-4.
E = 0.90 × 8.14 ×10-11 ×1.09 ×1010
= 0.90 × 0.814 = 0.673 ly min-1
12
2. Plank's law
The law states that energy per unit wave length emitted by a black body is a function of its
temperature.
2 Πh c2 [exp (hc/bλT)-1]-1
Eλ = _______________________________
λ5
Where, Eλ= Radiation energy emitted per unit wavelength
h = Plank's constant (6.626×10-34 J sec)
c = Speed of light
b = Boltzman constant (1.381 × 10-23 J 0K-1)
λ = Wavelength
Energy content of a quantum is directly proportional to its frequency, as expressed below:
E = hν
Energy of 1 mole of quantum (E) = Nhν; E = Energy content of radiation
N = Avagadro's number (6.02×1023); ν = frequency
o
Exercise: Assuming temperature of sun equal to 6000 K, find out the energy of 0.55 μm
wavelength radiation emitted by the sun. h=6.27×10-34 J sec, b=1.381×10-23 J 0K-
1
and c=3×1010 cm sec-1.
Solution
Energy per unit wavelength is expressed by the formula:
2 Πhc2 [exp (hc/bλT)-1]-1
Eλ = _______________________________
λ5
Where,
h = 6.27×10-34 J sec
c = 3.1010 cm/sec
b =1.381 × 10-23 J 0K-1)
λ = 0.55×10-4 cm
T =6000 0K
2×22×6.27×10-34×9×1020
Eλ = _____________________________________
7×(0.55×10-4)5 × exp 6.27×10-34×3×1010
___________________________________
-1
1.38×10-23×0.55×10-4×6000
396×6.27×10-14
_____________________________________________________________
=
7×0.05×10-20 × exp 18.81 ×10-24
_______________
-1
-24
4.554×10
2482.9×106
_______________
=
0.35×[62.17–1]
2482.9×106
______________
= = 115.97 x 106 J sec-1 cm-2 cm-1
21.41
= 11.6 KJ sec-1 cm-2 μm-1
13
Exercise: Calculate the energy content of visible radiation having the frequency equal to
5.5×1011 K cycle/sec.
Solution
The energy content of the quantum is equal to
E = hν
h= 6.625×10-27 ergs sec; ν = 5.5×1014 cycle/sec
-27 14
E = 6.625×10 ×5.5×10 = 36.44×10-13 ergs
[1 ly min-1 = 4.19 ×107 ergs cm-2 min-1]
One mole of quantum = 1 Einstein (E)
= 6.02×1023 photons (Avagadro's number)
So 1 E of this frequency wavelength is = 36.44×10-13 ×6.02×1023
= 2.19 × 1012 ergs.
3. Wien's law
This law states that wavelength of maximum radiation intensity emitted is inversely
proportional to the temperature (0K) of the body.
2897 (μm 0K)
_________
λmax =
T
Where, λmax = Wavelength of maximum emission (μm)
T = Temperature of the surface (0K)
Exercise: The earth surface temperature is equal to 270C and sun temperature is 60000K.
Find out the wavelength of maximum radiation intensity.
Solution
The wavelength of maximum emission is equal to
2897 (μm 0K)
λmax = ________________
T
T = 27 °C = 27+273 = 300 0K
2897
________
λmax for earth = = 9.66 μm
300
2897
________
λmax for sun = = 0.48 μm
6000
4. Kirchoff's law
This law states that for a given wavelength, absorptivity of a material is equal to its
emissivity. aλ = eλ
Where aλ and eλ = Absorptivity & emissivity of a material for given wavelength
For a given wavelength and temperature, the ratio of emissivity to absorptivity of all material
is a constant. e1/a1= e2/a2 = Constant
Where, e1 and e2 = Emissivity of the surfaces 1 and 2
a1 and a2 = Absorptivity of the surfaces 1 and 2
5. Lambert's Cosine law
This law states that the radiant intensity (flux per unit solid angle) emitted in any direction
from a unit radiating surface or incident on a surface varies as the cosine of the angle between
the normal to the surface and direction of the radiation.
14
1/10= Cos α
Where, I = Radiation Intensity on the surface
I0 = Radiation intensity when the solar radiation is normal to surface
α = Angle between radiation and normal to the surface. For solar radiation from the
solar elevation 'β' incident on a horizontal surface, I/I0 = Sin β
The zenith distance α is the complement of the angular elevation, (α=90-β)
Exercise: The radiant flux density of solar beam upon a perpendicular surface is 1.0
ly/minute. Calculate the radiant flux density upon a horizontal surface if the
radiation beam makes an angle of 300 with normal to surface.
Solution
As per cosine law:
I = I0 Cos α
I0 = 1.0 ly/min
α = 300
I = 1.0 Cos 300 [Cos 300=0.866]
= 1.0×0.866 = 0.87 ly/min
6. Beer's law: This law states that the fraction of radiation intercepted (I/I0) by the canopy is
an exponential function of leaf area index.
I/I0 = e-KF
Where, I = Light intensity at a level inside the canopy
I0= Light intensity at the top of the crop canopy
K = Extinction coefficient
F = Leaf area index from top to the level inside the canopy at which radiation
intensity is to be calculated
By taking log with base e on both sides: ln (I/I0) = -KF
K = -ln (I/I0)/F
Exercise: The solar radiation at the top of crop canopy is 0.9 cal cm-2 min-1. The leaf area
index of the canopy is 2.5 and the extinction coefficient is 0.7. Find out the solar
radiation at the bottom of the canopy.
Solutions
According to Beer's Law:
I = I0 e-KF ; I0 = 0.9 cal cm-2 min-1
K = 0.7 ; F = 2.5
I = 0.9e -0.7×2.5
= 0.9×0.174 = 0.157 cal cm-2 min-1
Exercise: Calculate the extinction coefficient of cotton crop using the data: I0=0.98 ly min-1,
I=0.2 ly min-1 and F = 2.1
Solution
The extinction coefficient is given by the formula:
-ln (I/I0)
K = ___________
F
-ln (0.2/0.98)
K = ___________
2.1
1.59
K = ___________
2.1
K = 0.76
15
7. Monteith law
Radiation interception inside the crop canopy is expressed as by this law:
I = I0[S+(1-S) τ]F
Where, S = Fraction of light passing through unit layer without interception
τ = Leaf transmission coefficient
F = Leaf area index
Exercise: The radiation intensity at the top of wheat crop is 1.1 ly min-1. The leaf
transmission coefficient is 0.08 and the fraction of radiation passing through unit
layer without interception is 0.42. Calculate the radiation intensity at ground level if
the leaf area index is equal to 2.0
Solution
According to Monteith law, radiation penetration inside the canopy:
I = I0[S+(1-S) τ]F
I0 = 1.1 ly min-1
S=0.42
τ =0.08
F = 2.0
I = 1.1 [0.42+(1-0.42)0.08]2.0
= 1.1 [0.42+0.05]2.0 = 1.1 (0.47)2.0 = 1.1 ×0.221 = 0.24 ly min-1
Instruments
1. Pyranometer: It measures total shortwave radiation i.e. direct and indirect radiation.
It is a thermopile based instrument. Reflected radiation can be measured by inverting
the sensor over the surface.
2. Net radiometer: It is used to measure net radiation i.e. balance between incoming
and outgoing radiation over a surface. A differential thermopile is used in this
radiometer. It measures net radiation flux over the surface.
3. Quantum sensor: It measures radiation in the wavelength range of 0.4 to 0.7 μm,
which is called as photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). The sensor is silicon
photodiode, which works on the principle of photometric effect.
4. Pyrgeometer: The instrument used for measuring long wave or terrestrial/infrared
radiations is known as pyrgeometer. The sensor used in this radiometer is a
thermopile, which works on the principle of thermo-electric effect.
5. Spectroradiometer: The radiometer which measures the radiation in different bands
of spectrum. It measures the spectral reflectance of a surface. Ground Truth
Radiometer (GTR) used by remote sensing persons is a spectroradiometer, which
measures the spectral reflectance in visible and infrared bands.
6. Luxmeter: The instrument which is used to measure light intensity is called lux
meter. It measures illuminance of a surface by the incident light and its unit is lux
(1000 lux = 1 kilo lux).
16
Air Temperature, Pp 5
3. AIR TEMPERATURE
Temperature is a measure of the heat concept of a body. It shows the intensity of heat energy
or degree of hotness or coldness. The temperature may be defined as the intensity aspect of
heat energy. The temperature measures the average kinetic energy of the molecules. It is the
measures of sensible heat energy of a system.
Different scales have been used for the measurement of temperature. These are four scales as
given below:
1. Celsius scale: This scale is named for the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius. It is
internationally accepted for measurement of temperature. The boiling point of water is
100 oC and freezing point of water (Triple point) is 0 oC.
2. Fahrenheit scale: The Fahrenheit scale is used for temperature as evident from
historical records of temperatures in English speaking countries. The freezing point
(triple point) of water is 0oF and boiling point of water is 212 oF.
3. Kelvin scale: It is based on absolute zero, at which molecular activities theoretically
would cease. It is used to indicate the temperatures in upper atmosphere and in studies
involving energy exchange processes. The value of each degree on Kelvin scale
equals to that of a Celsius degree. Absolute zero is at –273.16 oC.
4. Reaumer scale: The freezing point of water is 0oR and the boiling point of water is
80 oR.
Conversion formulae
♦ Conversion of temperature values in 0oC to oF or oF to oC by the formula:
C F-32
___
= ________
5 9
♦ Conversion of temperature values in oC to oK:
K = C + 273
C = K-273
♦ Conversion of temperature values for oC to oR:
C R
___
= ____
5 4
Exercise: Convert the given temperature values degree Celsius values into degree
Fahrenheit and Kelvin values (i) 10 (ii) 20 (iii) 37 (iv) –273
Solution
C F–32
___ _______
=
5 9
10 F-32
____
(i) = _______ , oF = 18+32 = 50
5 9
o
K = 273 + 10, oK = 283
20 F-32
____ _______ o
(ii) = , F = 36+32 = 68
5 9
o
K = 273 + 20, oK = 293
37 F-32
____ _______ o
(iii) = , F = 66.6+32 = 98.6
5 9
1
o
K = 273 + 37, oK = 310
–273 F-32
____
(iv) = _______ , oF = – 491.4+32=–459.4
5 9
o
K = –273 + 273, oK = 0
Conversion of temperature values from one scale to others is given in Table 1.
Table 1. Conversion of Temperature in different scales
Celsius Fahrenheit Kelvin Reaumer
o o o
1C 1.8 C+32 1 C+273 0.8oC
0.5556oF-17.7779 1oF 0.5556oF+255.221 0.4445oF-14.224
1oK-273 1.8oK-459.4 1oK 0.8oK-218.4
o o o
1.25 R 2.25 R+32 1.25 R+273 1oR
Definitions
Diurnal range: It is defined as the difference between maximum and minimum temperatures
of the day.
Daily mean: It is mean of maximum and minimum temperature values of the day.
Monthly mean: It is computed by adding the daily mean temperatures and dividing by the
number of days in the month.
Annual mean: It is computed by adding the monthly means and divided by twelve.
Annual range: It is the difference between mean temperatures of warmest and coldest
months.
Normal temperature: It is computed by adding temperature values of more than 30 years
and divided by the number of years.
Lapse rate: The decrease in temperature with height is called as lapse rate. The mean value
of lapse rate is 6.5 oC/km or 3.5 oF/1000 feet. It is also called as normal lapse rate.
Adiabatic lapse rate: It is the decrease in temperature with height in a rising air parcel
provided there is no exchange of energy with surrounding. The dry adiabatic lapse rate is
10.0 oC/km and moist adiabatic lapse rate is 5.0 oC/km.
Temperature inversion: Increase in temperature with height is called as temperature
inversion. It is reverse of lapse rate. It occurs near the ground (ground inversion) and
sometime at higher levels (aloft inversion) in atmosphere.
Isotherm: It is the line joining the places having equal temperatures. The isotherms are
drawn on weather map to represent the places having equal values of temperature.
Temperature lag: It is the amount of time between incoming energy maxima and
temperature maxima. It is grouped into daily and seasonal lag of temperatures.
1. Daily temperature lag: It is the difference in time of maximum incoming radiation
and maximum temperature over the day. It is equal to 2.00 hours approximately.
2. Seasonal lag of temperature: It is the time difference period between the highest
incoming solar radiation and highest temperature over the year.
Continentality: The impact of continental location on weather and climate characteristics of
a place is called continentally. Air temperature is greatly affected by the location of a place
relative to large body of water i.e. sea/ocean.
Specific heat: It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a
substance through one-degree Celsius. The specific heat of water is 1.0 cal/gm.
The air temperature varies from place to place, called horizontal temperature variation and
its change with height above the earth surface, called vertical temperature variation.
1. Horizontal temperature variation
The average global temperature is 15oC but local temperature averages vary widely. Weather
maps for small areas are prepared by drawing the isotherm using actual observed
2
temperatures. But in case of continental or world maps, isotherms are drawn from the mean
temperatures reduced to sea level equivalents by adding 6.5oC for each kilometer of
elevation. This adjustment is done to eliminate the altitude effect. There is a general decrease
in temperature from equator toward poles. If latitude is the only controlling factor then we
would expect parallel isotherms to each other, but it is not in actual case. The isotherms are
irregular in shape due to irregular distribution of land and water on earth surface in northern
hemisphere. But the isotherms are more or less parallel in southern hemisphere due to more
uniform surface mainly water. Where there is land, isotherms take sudden swing over the
surface. In winter land surface is cooler than water surface and vice-versa in summer. During
daytime land surface is warmer than water surface and vice-versa during night. The contrast
in land and water temperatures is because of the reasons:
1.Water is mobile so energy absorbed by surface is transferred more quickly by conduction
and convection but in case of land, energy transfer to dipper layers is slow only by
conduction i.e. a slow process of energy transfer.
2.Water is translucent, so energy penetrates to deeper layers in water as compared to
opaque land.
3.The specific heat of water is higher than land.
Interior places on continents have extreme climates whereas costal places have moderate
climates e.g. Delhi experiences extreme temperatures as compared to Mumbai. The isotherms
dip far to the south in winter in northern hemisphere over land surface and dip far to the north
over land surface in summer.
The presence of ocean currents also affects the temperature of place. Warm ocean current
(drift of ocean warm water from equator towards poles) and cold ocean current (drift of cold
water from pole towards equator) increases and decreases the temperature of near by places,
respectively, e.g. London situated at 51oN is warmer due warm North Atlantic drift and New
York situated at 40oN is colder due to presence of cold Labrador ocean current. Mountain
barrier also affects the horizontal distribution of temperatures. Mountain ranges tend to
guide the cold air masses e.g. in USA. Rocky Mountain assists the prevailing westerlies in
diverting most of the cold outbursts from Canada to the east. Himalaya in Asia and Alps in
Europe protect the regions to the south from cold polar air.
The onshore winds also affect the temperature of place. The ocean currents have their
maximum effect on temperature over land surface if the prevailing winds are onshore. For
example, the temperature range along the west coast of North America tends to be small due
to onshore winds.
Highest official air temperature of 58oC was recorded at Azizia, Libya on September 13,
1922.Lowest temperature recorded was –88.3oC at Vostok Soviet station on August 24, 1960.
Vertical variation in temperature
There is fairly regular decrease in temperature of the air with height above the earth surface.
This decrease in temperature ceases near outer limit of troposphere, called as tropopause
(Figure 3.1).The average rate of decrease in troposphere is about 6.5oC/km or 3.5oF/1000
feet. It is termed as normal lapse rate. The actual lapse rate varies with altitude and from
place to place. Actual lapse rate does not show always a decrease in temperature but indicates
no change in temperature with altitude, then it is called as isothermal lapse rate. Some
processes in the lower atmosphere may cause increase in temperature with altitude, known as
temperature inversion. It is of two types i.e. ground inversion (occurs near ground) and aloft
inversion (occurs at higher levels in atmosphere). Temperature inversion occurs in following
conditions:
1. On a calm and clear night in winter season, inversion results due to radiation cooling.
2. Cold air from hiltops slopes downward in valley bottom and creates temperature
inversion in valley.
3
3. When warm air comes over a cold surface cause an inversion in lower atmosphere.
4. When warm air mass meets with cold air mass, the warm air mass slopes upward over the
cold air-mass and results into an inversion, called as frontal inversion.
5. When a cold air subsides or sink down and spreads over lower air, causes temperature
inversion, termed as subsidence inversion, if it is at higher levels then also termed as
aloft inversion.
Above tropopause, the temperature does not change with altitude in lower stratosphere,
known as isothermal lapse rate. Then, air temperature increases with height due to absorption
of ultraviolet radiation by ozone layer in stratosphere. This increase in temperature with
altitude ceases near stratopause. In mesosphere again temperature decreases with height and
drops to a minimum of about –92 oC at mesopause. Above, this layer, temperature again
increases with elevation in thermosphere due to absorption of 'X' rays by ionized gasses
present in thermosphere. The temperature increases to a high value of about 2000oC near
about 500 km altitude. In thermosphere the temperature increases to an undefined limit.
Factors affecting temperature distribution
1.Latitude: Air temperature decreases with increase in latitude in both hemispheres over
the earth surface. Therefore, the places near equator are warmer as compared to the places
in mid latitudes and near poles. Since the temperature is primarily controlled by radiation
and radiation intensity is higher at equator then at poles.
2.Altitude: The air temperature decreases with increase in altitude. This decrease in
temperature with altitude ceases at tropopause. The normal lapse rate is 6.5oC/km. Since
the direct source of atmospheric heat is the earth surface, therefore, as we go higher in
atmosphere, we experience lower and lower temperature.
3.Distribution of land and water: Land surface is heated more quickly than water when
subjected to equal amount of radiation and it also cools more rapidly. This is due to one
of the reasons that specific heat of water is three times more than that of land.
4.Distance from sea: The distance from sea also affects the temperature distribution of a
place. Diurnal range of temperatures is higher over places, which are far away from sea in
comparison with costal places. The temperatures are moderate in costal places e.g.
temperature range is higher at Delhi as compared to Mumbai.
4
5.Slope of the land: Slope of the land controls the radiation intensity over a place, which in
turn controls the temperature. Therefore, south facing slopes are warmer than north facing
slopes in northern hemisphere and vice-versa in southern hemisphere.
6.Nature of soil: Rocky and sandy soils warm more quickly and cool more rapidly as
compared to heavy soils, which contain more water. Therefore, western Haryana is
comparatively warmer than eastern Haryana in summer and vice-versa in winter.
7.Vegetation: The vegetation cuts off much of the incoming solar radiation and also
converts much of the energy into latent heat of evapo-transpiration. So, the places with
more vegetation are cooler than the places without vegetation.
8.Condition of atmosphere: Clouds absorbs the terrestrial radiation, therefore, cloudy
nights are warmer than clear nights in winter. Dust particles also increase the temperature
of atmosphere. Dusty atmosphere is warmer than clear atmosphere. This is due to the
reason that dust particles absorbs the solar radiation and radiates energy in the
atmosphere.
Instruments
Thermometer: The most common instrument for measuring temperature is mercury-in-
glass thermometer. Alcohol-in-glass thermometer is also used for measuring temperature.
Minimum thermometer: It is an alcohol in glass thermometer with a dark dumbbell
shaped index placed in the bore below top of the alcohol column. It is used to measure
minimum temperature.
Maximum thermometer: It is mercury in glass thermometer with a constriction in bore
near bulb. It is used for measuring maximum temperature.
Thermocouple: It consists of pair of junctions of two unlike metals. When one junction is
kept at constant temperature and other is exposed to a different temperature, an
electromotive force is developed in the circuit, which is measured by a potentiometer
calibrated in degrees.
Thermistor: It is semi-conducting ceramic element, offers less resistance to the flow of
current as its temperature increases.
Thermograph: It gives a continuous record of temperature with time on a graph. It consist
of bimetallic element, both metals have different coefficient of expansion. The metals are
invar and bronze or iron and tungsten.
5
Atmospheric Pressure, Pp 6
4. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Pressure of air at a given place is the force exerted against a surface by continuous collision
of gas molecules. Pressure may be defined as the force per unit surface area.
P = F/A
Where,
P = Pressure
F = Force
A = Area upon which force is exerted
Air pressure is the force exerted in all directions as a result of weight of all the air
above it. Force exerted by mass of a column of air above a given point is called air pressure.
Mass × Acceleration
________________________________
P= [F = m × a]
Area
Where,
Mass = ρ×V = ρ ×h×A
ρ h A.g
P = ________________ = ρ h g
A
Where,
ρ = Density of liquid (Mercury=1.3×103 kg m-3)
h = Height of liquid (Mercury height =76 cm)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (980 cm s-2)
P = 13.6×103 kg m-3×0.76 m × 9.8 m s-2
= 101300 (kg m s-2) m-2 [ 1N=1 kg ms-2]
= 101300 N m-2
= 101300 Pa = 1.013×105 Pa
Units
1. Height of Hg i.e. inches, cm or mm of Hg.
2. Bar: It is the force equal to 106 dynes per square centimeter.
3. Pascle (Pa) : It is the force of 1 Newton per square meter = N/m2
4. Atmosphere = 1 atm = 29.92 inches or 76 cm or 760 mm of Hg
= 1013 milli bar (mb)
= 101325 pascle = 101.3 kilo pascle (KPa)
= 14.7 lb/inch2
= 1.013 × 106 dynes/cm2 = 1.013 bar
2
= 1034 gms/cm = 1.013 x 105 N m-2
1" = 33.86 mb
One pressure unit can be converted into other pressure units as per Table 1.
Table 1. Conversion of units of pressure
Atmosphere dynes/cm2 Pascle mbar mm of Hg
3 2
1 1013×10 1-103×10 1013 760
0.987×10-6 1 0.1 0.001 0.75×10-3
0.987×10-5 10 1 0.01 0.75×10-2
-3
0.987×10 1000 100 1 0.75
0.13157×10-2 1.333×103 1.333×102 1.333 1
Vertical variation in air pressure
The pressure depends on the density of air. Air density depends on its temperature, its
composition and force of gravity. Air is more dense near the earth surface because of
compression due weight of over lying air layers one upon the other. The air density decreases
1
with height above the earth surface in atmosphere. Therefore, there is a decrease in air
pressure with altitude. The rate of decrease in pressure with height is not same from place to
place. The mean rate of decrease in pressure with height is 1 cm/100m. In the first few
thousand meters above sea level, the pressure decreases at the rate of 1 mb for every 10
meters. It drops to nearly half of its surface value i.e. 1013.2 to 540.4 mb at about 5 km
altitude. But this rate is not uniform with altitude. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is
1013 mb, at 50 km altitude it is about 1 mb and near 80 km it decreases to 0.01 mb. The rate
of fall of pressure with height is determined partly by the rate of fall in temperature.
Horizontal variation in air pressure
Like air temperature, air pressure also varies from place to place over the earth surface.
Horizontal variation in air pressure is represented by isobars on the weather map. Isobars are
drawn at an interval of 3, 4 or 5 millibars. Closely spaced isobars represent steep pressure
gradient and widely spaced isobars represent gentle pressure gradient. The pressure gradient
is at right angle to isobars. Temperature and pressure are closely related to each other. On a
world wide scale mean sea-level pressure may vary from less than 990 mb to more than 1030
mb. The world's greatest sea level pressure of 1083.8 mb was recorded at Agata, Siberia on
December 31, 1968. The lowest sea level pressure of 870 mb was calculated from an aerial
sounding in the eye of Typhoon Tip west of the Mariana Island on October 12, 1979.
The factors, which control the horizontal variation of temperature, also control the
pressure variation. Earth surface is heated unevenly by mainly three factors:
1. Unequal distribution of radiation
2. Differential heating of land and water
3. Variation in reflectivity of the earth surface
As the air over an area heated more than another area with same atmospheric pressure. The
warm air will rise and its density decreases, thereby air pressure decreases. On other hand,
over an area with cold air, pressure will increase.
The equatorial regions have high temperature due to high insolation and would result into low
pressure development but on the other hand, polar regions are cooler, which result into
development of high pressure.
Coriolis force due to earth's rotation also affects the pressure distribution over earth surface.
If this effect would not be in force, then there would be general increase in pressure as we
move toward poles. But this general increase in pressure is disturbed by the presence of
pressure of a low pressure belt between 60 and 70° latitudes in both the hemispheres. This
belt might be produced by the factors associated with earth rotation. So, on the basis of
general circulation, globe can be divided into following pressure belts as shown in Figure 4.1.
1. Equatorial low-pressure belt
This low-pressure belt exists over equatorial region between 5 oN and 5 oS. It is known as belt
of rising air or belt of convergence (Figure 4.2). It is also termed as doldrums (The belt with
calm and variable winds). The average pressure in this belt is less than 1013 mbar but in
eastern hemisphere it is less than 1009 millibar. This belt is thermally produced due to high
insolation over the equatorial region.
2. Sub tropical high pressure belt
This pressure belt lies between 25o and 35o N and S in both hemispheres. This belt is
characterized by sinking of air from higher altitudes. Sinking of equatorial air in this zone
might be because of two reasons. First cooling of equatorial air at higher level, results in
increased density which cause sinking. Second due to earth rotation from west to east, pole
ward directed winds are deflected east wards. It causes blocking effect and air piles up aloft
and this causes a general sinking. It is also known as belt of divergence (Figure 4.2). These
high pressure zones are termed as horse latitudes. The subsiding/sinking air currents create
stable atmosphere with dry air masses. All the hot deserts of the world lie in this belt.
2
3. Sub-polar low pressure belt

This belt of low pressure lies between 60o and 70o latitude in both the hemispheres. It is also
the belts of rising air/converging air as winds coming from the subtropics and polar areas
converge and rise in this belt. This belt results due to rotational movement of earth, which
swings up air in this zone. Due to a great contrast between the temperature of winds from
subtropical and polar regions, cyclonic storms are developed in this region.
4. Polar high pressure belt
The pressures at poles are consistently high throughout the year. This belt lies over the poles
in both hemispheres. The high pressure in these belts is mainly due to extreme low
temperatures persist in polar region which result in more dense and heavy air mass. The
easterly winds blow out of these high pressure belts towards sub-polar low pressure belt.
Factors affecting pressure distribution over the earth surface
The factors which control the temperature variation from place to place over the earth surface
also control the air pressure distribution over the earth surface. This is due to the fact that
temperature and pressure are closely related and have inverse relationship i.e. higher the
temperature, lower will be pressure or vice-versa. Some of the important factors are given
below:
1. Altitude
Air pressure decreases with altitude. The places at higher altitudes, have comparatively lower
air pressure than that of places which are at lower altitudes e.g. hill station (Ooty) has lower
pressure as compared to stations in plain (Coimbatore).
2. Latitude
The air temperatures are high over equatorial region and low over polar regions. Therefore,
air pressure is low at equator and high over poles. The air pressure increases as we move
towards poles. But this general increase in pressure with latitude is not infact due to influence
of other factors.
3
3. Land and water surface

Air pressure is more over water surface as compared to land surface in summer season and
vice-versa in winter season. Similarly, air pressure is higher over water surface in comparison
with nearby land surface during day time and vice-versa during night. Due to this fact land
breeze and sea breeze prevails in coastal regions.
4. Condition of atmosphere
Presence of dust particles in atmosphere increases its temperature, thereby air pressure
decreases. If water vapour content increases in air, it becomes less dense as compared to dry
air. Therefore, air pressure decreases with increase in water vapour content of the air at same
temperature.
5. Ocean currents
Air pressure will be lower over the places near warm ocean currents in comparison with the
places near cold ocean currents.
Isobar
The line joining the places of equal atmospheric pressure on the weather map is called as
isobars. Actual pressure values are reduced to sea level pressures by applying correction to
remove altitude effect then they are used for drawing isobars on a continent weather map. If
isobars are closely spaced, it indicates a steep change in pressure at right angle to the isobars.
When isobars are widely spaced, they indicate slow change in pressure. Two isobars never
cross each other.
Definitions
Low pressure area: Low pressure centre enclosed with circular closed isobars is defined as
low pressure area. The pressure increases outwards. A low pressure with wind velocity less
than 39 miles/hour is called depression.
Secondary depression: Small depression formed on the out side of a parent depression.
Trough: The v-shaped projection of low pressure is termed as trough.
Ridge: Wedge shaped extension of high pressure which lies between two depressions. It may
also be called as wedge.
Col: Pressure distribution between two high pressure areas and two low pressure areas. High
and low are opposite to each other.
Pressure gradient: The rate of change of pressure per unit distance between to places at the
same elevation is called pressure gradient. It is also known as isobaric slope.
Eye of cyclone: It is the centre of cyclone with calm air, no cloudiness, light winds and no
precipitation. This central areas is know as 'eye' of the cyclone.
Altimeter: It is an altitude barometer. Its principle is same as that of aneroid barometer. Its
scale is calibrated in height.
Cyclones
It is a circular shape of isobars having low pressure at centre and pressure increases outwards.
Air runs spirally inward the centre. The wind direction is anticlockwise in northern
hemisphere and clockwise in southern hemisphere (Figure 4.3). It is classified in two types:
1.Tropical cyclone: These cyclones are more intense and spread over a few kilometers to
several kilometers. It originates due to differential heating of land and water surface
near islands in tropical region. Most of tropical cyclones originate between 8° to 15°
north and south latitudes. It is more violent and associated with very high winds (75-
125 mile/hour) and storms producing rough weather. Tropical cyclones move with trade
winds and most prominent in Pacific Ocean. They are also named as Hurricanes in
USA, Typhoons in China and Willy-willies in Australia e.g. Cyclone in India (Bay of
Bengal and Arabian Sea).
4
2.Temperate cyclone: This type of cyclone originates in temperate or cold regions.

Temperate cyclone is concentrated in middle latitudes between 35o to 65o in both
hemispheres. Its intensity is less compared to tropical cyclone but have more spread of
several hundred kilometers. Its vertical thickness is 9-11 km and horizontal spread is of
about 1000 km. Temperate cyclone is accompanied by secondary cyclones. It is
associated with cloudiness, light rains and winds e.g. Western disturbances in north
India.
Anticyclone
It may be defined as circular shape of isobars with high pressure at centre and pressure
decreases outwards. The winds direction is clockwise in northern hemisphere and
anticlockwise in southern hemisphere (Figure 4.3). Anticyclone is associated with dry, cool
air and little cloud, which produce fine weather. Cyclones and anticyclones are just opposite
of each other. Anticyclone is always associated with cyclone or cyclone is always
accompanied by anticyclone.
Seasonal distribution of air pressure over the earth
Continents and oceans modify the horizontal pressure distribution. In summer, the relatively
hot lands develop low pressure systems and destroy high pressure systems. Similarly, cooler
oceans develop high pressure systems and weaken low pressure systems. The reverse
pressure system develop over land and water bodies in winter season. For example northern
chilled land masses in winter develops high pressure which enhances sub tropical high
pressure belt. Hot interior land masses of northern continents develops low pressure in
summer, which causes weakening of subtropical high pressure belt. The vast ocean surface of
the southern hemisphere has fairly uniform pressure through out the year. But land masses in
southern hemisphere show some seasonal variation in air pressure.
Circulation cells
1. Hadley cell
It is also termed as tropical cell. At low altitude air movement is towards the equator, where it
gets heat and rises vertically with poleward movement at higher altitude. It is circulation of
air between subtropical high pressure belt and equatorial low pressure belt in both the
hemisphere. The surface winds in this cell are trade winds (Figure 4.4).
5
2. Ferrel cell
It is a mid-latitude mean atmospheric circulation cell between sub-tropical high-pressure belt
and sub polar low-pressure belts. Ferrel named it in 19th century. In this cell the air moves
poleward and east ward near earth surface and equator ward and westward at higher altitudes.
The surface wind in this cell is westerlies.
3. Polar cell
In this cell air rises and moves poleward at higher levels and sinks at poles and diverges
outward from the poles. This cell exists between polar high pressure and sub polar low-
pressure belts. The surface winds in this cell are easterlies.
4. Walker cell
The vertical circulation in the tropical atmosphere is known as walker cell. It develops due to
difference in sea surface temperature between east and west equatorial Pacific ocean.
Ascending branch of walker cell located over Indonesia and descending limb is located over
the semi-arid regions of north-west India, Pakistan and middle of East.
Instruments
Atmospheric air pressure is measured with help of an instrument called as barometer. There
are four types of barometers:
1. Fortins barometer
It is a mercurial barometer containing mercury in small cistern having an ivory pointer, a
flexible leather bag and screw at its bottom. The mercury level is lowered or raised with help
of screw. In the cistern vessel a glass tube filled with mercury is inverted. The height of
mercury column is measured on main scale and varnier scale for recording air pressure.
2. Kew pattern barometer
It is also mercurial barometer similar to Fortin's barometer but in this barometer, the cistern
vessel is fixed.
3. Aneroid barometer
It is a barometer without any liquid and is portable. It consists of evacuated box which
respond to change in atmospheric pressure. The compression and expansion of this box is
magnified through a liver system and recorded by a pointer which moves on graduated scale
of pressure.
4. Barograph
It is based on the principle of aneroid barometer and gives a continuous record of
atmospheric pressure with time on a chart.
6
Wind, Pp 7
5. WIND
The horizontal flow of air is called as wind. Horizontal flow of air takes place along the
pressure gradient. The wind velocity depends upon the rate of change of pressure per unit
distance between two places at same elevation, called as pressure gradient. The moving air
exerts a force or pressure on the objects, which obstruct it.
P = KV2
Where,
P = Pressure exerted by wind
V = Velocity of wind
K = Constant
Origin of wind
Due to differential heating of earth surface, a low pressure is developed over warmer place
and high pressure is developed over colder place. The air moves horizontally from high-
pressure area to low pressure area along the pressure gradient as shown in Figure 5.1. This
horizontal flow of air is called wind. The direction of wind first is decided by the direction of
pressure gradient.
Forces acting on wind

1. Pressure gradient force (P): This force causes the air movement in the direction of low
pressure. It acts in the perpendicular direction of isobars.
l dp
____ ____
P=
ρ dz
Where,
ρ = Density of air
dp/dz = Change in pressure per unit distance or pressure gradient
2. Coriolis force (C): The force, which results due to earth rotation. It is also called as
coriolis effect, means the effect on wind due to the earth rotation. The wind deflects to its
right in northern hemisphere and deflects to its left in southern hemisphere due to the effect
of coriolis force as shown in Figure 5.2. The coriolis force is zero at equator and maximum at
poles. This force tends to deflect the wind at right angle to its line of motion.
C = 2 νω sin φ
Where,
ν = Velocity of wind
ω = Angular velocity of earth
φ = Latitude
1
Wind, Pp 7
3. Centrifugal force (Cfg): The force comes into play, when air particles move in
curved path. This force takes the particle away from centre (Figure 5.3).
mv2
Cfg = _________
r
For a unit mass, v2
Cfg = _________
r
Where, m = Mass of air
v = Velocity of wind
r = Radius of curvature
4. Frictional force: The force which results due to friction between moving air and
surface and it increases with surface roughness. It acts in opposite direction of wind motion
and reduces the wind velocity (Figure 5.4).
Geostropic wind
It is the wind, which blows parallel to isobars in a straight line, with a balance between
coriolis force and pressure gradient force acting on it (Figure 5.5). These winds are observed
at higher levels, where there is no frictional force due the surface roughness.
2
Wind, Pp 7
Therefore,
dp
_________
P=C; = 2 v ω sin φ
ρ dz
1 1 dp
_______ ______ _____
Velocity of geostrophic wind (v) = × ×
2ω sin φ ρ dz
Gradient wind
It may be defined as the wind that results with a balance between pressure gradient
force on one hand and the coriolis force and centrifugal force on the other hand (Figure 5.3).
Gradient wind in cyclone:
P = C + Cfg
dp v2
_______ ____
= 2 vω sin φ +
ρ dz r
Gradient wind in anticyclone:

P = C - Cfg
dp v2
_______
= 2 vω sin φ - ____
ρ dz r
Air current
The vertical movement of air is called as air current. It includes eddies, convectional currents,
convergence rise and subsidence (Figure 5.1).
Beaufort's scale
With the help of Beaufort scale accurate estimation of wind speed can be made (Table 1).
Table 1. Beaufort's scale of wind classification
Beaufort Wind Mean speed Effect on objects
# mile/hr
0 Calm 1 Smoke rise vertically. No ripples in water
surface
1 Light air 2 Drifting of smoke and ripples in water surface
2 Light breeze 6 Wind felt on face and leaves movement on trees
3 Gentle breeze 11 Constant movement of leaves and small twigs
4 Moderate 15 Dust and debris raised by wind. Small branches
breeze in movement and flags are fully expended.
3
Wind, Pp 7
5 Fresh breeze 20 Large branches in movement and pond water

surface in wave.
6 Strong breeze 28 Large branches in movement and telephone
wires produce sound.
7 Moderate 35 Trees bend and walking becomes difficult
gale
8 Fresh gale 42 Breaking of small branches and twigs. Walking
is difficult due to wind.
9 Strong gale 50 Damages building & breaking of large branches.
Visibility in water surface is reduced.
10 Whole gale 60 Trees uprooted, serious damage to building
11 Storm 69 Widely destruction
12 Hurricane/ >71 Severe destruction
cyclone
Definitions
Isotach: It is the line on weather map, which joins the places of equal wind speed. Isotach are
drawn on weather map to represent places with equal wind speed.
Wind ward: It is the direction, from which wind is coming.
Lee ward: It is the direction towards which wind is blowing.
Vorticity: Whirling motion of fluid particles is known as vorticity.
Haze: Decrease in the visibility of atmosphere due to dust and smoke particles is termed as
haze.
Dust evil: It is a whirling dust column of height 1 km or more over the earth surface.
Gale: It is a wind having velocity between the ranges of 28-55 km.
Squall: It is a sudden increase in wind speed (greater than 50 km/hr) for at least one minute
and then decreases.
Gust: It may be defined as an eddy moving down with mean speed greater than 25 to 30
km/hr.
Lull: It may be defined as an eddy moving up with mean wind speed less than 5 km/hr.
Buys-Ballots' Law
If we stand with back toward wind direction, the low pressure will be on the left hand and
high pressure will be on right hand in northern hemisphere and vice-versa in southern
hemisphere.
Units of wind velocity: Knot, meter/sec, kilometer/hour, mile/hour and feet/sec.
1 knot = 1 nautical mile = 1.15 miles/hr = 0.5148 m/s = 1.853 km/hr = 1.687 feet/s
The inter conversion of units of wind can be made as given in Table 2.
Table 2. Inter conversion of units of wind
cm/s m/s km/hr mile/hr knots
1 0.0 0.036 0.0223 0.01943
100 1 3.6 2.2347 1.943
27.78 0.2778 1 0.6214 0.5396
44.77 0.4477 1.6109 1 0.8696
51.48 0.5148 1.8533 1.1516 1
Types of air circulation
Wind movement in the atmosphere is classified into three circulations.
4
Wind, Pp 7
1. Permanent circulation: It includes the planetary/permanent wind system, where,

permanent or continuous exchange of air takes place over macro scale. Trade winds,
westerlies and easterlies are primary circulations. It is a regular circulation.
2. Periodic circulation: It is the periodic/seasonal exchange of air, which takes place over
synoptic scale. Therefore, it is also called synoptic scale circulation e.g. Monsoons, cyclones,
anticyclones and air masses. It is named as periodic/seasonal circulation.
3. Local circulation: It is the air exchange which takes place over mesoscale and microscale.
It includes local winds, land breeze, sea breeze, mountain winds and valley winds. It is also
called as local circulation. The wind is named with the direction from which it is blowing. So,
wind coming from east is called easterly.
Planetary winds/permanent winds
There are three types of winds, which blow between different pressure belts over the globe:
1.Trade winds: These winds blow between equational low pressure and subtropical high
pressure belts i.e. between 50 and 300 latitudes in both the hemispheres. They are named as
trade winds as they follow a regular path. Trade winds in northern hemisphere are called as
north-east trade winds and in southern hemisphere are called as south-east trade winds (Fig.
4.4). The zone of trade winds is also called Hadley cell, as it resembles the convective
model used by Hadley for the whole earth.
2.Westerlies: These winds blow between 350 and 600 latitudes in both hemiospheres or they
blow from subtropical high pressure belt to sub polar low pressure belt in each hemisphere.
The direction of westerlies in northern hemisphere is north-west and it is south west in
southern hemisphere (Fig.4.4). The westerlies are the zone of cyclonic storms in southern
hemisphere, between 400 and 600 latitudes. These winds are so strong and persistent; they
are called as 'roaring forties', furious fifties and screaming sixties in the latitude of forties,
fifties and sixties, respectively.
3.Polar easterlies: These winds blow from polar high pressure to sub polar low pressure belt
in both hemispheres (Fig. 4.4). The polar easterlies carry cold air out-ward from the polar
high pressure areas. The direction of these winds is northeast in northern and south east in
southern hemisphere. At higher levels, the winds blow in opposite direction to the trade
winds at lower levels, therefore, called as anti-trade winds. The polar easterlies zones
extend to 65o latitudes in both hemispheres.
Periodic winds/monsoons
Monsoon is a periodic circulation. The term monsoon is derived from Arabic word 'mausim'
or from the Malayan 'monsin', means 'season'. The word monsoon is used for such a
circulation, which reverses its direction after every six months i.e. from summer to winter and
from winter to summer. In summer, the moist wind blows from ocean to land and in winter,
cold and dry wind blows from land to ocean. Monsoon circulation involves 1800 change in
the direction of winds. The principal monsoons of the world are the summer and winter
monsoons of Asia and the monsoon circulations over west and east Africa. Asian monsoon
system (100S to 800N) consist three distinct regional systems:
1. Indian monsoon
2. Japanese monsoon
3. Malayam monsoon
The detail of different monsoons is given in the chapter of monsoon.
Local winds
These winds originate due to difference in local features. Local wind is a tertiary circulation
over a meso and microscale. It includes the following local wind systems:
1. Land breeze: It prevails during night. The land surface cools to lower temperatures than
the temperatures over adjacent water surface. A low pressure is developed over water
surface and high pressure is developed over land surface. Due to this pressure gradient
5
Wind, Pp 7
between land and sea, air moves from land to sea (Figure 5.6). This is called land breeze.
It is developed along the sea cost. It is daily in occurrence.
2.Sea breeze: It prevails during day time. During day time land surface warms to
temperatures higher than near by water surface temperatures. Therefore, a low-pressure
area is developed over land surface and high pressure is developed over water surface. Air
moves horizontally from sea (water surface) to land along the pressure gradient between sea
and land (Figure 5.7). This movement of air from sea to land is called as sea breeze. It is a
reverse of land breeze.
3. Mountain winds: On clear night, the mountain tops radiates energy and cool to lower
temperatures as compared to valley. The cool denser air moves down along the
mountain slope into the valley (Figure 5.8). This air movement from mountain to
valley is called mountain wind/mountain breeze. It is daily in occurrence. It is also
known as katabatic wind.
4. Valley wind: During day time in the morning, the mountain top gets energy earlier
and warms to temperatures higher than valley temperatures. The warm air over
mountain top rises above and generates upslope flow of air from valley (Figure 5.9).
This movement of air from valley to mountain top is known as valley wind. It is also
named as anabatic wind.
5. Warm local winds: These are hot and dry winds resulted due to advection of hot and
dry air from warm places. Adiabatic warming of air also produces them, as they
decent from elevated area to low land area. These are named differently in different
parts of the world.
6
Wind, Pp 7
1. Foehn is warm and dry wind on the northern side of Alps Mountain range in
Switzerland.
2. Chinook is warm and dry wind on the eastern side of Rocky Mountains in North
America.
3. Santa Ana is warm and dry wind experienced in California in U.S.A.
4. Sirocco is warm, dry and dusty wind blowing from Sahara desert in Southern Italy.
5. Khamsin: Hot and dry wind experienced in Egypt.
6. Simoon: It is a desert wind. It is a very hot and dry wind experienced in Asiatic and
African deserts e.g. Sahara desert.
7. Loo: It is a very hot and dry wind experienced in north-west India during summer
(May and June). It is also a desert wind.
8. Harmattan: It is a hot, dry and dusty wind experienced in west coast of Africa.
9. Norwester: Hot and dry wind from high mountain in New Zealand.
10. Shamal: Hot and dry wind experienced in Persian Gulf.
11. Blackroller: Very strong dust laden wind in Great Plains of North America.
Cold Local winds
These are cold and dust laden winds occur in different conditions:
1. Mistral: These cold winds experienced in southern coast of France and
Mediterranean coast.
2. Bora: Experienced in eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea. These winds also experienced
in northern Black Sea Coast in Japan and Northern Scandinavia.
3. Blizzard: Strong winds with snow storms in great plains to the east of Rocky
Mountains United States of America.
Tornadoes
Tornado is a most violent and destructive whirlwind. It is funnel shaped and its diameter is
very small i.e. near about 10 meter. Wind velocity is very high of about 460 mile/hr. Where it
touches the ground, there is complete destruction. Tornadoes are experienced in United States
of America. It originates due to mixing of dry polar air mass with warm and moist tropical air
mass.
Zet stream
It is a stream of very rapid moving air circulating the earth at higher elevation of about 10-12
km i.e. in upper troposphere. Wind speed ranges from 150-300 km.
Instruments
1. Anemometer: The instrument which is used to measure wind velocity is called as
anemometer e.g. wind cup anemometer, automatic anemometer etc.
2. Anemograph: The instrument which gives a continuous record of wind velocity with
time on a chart.
3. Wind vane: The instrument which is used to measure wind direction is known as
wind vane.
4. Aerovane: The instrument, which measures both wind velocity and wind direction.
7
Humidity and Evaporation, Pp 8
6. HUMIDITY AND EVAPORATION

The humidity represents the presence of water vapour in air at a time and place. Water
vapour constitutes only a small proportion of air which vary from nearly zero to maximum of
4 per cent by volume.
Water changes its states: solid, liquid and gas from one to another through the process
of melting, evaporation, condensation, sublimation and freezing (Figure 6.1).
1. Evaporation
It is a process by which water in liquid form changes to gaseous form. It may be defined as
the water loss in vapour form from a soil/water surface. The energy used in this process is
called as latent heat. The energy of 540 cal/g of water is used in this process.
2. Condensation
It is reverse process of evaporation. The process by which water vapour changes to liquid
form is called condensation. The latent heat utilized in the process of evaporation is released
in the process of condensation.
3. Sublimation
The process by which ice (solid state of water) directly converts into water vapours is termed
as sublimation. Reverse process of change of water vapours to ice crystals is also known as
sublimation.
4. Melting
The process by which water from ice state changes to liquid state. Latent heat of melting is 80
cal/gm of water is used in this process.
5. Freezing
The process by which, water from liquid state changes to ice state is called as freezing. Latent
heat 80 cal/gm of water is released in this process.
Humidity terminology
The following terminologies have been used to express the presence of water vapour in air:
Absolute humidity (AH) : It may be defined as the mass of water vapour per unit volume of
air or it is the ratio of mass of water vapour to the volume of air. The unit is g/cm3.
Mass of water vapour (mv)
AH = ___________________________________
Volume of the air (V)
= mv / V
Specific humidity (SH) : It is defined as the mass of water vapour per unit mass of moist air.
Specific humidity is expressed in grams of water vapour in kilograms of air (g/kg). It
decreases with increase in latitude. So, it is higher at equator and lower at poles.
SH = ___________________________________
Mass of moist air (mv+ma)
Where, ma = Mass of dry air
1
Relative humidity (RH): It is defined as ratio of the mass of water vapour present in air at a
temperature to the mass of maximum water vapour that air can held at the same temperature.
It may also be defined as the ratio of actual vapour pressure to the saturated water vapour
pressure.
Mass of water vapour in a given volume of air at a
temperature
RH = ____________________________________________________________________ × 100
Mass of maximum water vapour that air can held in the
same volume and at same temperature
OR
AVP
RH = ______ × 100
SVP
Where, AVP = Actual vapour pressure; SVP = Saturated vapour pressure
Actual vapour pressure
It is the partial pressure exerted by water vapour in given volume of air at a given
temperature. Actual vapour pressure is called as saturated vapour pressure when air is
saturated. It may also be defined as the pressure exerted by water vapour actually present in
air. It is the saturated vapour pressure at dew point.
Saturated vapour pressure
The pressure exerted by water vapour, when air is saturated. It is maximum pressure exerted
by water vapour in a given volume of air. It is also the actual vapour pressure at dew point.
Dew point
It is the temperature to which air is cooled and air becomes saturated and condensation of
water vapour starts. It is called as dew point or condensation temperature. The 'dew' form of
condensation occurs at this temperature. So, the temperature of air at which 'dew' formation
starts is called as dew point.
Saturation deficit/vapour pressure deficit (VPD)
It is defined as the mass of water vapour required to bring the air at saturation at the same
temperature in same volume of air. The difference between saturated vapour pressure and
actual vapour procure is called as saturation deficit.
VPD = SVP–AVP
Mixing ratio (MR)
It is the ratio of mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air. It is expressed as grams of water
vapour per kilogram of dry air. It varies from 1 g/kg in arctic zone to 40g/kg in humid
equatorial zone.
mv
MR = _____
ma
mv 1
_________ _____
SH = = 1+
mv+ma MR
e
MR = 0.622 _______
P–e
Where,
e = Vapour pressure
P = Total air pressure
2
Exercise: What will be the vapour pressure deficit and relative humidity if saturation vapour
pressure is 16.0 mm of Hg and actual vapour pressure is 12.5 mm of Hg?
Solution
AVP
_______
Relative humidity = × 100
SVP
AVP = 12.5 mm of Hg
SVP = 16.0 mm of Hg
12.5
RH = _______ × 100 = 78%
16.0
Vapour pressure deficit = AVP–SVP
= 16.0–12.5
= 3.5 mm of Hg
Exercise: The mass of water vapour is 20g in a one kg sample of air at 25oC. The mass of
maximum water vapour the given sample can held at same temperature is
35g.Calculate relative humidity, specific humidity and mixing ratio.
Solution
20
_______
Relative humidity = × 100 = 70 %
35
20g
Specific humidity initially at 25oC = _______ =20g/kg
1 kg
35g
________
Specific humidity at saturation level at same temperature = = 35 g/kg
1 kg
o _________________________________
Mixing ratio initially at 25 C =
Mass of dry air (ma)
mv = 20 g
ma = 1000-20 = 980 g
20
= ______ = 20.4 g/kg
980
mv
Mixing ratio at saturation = ______
ma
mv = 35 g
ma = 1000-35 = 965g
35
______
= = 36.3 g/kg
965
Vapour pressure
It is the partial pressure exerted by water vapour in air. If we sum up all partial
pressures caused by each atmospheric constituent, then it is called atmospheric pressure (P).
P = p (N2) + p (O2) + p (H2O) + p (Ar) + p (Co2) + .......
Where,
p (N2) = Partial pressure due to nitrogen
p (O2) = Partial pressure due to oxygen
3
p (H2O)= Partial pressure due to water vapour

p (Ar) = Partial pressure due to argon
p (CO2) = Partial pressure due to carbon dioxide
Factors affecting humidity
1. Water vapour content: Air humidity increases with increase in its water vapour
content at the same temperature. The maximum limit of water vapour content that air
can held at the same temperature is called saturation. Specific humidity is higher in
humid tropics as compared to polar region.
2. Temperature of air: The capacity of air to hold water vapour will depend upon its
temperature. As the temperature of a given air sample increases, its humidity
decreases. So, water vapour holding capacity of air increases with increase in
temperature. Temperature and humidity are inversely related.
3. Distance from water bodies: The places near water bodies have high humidity as
compared to far places. Therefore, humidity is higher in costal region as compared to
interior land regions.
4. Prevailing winds: The humidity of air coming from dry places is lower as compared
to air from wet/humid places, e.g. Easterly winds are more humid than westerly winds
during summer in Haryana.
5. Vegetation: Presence of vegetation also increases humidity through loss of water
vapour in atmosphere by evapotranspiration. So, vegetated regions are more humid
than non-vegetated regions.
6. Condition of atmosphere: Cloudy day is more humid than clear day. Precipitation is
main source of water over land surface. So, rainy weather is more humid than dry or
clear weather.
Evapotranspiration
The water loss in vapour form from a water surface or land surface is called as evaporation.
While, the loss of water in vapour form from plants is known as transpiration. A combination
of evaporation and transpiration is termed as evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration is
combined loss of water in vapour form soil and plants surface. In a crop field, the rate of
water loss through evaporation is higher during initial phase of crop development and water
loss through transpiration is higher during latter period of crop cycle. The rate of
evapotranspiration is maximum during maximum ground cover by canopy i.e. maximum leaf
area period.
Actual evapotranspiration (AET)
It may be defined as the water loss in vapour form from a crop surface under actual field
conditions. It is also defined as the actual water loss to the atmosphere from a crop field.
Potential evapotranspiration (PET)
The maximum water loss in vapour form from a crop surface to the atmosphere if water is not
limiting, is called as potential evapotranspiration.
Evapotranspiration from a reference surface is defined as reference evapotranspiration. For
maximum water loss from a crop/vegetative surface to take place, certain conditions are to be
fulfilled. So, the maximum water loss in vapour form from an exposed area, fully covered by
short healthy green grass with no water limitation, is called as potential evapotranspiration. It
is computed by different empirical and micrometeorological methods proposed by different
scientists. The methods of evapotranspiration estimation can be divided into direct and
indirect methods.
Indirect methods of ET estimation
Empirical/statistical methods
Some of the empirical methods of ET estimation are given below:
4
Thornthwaite method
Thornthwiate (1948) gave the following formula for computing monthly evapotranspiration:
E = 1.6 (10 T/l)a
Where,
E = Unadjusted PET (cm)
T = Mean monthly air temperature (oC)
I = Annual or seasonal heat index. It is the summation of 12 values of
monthly heat indices i = (T/5)1.514
a = An empirical exponent
= 0.675×10-6 I3–0.771×10-4 I2 + 1.79×10-2 I + 0.4924
For daily calculation the formula is modified as under:
k × e × 10
____________________
PET = mm day-1
Days in month
Where,
k = Adjustment factor
Exercise: Compute the evapotranspiration for a station having mean air temperature of 20oC
on 30.10.2005, annual heat index of 134.1, exponent value of 3.2 and adjustment factor of 0.9
using Thornthwaite method.
Solution
e = 1.6 (10× 25/134.1)3.2
= 11.7 cm
11.7 × 0.9 × 10
__________________________
Adjusted daily PET =
30
= 105.3/30 = 3.5 mm
2. Blanney-Criddle method
Blany-Criddle (1950) proposed the following method of daily evapotranspiration
estimation.
PET (mm) = (0.0173 Ta – 0.314) Kc × Ta (DL/4465.6)×25.4
Where,
Ta = Mean temperature (oF)
DL = Day length
Kc = Crop coefficient
Exercise: Calculate evapotranspiration for an agromet station with following weather data
using Blanney Criddle method.
Mean air temperature = 65oF
Day length = 12.0 hrs, Crop efficient for wheat = 0.70
Solution
PET = (0.0173×65-0.314) 0.7×65 (12/4465.6) ×25.4
= 0.81×0.7×65×0.0027×25.4 = 2.53 mm/day
3. Combination method
Penman (1948) gave the following formula for daily PET estimation from natural surfaces.
PET (mm) = KEo
Where,
K = Penman constant
Eo= Evaporation from open surfaces
ΔRn + γEa
______________
=
Δ+γ
5
Where,
Rn = Net radiation (mm of water)
= RA(l-r)(0.18+0.55n/N)–σTa4(0.55–0.092√ed)
(0.10+0.90 n/N)
r = Reflection coefficient of surface (Albedo)
RA = Angot's value of mean monthly radiation (mm of
water/day)
Ta = Mean temperature (oK)
n = Actual sunshine hours
N = Maximum possible sunshine hours
σ = Stefan Boltzman constant
ed = Saturation vapour pressure at dew point temp (mm of
Hg)
= RH× ea/100
ea = Saturation vapour pressure at mean air temp (mm of
Hg)
RH = Mean relative humidity
Ea = Aerodynamic component
= 0.35 (ea-ed) (1+0.0098 u2)
Where, u2 =Wind speed in miles/day at 2 m height = (log 6.6/log h) uh
Where, uh = Wind speed at height h (miles/day)
Exercise: Calculate evapotranspiration using Penman combination approach for an agromet
station having weather data given below:
Penman constant for summer = 0.8
Mean air temperature = 25oC
Mean monthly radiation
Outside the atmosphere = 10.8 mm of water
Actual vapour pressure = 16.6 mm of Hg
Saturated vapour pressure = 23.8 mm of Hg
Wind speed at 10 feet height = 12.2 miles/hr
Wind speed at 2 meter height = (log 6.6 ×12.2)/log 10
= 240 miles/day
Δ/γ = 2.86
σT4 = 15.98 mm of water
n/N = 0.66
Solution
Net radiation = 10.8 [(1-0.15)(0.32)+(0.46×0.66)]–15.98
(0.55–0.092 × 4.07) × (0.10+0.90×0.66)
= (10.8×0.85×0.6236)–15.98× 0.176×0.694
= 5.72–1.95 = 3.77 mm/day
Aerodynamic component Ea = 0.35 (23.8–16.6) × (1+0.0098×240.0)
= 0.35×7.2×2.35
= 5.08 mm/day
Δ/γ Rn + γEa
____________________
Eo =
(1+Δ/γ)
2.86×3.77+5.08
______________________
Eo =
1+ 2.86
6
10.78 + 5.08
_________________
Eo = = 4.11 mm/day
3.86
PET = 0.8×4.11 = 3.3 mm/day

Crop coefficient (Kc)
It is the ratio of actual evapotranspiration to potential evapotranspiration. It varies
with crop-to-crop, variety to variety and from sowing to maturity of crop. Its value varies
from 0 to 1 and some time it may be higher than 1 under advected condition. When AET is
equal to PET, its value is 1.
AET
Kc = _________
PET
Factors affecting evapotranspiration
The evapotranspiration rate is influenced by the factors, which affects both
evaporation and transpiration. Some of the factors which control the rate of
evapotranspiration are discussed below :
1. Temperature: If the air temperature over a crop surface increases, the rate of
evapotranspiration increases. Therefore, evapotranspiration will be higher from a crop
field with higher ambient temperature as compared to the evapotranspiration from
crop field with lower ambient temperature. Evapotranspiration in tropics is higher
than that of higher latitudes/polar regions.
2. Humidity: The humidity of the environment decides the atmospheric demand for
water. High humidity decreases the atmospheric demand of water, thereby
evapotranspiration rate is decreased. So, higher the humidity of environment, there
will be lower rate of evapotranspiration and vice-versa.
3. Exposure of surface: If the exposure of evaporating surface increases, the rate of
evapotranspiration also increases but it becomes constant after certain exposure of
surface e.g. evaporation rate from a pitch is lower than the evaporation from a open
pan filled with same amount of water.
4. Concentration of water: The rate of evaporation is higher from pure water surface in
comparison with surface of salted water. The presence of salts in water decreases the
rate of evaporation. Evaporation from saline soils is less than the evaporation from
non-saline soils.
5. Wind: Wind acts as a transporting agent over an evaporating surface. So, as the wind
speed increases, the rate of evaporation increases. Under 'calm' conditions, first the
evaporation takes place and as the air over evaporating surface attains saturation, the
evaporation rate falls to nearly zero. So, windy areas have more evapotranspiration
than 'calm' areas.
6. Air pressure: Atmospheric pressure also influences the rate of evaporation from a
surface. Lower atmospheric pressure over evaporation surface results in higher rate of
evaporation.
7. Amount of water available: Availability of water to the evaporating surface controls
the rate of evaporation. The evaporating surface with more supply of water has more
rate of evaporation.
8. Leaf area: The transpirational loss of water mainly takes place from plant leaves.
Therefore, as the leaf area index increases, the rate of transpiration increases. The
field crops with more leaf area index have more evapotranspiration as compared to
the crops, which have less leaf area index. The rate of evapotranspiration increases
with increase in crop growth and attains maxima at maximum leaf area stage.
7
9. Plant spacing: Wider row spacing decreases the rate of evapotranspiration.

Therefore, crop with denser plant populations has more evapotranspiration as
compared to crop with sparse plant population.
10. Plant height: In taller plants, more plant surface area is exposed to environment.
Therefore, water loss from the plants increases with increase in plants upto a certain
height. Taller plants have more transpiration in comparison with dwarf/short plants.
11. Stomata aperture: The stomatal aperture controls the loss of water vapour and
intake of CO2 from the environment. Plant leaves open stomata during daytime and
close during night time. Therefore, evapotranspiration is higher during daytime as
compared to night time, as transpiration ceases and evaporation decreases during
night time. Under stress condition, plants closes stomata to reduces
evapotranspiration loss and try to maintain their water status.
Instruments
Psychrometer: It is an instrument which consists of dry and wet bulb thermometer.
From the dry and wet bulb temperatures, we can find out relative humidity, dew point and
vapour pressure using psychrometeric tables. It is of two types i.e. Assmann psychrometer
and whirling psychrometer.
Hygrometer : The instrument used for measurement of humidity is called
hygrometer. Its one of the types is hair hygrograph.
Evaporimeter: The instrument which is used to measure evaporation, is called as
evaporimeter. Its one of types is U.S.A. class-I open pan evaporimeter.
Lysimeter: It is an instrument used for measuring evapotranspiration. It is a direct
method of evapotranspiration estimation. It is of two types:
1. Weighing type lysimeter.
2. Volumetric type lysimeter.
1. Weighing lysimeter
An iron tank is field with soil uniformly so as the soil profile may not be disturbed
and placed on a balance installed in the ground in the middle of field. Crop is sown in the
tank with the same agronomic practices, which are followed in the crop filled. The change in
weight of the tank is recorded on weighing balance. Then evapotranspiration is calculated as:
ET (mm) = ΔW×0.6+rainfall (mm)
Where, ΔW is change in weight.
2. Volumetric lysimeter
This lysimeter measures the evapotranspiration in volumetric term.
Evapotranspiration is calculated by recording change in inflow and outflow of water from
reservoir i.e. a measured amount of water is added in the reservoir.
ET (mm) = Water added in reservoir (litre) x 0.7+ rainfall
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Condensation and Precipitation, Pp 6
7. CONDENSATION AND PRECIPITATION

Condensation is a process by which water vapor changes to liquid state. The air is cooled to a
temperature at which condensation starts is called condensation temperature. It is also called dew
point temperature. When the dew point temperature falls below the freezing point (0°C), the
water vapor may directly changes to solid state. This process is called sublimation. The
condensation depends upon two factors.
1) Relative humidity of the air
2) Degree of cooling
The condensation to take place, the following conditions should be met.
1) Saturation of air
The process of condensation will take place only when air attains saturation level. Saturation can
be attained by adding water vapor in the air and cooling of the air.
2) Condensation Nuclei
The water vapor in the atmosphere, require a surface upon which, it may condense. The water
vapors condense on the objects lying on the earth surface, when condensation takes place near or
on the earth surface. Condensation when occurs in atmosphere at a distance, the solid particles
suspended in air act as nuclei for condensation. These are called as condensation nuclei. In the
absence of these nuclei, the clouds (form of condensation) may not form unless, relatives
humidity of about 400 per cent is reached due to cooling of air. Tiny dust particulates,
microscopic salt particles, carbon particles, smoke particles, fumes etc act as condensation
nuclei. Hygroscopic particles, which have affinity for waters, also act as condensation nuclei.
Forms of condensation
Condensation results in different forms depending upon the water vapor content, turbulence and
rates of cooling in the atmosphere. Some forms of condensation occurs on earth surfaces (dew
and frost) and some occurs in air i.e. fog, mist and cloud.
1. Dew
The deposition of condensed moisture in the form of tiny waters droplets on surface of objects
cooled by radiational cooling during night. Clear nights and calm condition are necessary for
dew formation, as these conditions favour the cooling of surface objects by radiational cooling.
Clouds reduce the radiational cooling during nights as they absorb terrestrial radiation and re-
emit radiation towards earth surface. Wind causes turbulence in the lower atmosphere, which
mixes lower cooled air with upper warm air and thereby it prevents the air to reach at dew point.
Dew formation also depends upon the waters vapor content of air.
2. Frost
It is the deposition of condensed moisture in the form of ice crystal upon a surface, when ambient
air temperature falls below freezing point, as the dew point of air falls below freezing levels, the
waters vapor directly changes from gaseous to solid states. It is of two types based on appearance.
a) White frost
Deposition of condensed moisture in the form of white ice crystal upon a surface object as dew
point of air falls below freezing is called white frost. White frost occurs when the atmospheric
water vapor content is sufficiently high.
b) Black frost
Under low humidity condition (dry condition) of atmosphere, as the temperature falls below
freezing level, the water within the cells and intercellular spaces freezes and cause death of plant
cells.
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The plant leaves look like burnt canopy. This is known as black frost. Frost can be classified
based on way/process of cooling of air into two groups.
i) Advection frost
The frost which is resulted due to advected cool air mass, is called as advected frost. During
winter, advection of cooled air mass from Himalaya results into the occurrence of frost in north
western plains of India.
ii) Radiation frost
The frost occurs due to radiational cooling of air on calm and clear nights are termed as radiation
frost. During winter months in Haryana radiation frost occurs on calm and clear nights.
3. Fog
It may be defined as tinny microscopically small drops of water resulted due to condensation in
air and suspended in air near the earth surface in sufficient number to decrease the visibility of
atmosphere less than 1 km. Fog is also termed as cloud if it occurs at higher levels. So, fog and
cloud are same but they differ in place of occurrence in the atmosphere. If it occurs near ground,
it is called fog and if it occurs at higher levels it is called as cloud. Fog can be classified into two
groups based on the process of cooling of air.
a) Radiation fog
The fog which results dues to radiational cooling of air is known as radiation fog. It is
experienced after rainfall on calm and clear nights during winter in northern plains.
b) Advection fog
The fog which results dues to advection of warm & moist air mass over a cool land surface, is
called advection fog. This type is experienced in December, January and February in northern
plains.
Precipitation
Precipitation may be defined as condensed moisture in liquid or solid forms falling to the earth
surface. The atmospheric moisture precipitates to the earth surface in different solid or liquid
forms. Precipitation is measured in inches, centimeters and millimeters. All the forms of
precipitation are termed as hydrometeors
The form of condensed atmospheric moisture which falls to the earth surface depends upon the
following conditions:
1) Dew point or condensation temperature
2) Conditions of atmosphere through which particles pass
3) Types of clouds
4) Processes which result precipitation
Forms of precipitation
1. Rain: It is the precipitation in the form of liquid water drops having diameters more than 0.5
mm. The precipitation in the form of smaller, widely scattered drops of water is also called
rain. In heavy rains, the rain drops are larger and more in number. Some time rain drops
evaporate completely in the atmosphere before reaching ground. The streaks of rainfall are
called virga.
2. Drizzle: It is uniform precipitation in the form of fine water drops having diameter less than
0.5 mm. The precipitations of very small drops of uniform size and seem to float in air is also
called as drizzle. It gives very small amount of water on the ground. Drizzle is generally
associated with poor atmospheric visibility.
3. Snow: Precipitation of condensed atmospheric moisture in the form of
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white and opaque ice grains. Snow consists of a wide variety of ice crystals. Snowfall occurs
in the form of snow flakes, which result due to gravitational coalescence. Snow occurs when
the temperature at condensation level falls below freezing level.
4. Rime: When an object having temperature below 0°C encounter a fog, this type of
precipitation results.
5. Sleet: It is a form of precipitation of small pellets of transparent or translucent ice having
diameter less or equal to 5 mm. it is also called as frozen rain. The precipitation in the form
of a mixture of rain drops and snow is also termed as sleet.
6. Glaze: When rainfall occurs on a object having temperature below freezing, this type of
precipitation results.
7. Hail: Precipitation of condensed atmospheric moisture in the form of small bolls or pieces of
ice having diameter more than 5 mm is termed as hail. The ice pieces may be of different
polygonal shapes i.e. triangle, rectangle, pentagonal, hexagonal etc. The size of hail is
sometime very large i.e. 50 mm or more, depending upon the up thrust within the cloud in
which hail formation takes place. Cumulonimbus clouds are mainly associated with
hailstorms. Hail is most destructive form of precipitation. Hail structure resembles to that of
onion. It consists of concentric layers of ice with layer of snow in between.
Formation of hails: The hails are associated with cumulonimbus clouds. Hails development
require a great vertical extent of cloud, which is possible only in cumulonimbus clouds. These
clouds have a great range of temperature between bases and their top i.e. the base temperature
may be around 10°C and top temperatures may be about of –15°C. The strong up draft of air in
cumulonimbus clouds carry tinny water drops to greater height where these drops convert into
ice crystals. These frozen drops/ice crystal have to fall through the cloud, met with super cooled
water droplets and they get coating of ice. These ice balls are lifted up again and again through
the cold layer of cloud by upward air currents within the cloud. The ice balls oscillate within the
cloud and increase in their size till the down thrust of hail is less than upthrust, as the down thrust
exceeds, the ices balls/ pieces escape from the cloud and falls through atmosphere on the ground.
The size of hails depends upon the following characteristics of cloud:
1. Upward air currents within cloud
2. Super cooled waters drops concentration.
3. Vertical extend of cloud
A hail stone of 766 g weight fell at Coffeyville, Komsas on September 3, 1970.
Occurrence of Hails
Hail storms seldom occur in tropical and higher latitudes belts. In both hemispheres, hail storms
are confined in mid latitudes between 30° and 60°. Oceans are free from hail occurrence because
of absence of strong vertical air currents. Spring and early summers period in mid latitudes
experience hail storms. Hail storms some time occur during February to May and October and
November in Northern India.
Types of Precipitation
Precipitation results from cloud due to adiabatic cooling of rising air. Precipitation is classified
on the basis of conditions which cause rising of moist air masses into three types:
1. Conventional precipitation/rainfall
The precipitation, which results due to thermal convection of warm and moist air masses, is
called convectional precipitation. Rain, snow and hails are associated with this type of
3
.
Figure 7.1. Convectional Precipitation
precipitation under favourable conditions it occurs in tropical and temperate zones. Precipitation
intensity depends upon the heating rate of surface and supply of moist air with high humidity. It
is generally accompanied by thunder, lightning and local winds because of intense thermal air
currents. This type of precipitation mainly occurs in equatorial low pressure belt, called
doldrums. During noon time cloud formation takes place in the sky and followed by showery
rainfall in after noon or evening over this belt.
2. Orographic rainfall
The precipitation resulted when air rises and cools due to topographic barrier, is termed as
orographic rainfall/precipitation. This type of precipitation generally occurs when the
mountains/barriers lie across the path of moisture laden winds. This type of rainfall occurs in
foot hills of Himalaya ranges but not in Aravali hill ranges, as they are parallel to the monsoon
winds. The term orographic is derived from the greek word ‘oros’ means mountain. This type
of precipitation is commonly found on the windward side of mountains. There always exists
relatively dry area on the leeward sides of mountain ranges which is called as rain shadow.
Figure 7.2. Orographic Precipitation
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First rainfall increases with slopes upto a certain height and then decreases near peak of the
mountain ranges. This decrease in precipitation with height on the leeward side near peak of
mountain range is termed as inversion of rainfall.
3. Cyclonic/frontal precipitation
Cyclonic precipitation occurs when deep and extensive air masses of different characteristics
converge, rise and adiabatic cooling takes place. It is also called convergence precipitation. In
tropical regions where opposing air currents with different temperatures converge, vertical rising
takes places and usually accompanied by convection. This convection causes condensation and
precipitation. This type of precipitation is called cyclonic precipitation.
Figure 7.3. Cyclonic or Frontal Precipitation

In temperate regions mostly frontal precipitation occurs. The zones of contact between relatively
warm and cold air masses are known as fronts. The warm ands moist air gradually rises over
cool and dry air along the front. The convectional activity along the front causes condensation
and precipitation. This type of precipitation is called frontal precipitation.
Distribution of annual precipitation
The average annual precipitation over the whole earth is about 80 cm, but it is distributed very
unevenly. Equatorial regions and monsoon regions of Southeast Asia record the highest rainfall.
Temperate regions receive moderates amounts of precipitation. The dry regions of sub tropical
high pressures belt and polar regions receive little precipitation. The distribution of mean annual
precipitation over the earth surfaces is divided into different zones:
First Zone
The precipitation zones lies between 10° to 20° wide near the equator in both hemisphere.
Maximum precipitation occurs in this zone. The averages precipitation is about 160 cm.
Second zone
This zone lies between 20° to 30° latitudes N and S. It is a belt of lower precipitation due to the
presence of subtropical anticyclones. Average annual precipitation is about 80 to 90 cm.
Third zone
This is the second belt of maximum precipitation in both the hemispheres due to maximum
cyclonic activity. It lies between 40° to 55° latitudes N and S. Average annual
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precipitation ranged between 80 to 120 cm.

Fourth zone
This is a zone of minimum precipitation in both hemispheres. There is sudden decrease in
precipitation in both hemispheres from about 55° latitudes reaching to a minimum of less than 15
cm in polar regions
The latitudes 0° to 10° N have more precipitation than 0 to 10° S, due to more extension of inter
tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) in north The latitudes between 40°-60° S have more
precipitation than 40° to 60° N, due to more water surface in this belt in southern hemisphere.
Almost 50 percent of annual precipitation falls between 20° N and 20° S latitudes. The total
annual precipitation remains same in the both the hemisphere.
Artificial Precipitation
The precipitation received by artificially saturation of a special type of cloud is known as
artificial precipitation. It may be defined as the precipitation by artificial seeding of clouds with
hygroscopic nuclei. The cloud seeding is of two types based on the temperature of clouds.
i) Seeding of warm clouds
Seeding of cloud by water droplets of about 50 μm diameter in the lower parts of deep clouds.
The precipitation is also received by injecting fine salt particles which act as hygroscopic nuclei.
Dry ice seeding is also done for getting artificial precipitation.
ii) Seeding of cold clouds
Seeding of clouds having temperature below -5°C is done with silver iodide. Fine powder of
silver iodide is seeded in the cloud which acts as nuclei and produces ice particles in clouds.
Silver iodide smoke is also introduced in clouds by aero planes or explosive rockets and
balloons.
Artificial precipitation can also be generated by means of lightning and shock waves. The
convective activities of atmosphere are affected by the heat produced by lightning and electrical
discharges also help in growth of water droplets by coalescence. Therefore, torrential rains occur
after lightning in cumulonimbus clouds.
6
Clouds and their Classification, Pp 6
8. CLOUDS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

Clouds are nothing more than water vapour that condenses and accretes into a visible form. It
may be defined as the visible aggregation of tinny water droplets or ice crystals or both
condensed from air at higher levels above the ground. The usual mechanism is in which
moisture-laden air near the Earth's surface to be raised higher into the atmosphere either by an
encroaching air mass or topographical barrier in path or the heat of the sun. As the air is lifted,
the pressure drops and the air is subsequently cooled and causes water vapour to condense in the
form of cloud. Cloud is just like fog but it appears at higher levels in atmosphere. Cloud is an
important form of condensation or sublimation that results from lifting of air. Presence of clouds
affects the temperature of a place. Cloudy days are cooler in summer than the clear days. Cloudy
nights in winter are warmer than clear nights.
Classification of clouds
Clouds are defined by their general appearance and level in the atmosphere. Luke Howard in
1803 first classified the clouds on the basis of their structure and named the different clouds with
Latin words: Cirrus, cumulus, Nimbus and Stratus. The International Cloud Atlas published by
World Meteorological Organization describes the ten main genera or types. The branch of
meteorology in which clouds are studied is called nephology.
A) High clouds: The clouds which have their base at 6 km (20,000 feet) or above are termed as
high clouds and since the temperatures are so cold at such high elevations; these clouds are
primarily composed of ice crystals. High-level clouds are typically thin and white in appearance,
but can appear in a magnificent array of colors when the sun is low on the horizon. They are
denoted by the prefix cirro- or cirrus. These are:
Clouds
High Clouds Medium Clouds Low Clouds

(≥20000 feet) (6500 to 20000 feet) (≤ 6500 feet)
Cirrus Altocumulus Stratus

Cirrocumulus Altostratus Stratocumulus
Cirrostratus Cumulus
Cumulonimbus
1
1. Cirrus (Ci): These clouds are very high, wispy clouds made of ice. Detached fibrous white
clouds are in the form of narrow bands. These look like feathers. Sun and moon produces halo
through these clouds. Cirrus clouds are composed of ice crystals that originate from the freezing
of super cooled water droplets. Cirrus generally occurs in fair weather and point in the direction
of air movement at their elevation. No precipitation occurs from these clouds. When we see
cirrus clouds, it usually indicates that a change in the weather will occur within 24 hours.
2. Cirrocumulus (Cc): This is white layer of clouds and composed of very small elements in the
form of ripples. No shadow is caused by these clouds. This type looks like a patch of small
globules arranged in small groups. Cirrocumulus clouds are usually seen in the winter and
indicate fair, but cold weather. In tropical regions, they may indicate an approaching hurricane.
2
3. Cirrostratus (Cs): These are thin sheet like high clouds that often cover the entire sky and are
relatively transparent, as the halo around the sun or the moon can easily be seen through them.
This type of cloud gives a milky appearance to the sky. These clouds also do not cause shadow.
Cirrostratus clouds usually come 12 to 24 hours before a rain or snow storm.
Cirrostratus Cirrostratus with halo

B) Medium clouds:
The clouds whose base lies at 2 km to 6 km (6,500 feet to 20,000 feet) are called medium
clouds. These are denoted by the prefix alto-. They are composed primarily of water droplets;
however, they can also be composed of ice crystals when temperatures are cold enough.
1. Altocumulus (Ac): These appear as parallel bands or rounded masses. Typically a portion of
an altocumulus cloud is shaded, a characteristic which makes them distinguishable from the
high-level cirrocumulus. These clouds usually form by convection in an unstable layer aloft,
which may result from the gradual lifting of air in advance of a cold front. They cause shadow on
the ground. These clouds sometime referred to as ‘sheep clouds’ or wool pack clouds. The
presence of altocumulus clouds on a warm & humid summer morning is commonly followed by
thunderstorms later in the day. These clouds do not produce halos.
2. Altostratus (As): These are grey or blue grey mid level clouds composed of ice crystals and
water droplets. These clouds usually cover partly or entire sky.
3
These clouds do not produce halo phenomena. Altostratus clouds often form ahead of storms
with continuous rain or snow.
C) Low clouds: These are mostly composed of water droplets since their bases generally lie
below 2 km (6,500 feet). However, when temperatures are cold enough, these clouds may also
contain ice particles and snow.
1. Stratus (St): These are generally a grey cloud layer of uniform base. These types of cloud
may completely cover the sky. They may give precipitation in the form of drizzle or snow grains.
2. Stratocumulus (Sc): These are grey or white patches or both grey and white sheet of cloud
and generally appear as rolls and round masses arranged in groups, lines or waves. Rain rarely
occurs with stratocumulus clouds.
4
3. Cumulus (Cu): These are white, puffy clouds that look like pieces of floating cotton.
Cumulus clouds are often fair weather clouds. The bases of each cloud is flat and the top of each
cloud has rounded towers. The irregular patches of cumulus clouds are called fractocumulus.
Cumulus clouds are generally found during day time over the land areas and dissipate during
night. They produce light precipitation.
4. Cumulonimbus (Cb): These are heavy and dense cloud with considerable vertical extent, in
the form of dome or huge tower. High winds can flatten the top of the cloud into an anvil-like
shape. These types of clouds are associated with heavy rain, snow, hail, lightning, thunder storms
and even tornadoes. These clouds are also called as vertical development clouds.
5. Nimbostratus (Ns): These are grey or dark, low-level clouds accompanied by light to
moderate continuous rain and snow. This type of clouds can never accompanied by thunder and
hail storms. Streaks of rain or snow failing from these clouds but not reaching the ground are
called virga.
5
Cloud Measurement
The measurement of the height of a cloud is done by using a device which is called
ceilometer. It is photoelectric instrument for ascertaining the cloud height. It is a device using a
laser or other light source to determine the height of a cloud base.
Laser Ceilometer
The Laser Ceilometer measures cloud height and thickness, in addition to vertical visibility,
detecting up to four cloud layers simultaneously to a distance of 30,000 vertical feet. A laser
pulse is emitted into the atmosphere and backscatter analyzed. Using the speed of light, the
altitude of each cloud base and top is determined. Due to poorly defined borders or a sparse
composition, some clouds are much more difficult to measure. Depending on the current and
historical sky conditions, an adaptive algorithm determines the number of returns needed to
maintain accuracy. Accurate measurement of cloud height and thickness in all weather
conditions, including heavy precipitation and low clouds, can cause serious errors.
Ceiling: The height to the lowest cloud layer which creates brown, over cast or obscured sky
cover is termed as ceiling. It is especially useful in airport operation.
Cloud height: The distance between ground and base of cloud is called cloud height.
Isohyet: It is line joining the places having equal precipitation.
6
Monsoons, Pp 6
9. MONSOONS
Monsoon is a wind pattern that reverses direction with the seasons. The term was originally
applied to seasonal winds in the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. The word is also used more
specifically for the season in which this wind blows from the Southwest in India and adjacent
areas that is characterized by very heavy rainfall associated with this wind. Every summer,
southern Asia and especially India, is drenched by rain that comes from moist air masses that
move in from the Indian Ocean to the south. These rains, and the air masses that bring them, are
known as monsoons. Smaller monsoons also take place in equatorial Africa, northern Australia,
and, to a lesser extent, in the southwestern United States (Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1. World Monsoon Regions
Etymologically, the English word ‘monsoon’ comes from the Dutch monssoen, from the
Portuguese monçao, from the Arabic mawsim, from the Malayan word 'monsin' which means
'season'. The word monsoon is applied to such a circulation which reverses its direction every
six months i.e. from winter to summer and vice-versa.
In terms of total precipitation, total area covered and the total number of people affected, the
monsoon affecting the Indian Subcontinent dwarfs the North American monsoon (also called the
"Mexican", "Southwest", "Desert", or "Arizona" monsoon).
Monsoon Systems
As monsoons have become better understood, the term monsoon has been broadened to include
almost all phenomena associated with the annual weather cycle within the tropical and
subtropical land regions of the earth. Monsoons are caused by the larger amplitude of the
seasonal cycle of temperature over land as compared to the adjacent oceans. This differential
warming results from the fact that heat in the ocean is mixed vertically through a "mixed layer"
that may be 50 meters deep, through the action of wind and buoyancy-generated turbulence,
whereas the land surface conducts heat slowly, with the seasonal signal penetrating perhaps a
meter or so. Additionally, the specific heat of liquid water is significantly higher than that of
most materials that make up land. Together, these factors mean that the heat capacity of the layer
participating in the seasonal cycle is much larger over the oceans than over land, with the
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Monsoons, Pp 6
consequence that land warms faster and reaches a higher temperature than the ocean. The hot air
over the land tends to rise, creating an area of low pressure. This creates a steady wind blowing
toward the land, bringing the moist near-surface air over the oceans with it. Associated rainfall is
caused by the moist ocean air being lifted upward by mountains, surface heating/convection
currents, convergence at the surface, divergence aloft, or from storm-produced outflows at the
surface. However, the lifting occurs, the air cools due to adiabatic expansion, which in turn
produces condensation.
In winter, the land cools off quickly, but the ocean retains heat for longer. The hot air
over the ocean rises, creating a low pressure area and a breeze from land to ocean while a large
area of high pressure is formed over the land, intensified by wintertime radiational cooling.
Monsoons are similar to sea breezes, a term usually referring to the localized, diurnal (daily)
cycle of circulation near coastlines everywhere, but monsoons are much larger in scale, stronger
and seasonal. The wind pattern in summer and winter seasons has been depicted in Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.2. Monsoon wind pattern in Southeast Asia

i) Northeast Winter Monsoon (Asia)
In Asia, the northeastern winter monsoons take place from December to early March. The lower
temperature over central Asia, creates a zone of high pressure there. The jet stream in this region
splits into the southern subtropical jet and the polar jet. The subtropical flow directs northeasterly
winds to blow across south Asia, creating dry air streams which produce clear skies over India
from the months of November to May.
Meanwhile, a low pressure system develops over northern Australia and winds are directed
toward Australia. During the Northeast Winter Monsoon, Australia and Southeast Asia receive
large amounts of rainfall.
ii) Southwest Summer Monsoon
The Southwestern Summer Monsoons occur from June to August, and are drawn towards the
Himalayas, creating winds blowing rain clouds towards India, some areas of which receive up to
1000 cm of rain.
iii) North American Monsoon
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Monsoons, Pp 6
The North American Monsoon (NAM) occurs from late May or early June into September,
originating over Mexico and spreading into the southwest United States by mid July. It affects
Mexico along the Sierra Madre Occidental as well as Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah,
Colorado, West Texas, and California. It pushes as far west as the Peninsular Ranges and
Transverse Ranges of southern California but rarely reaches the coastal strip (a wall of desert
thunderstorms only a half-hour's drive away is a common summer sight from the sunny skies
along the coast during the monsoon). The North American Monsoon is known to many as the
Summer, Southwest, Mexican or Arizona monsoon or Desert Monsoon as a large part of the
affected area is desert.
iv) Indian Monsoons
The term arose in the 16th century during the rise in navigation across the Indian Ocean, because
the monsoonal winds were so critical to sail. The monsoon has always been of critical
importance to the people of India since crops all over the country are dependent on the monsoon
rains for irrigation and livelihood. But environmental degradation has weakened or changed the
monsoon system prevalent for many centuries. The southwest monsoon is generally expected to
begin around the middle of June and dies down by September. It begins first in the coastal state
of Kerala and moves upwards at a rate of roughly 1-2 weeks per state. The monsoon accounts for
80 percent of the rainfall in the country. Indian agriculture (which accounts for 25 percent of the
GDP and employs 70 percent of the population) is heavily dependent on the rains, especially
crops like cotton, rice, oilseeds and coarse grains. A delay of a few days in the arrival of the
monsoon can, and does, badly affect the economy, as evidenced in the numerous droughts in
India in the 90s.
1. Summer Monsoon (Southwest Monsoon)
During the hot, dry season (April-May) when temperature rises rapidly and pressures over land
decrease, the warm and moist air form over the adjacent seas starts blowing, towards the above-
mentioned low pressure centre. However, in the beginning the maritime air masses are drawn
only from a short distance. But by the end of May or the first week of June, when the low
pressure centre has fully developed, the pressure - gradient is steepened so that even the trade
winds from southern hemisphere are drawn towards the thermal low positioned in north-western
region of the sub-continent. The southerly trade winds on crossing the equator are deflected to
their right in accordance with Ferrell’s Law. Now, the originally south-east trade winds become
south-westerly blowing towards north-east. In India, the onset of the southwest monsoon (when
the rain bringing dominant winds become established) for a particular area is expected in June or
July, depending on its location (Figure 9.3). The normal rainfall during this season over India is
about 88.0 cm.
South-westerly on-shore winds blowing towards the centre of low pressure over northern India
traverse thousand of miles over the warm tropical ocean. They are, therefore, full of moisture
and have a great potential for heavy precipitation. The south-west monsoon, as it is called in this
region, is split into two branches by the shape of Peninsular India. They are known as:
i. The Arabian Sea branch
ii. The Bay of Bengal branch.
i) Arabian Sea branch
The Arabian sea branch strikes the elevated Western Ghats of India at almost right angles. The
windward slopes of Western Ghats receive heavy orographic precipitation. However, the
westerly current from the Arabian Sea continues its journey across the Indian Peninsula, but the
amount of rainfall on the leeward side goes on diminishing with increasing distance from the sea
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Monsoons, Pp 6
cost. The Western Ghats have 100-250 cm of rainfall on their windward slopes, while there is a
well-marked rain-shadow to the leeward. Towards the north, where Western Ghats are not very
high, the difference in the amount of rainfall between the windward and leeward side is rather
negligible. Some of the air currents from the Arabian Sea branch manage to proceed towards
Chhota Nagpur Plateau through the Narmada and Tapti gaps. These air currents ultimately unite
with the Bay of Bengal Branch (Figure 9.3).
ii) Bay of Bengal branch
One current of the Bay of Bengal branch, which is more southerly, moves towards Assam where
Masaynram (near Cherrapunji), situated on the southern slope of Khasi hills, has the unique
distinction of recording the highest annual average precipitation (965 cm) in the world. This is
because of its peculiar geographical location. A current of the Bay of Bengal branch recurves
westward and advances upto the Gangetic plain towards the Punjab. It may be mentioned that
the westward movement of monsoon current takes place around the eastern end of a trough of
low pressure developed over northern India. The movement of winds is, of course, parallel to
the Himalayan Ranges. The rainfall occurring in the Gangetic Plain is partly controlled by the
relief, and partly by the cyclonic storms or monsoon depressions which followed the track of low
relief and low
Figure 9.3. Branches of Southwest Monsoon over India

pressure along southern fringe of the plains. It is to be noted that in this region the monsoon
current blows from a southeasterly direction. The rainfall decreases from east to west and from
north to south. The main reason why the amount of rainfall decreases westwards is the
increasing distance from the source of moisture. The southward decrease in rainfall is due to the
increasing distance form the Himalayas which cause the forced ascent of rain-bearing air
currents.
2. Winter Monsoon (Northeast Monsoon)
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Monsoons, Pp 6
A secondary high pressure system develops over Kashmir and the Punjab in winter. The high
pressure area controls the prevailing wind direction over the rest of the subcontinent. Contrary to
the pressure condition over land, there are low pressure centers formed over the Indian Ocean,
the Arabian Sea, and northern part of Australia. In the cool season, therefore, there is pressure
gradient from land to sea as a result of which winds begin to move from land to sea. These are
the Northeast or winter monsoons of northern hemisphere. The southern part of Indian Peninsula
receives rainfall from Northeast monsoon currents. These currents while traveling over the Bay
of Bengal pick up moisture from warm ocean surface. The amount of winter rainfall on the
eastern side of the peninsula is much heavier than that on the other side. Tamilnadu receives
maximum rainfall in this season. It is also known as retreating monsoon. The normal rainfall
during this monsoon is around 12 cm.
Aberrations in rainfall
Aberration means the deviation from the normal behavior of the rainfall. As we all know the
principal source of water for dry land crops is rain, a major portion of which is received during
the monsoon period. Bursts of rain alternated with "Breaks" are not un common. There are at
least four important aberrations in the rainfall behavior.
1. The commencement of rains may be quite early or considerably delayed.
2. There may be prolonged breaks during the cropping season (Intermittent droughts).
3. The rains may terminate considerably early (early cessation of rain) or continue for
longer periods.
4. There may be spatial and or temporal aberrations.
Early or delayed onset of monsoon
To quantify the aberrations in the onset of monsoon, 50 years of data has to be analyzed for the
onset dates of monsoon (Fig. 9.4) for different regions of the country. It has been seen that the
normal date of onset of monsoon in the Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra region is 10th June.
But, in 8 per cent of the years onset of monsoon occurred during last week of May (May 28th in
1925) and in 10 per cent of the years it was delayed as beyond 21st June).
Breaks in the monsoon rains (Intermittent drought)
The breaks can be of different durations. Breaks of shorter duration (5-7 days) may not be of
serious concern, but breaks of longer duration of 2-3 weeks or even more, lead to plant-water
stress causing reduction in production. These breaks or intermittent droughts can be of different
magnitude and severity and effect different crops in varying degrees. The yield of many drought
resistant crops is not seriously affected, but in several sensitive crops the yield reduction was
reported to be very heavy.
Early withdrawal of monsoon
The normal withdrawal of SW monsoon in Rayalaseema region is between 25th September and
October 15th. But monsoon in 4 per cent of the years out of 55 years monsoon withdrew during
first fortnight of September and in 10 per cent of the years withdrew during the month of
December.
Uneven distribution of monsoon rains, in space and time over different parts of the country
Such situations are encountered almost every year in one or another part of the country during
monsoon period leading to periodical drought and flood situations.
High variability of rainfall (or more precisely the soil-water) is the single factor which influences
the high fluctuations in the crop yields in the different parts of the country.
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Monsoons, Pp 6
Figure 9.4. Normal dates of onset and withdrawal of SW Monsoon

Recent Development in Monsoon Forecast e.g. during 2008
India Meteorological Department (IMD) follows a two-stage forecast strategy for long
range forecasts of the south-west monsoon rainfall over the country as a whole. The first long
range forecast for the south-west monsoon season (June-September) rainfall is issued in April
and the forecast update is issued in June.
Last year (2007), IMD introduced the following new statistical models for forecasting
south-west monsoon rainfall (June – September) for the country as a whole:
A 5- parameter statistical ensemble forecasting system requiring data up to March, for the
first forecast in April.
A 6- parameter statistical ensemble forecasting system requiring data up to May for the
forecast update in June.
The same forecasting system was used for preparing the forecast for the 2008 South-west
monsoon rainfall.
Operational Statistical Forecast System
In the IMD’s Ensemble Statistical Forecasting system, the following 8 predictors are
used, out of which the first 5 predictors are used for the April forecast.
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Monsoons, Pp 6
S.No Predictor (Period) Used for the forecasts in

1 North Atlantic Sea Surface Temperature (SST) April and June
(December + January)
2 Equatorial South Indian Ocean SST (February + April and June
March)
3 East Asia Mean Sea Level Pressure April and June
(February + March)
4 NW Europe Land Surface Air Temperature April
(January)
5 Equatorial Pacific Warm Water Volume April
(February+March)
6 Central Pacific (Nino 3.4) Sea Surface June
Temperature Tendency (MAM-DJF)
7 North Atlantic Mean Sea Level Pressure June
(May)
8 North Central Pacific Wind at 1.5 Km above sea June
level (May)
The model errors of the April and June forecasting systems are ±5% and ±4% respectively.
Experimental Forecasts
As a part of ongoing efforts to improve the long range forecast capabilities, experimental
forecast for the 2008 south-west monsoon rainfall based on the IMD’s dynamical forecast system
was also generated. For this purpose, observed sea surface temperature data of March have been
used.
In addition, IMD has also taken into account the experimental forecasts prepared by the
national institutes like Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad, National Aerospace Laboratories
(NAL), Bangalore and Centre for Mathematical Modelling and Computer Simulation
(CMMACS), Bangalore, National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF),
Noida and operational/experimental forecasts prepared by international institutes like the
National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), USA, International Research Institute
for Climate and Society (IRI), USA, Meteorological Office, UK, the European Center for
Medium Range Weather Forecasts(ECMWF), UK and the Experimental Climate Prediction
Center (ECPC), USA.
La Nina Conditions over the equatorial Pacific
During August 2007, La Nina conditions were developed over the equatorial Pacific with
colder than normal Sea Surface Temperatures (SST). However, during the recent weeks,
negative SST anomalies weakened across the central and east-central equatorial Pacific. During
March 2008, La Nina conditions declined to moderate-strength. The recent dynamical and
statistical SST forecasts indicate La Nina will become weak and persist during the next three
months. Thereafter, there is considerable spread and uncertainty in the forecasts of La Nina
conditions.
Forecast for the 2008 South-west monsoon rainfall
IMD’s long range forecast for the 2008 south-west monsoon season (June to September) is that
the rainfall for the country as a whole is likely to be Near Normal.
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Monsoons, Pp 6
Quantitatively, monsoon season rainfall is likely to be 99% of the long period average
with a model error of ± 5%. The Long period average rainfall over the country as a whole for the
period 1941-1990 is 89 cm.
IMD will update the above forecast in June 2008 as a part of the second stage forecasts.
Separate forecasts for the July rainfall over the country as a whole and seasonal (June-
September) rainfall over the four geographical regions of India will also be issued.
SW Monsoon
Normal Onset/Withdrawal Dates over Haryana & India
8
Weather Forecasting for Agriculture, Pp 7
10. WEATHER FORECASTING FOR AGRICULTURE

Weather controls the crop production and affects agricultural operations through its effects on
soil, plant growth and development. The variation in crop production is attributed to
aberration in weather. In India, the losses of crop production are quite high due to abnormal
weather conditions. Aberrant weather includes floods, hail stones, thunder storms, dust
storms, high winds, heat wave, cold wave and frost etc. The losses due to aberrant weather
can be minimized to a considerable extent by suitable adjustment of the farming operations
according to the probable weather conditions through accurate weather forecasting. Weather
forecasting is foretelling the coming weather in advance. It may be defined as advance
information about the probable weather conditions for few days to follow. So the time for
which weather forecast is made is also important. We also termed it as lead time. The
accuracy of a forecast decreases with increasing lead period and decreasing area under
forecast. Different weather phenomena can be forecasted with different lead time.
Weather phenomena Lead time
Hail <12 hours
Flash floats <12 hours
Heavy rainfall 24 hours
Thunder storms 24 hours

Wind speed 36 hours
Rainfall amount 36 hours
Change in temperature 5 days
Temperature and rainfall departure from normal 3 months

Types of weather forecasts
On the basis of advance time span, forecast can be grouped into three categories:
Weather Forecasting System in India
IMD NCMRWF
Medium Range
Short Range Long Range (4 to 10 days)
(<3 days) (> 10 days or
month or season)
1
I. Short range weather forecast

Forecasting of coming weather for 2 to 3 days in advance is called short range
weather forecasting. Weather phenomena for which forecast are issued under this type is:
• Rise and fall in temperature
• Speed and direction of wind
• Cloudiness
• Rainfall amount
This type of weather forecast is issued by India Meteorological Department, Delhi for
different regions throughout the country. The error in forecast ranges from 20-30 per cent.
II. Medium range forecast
Forecasting of weather 4-10 days in advance is termed as medium range forecasting.
Presently, medium range weather forecasting for 4 days in advance is issued by National
Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) situated in NOIDA, U.P. This
forecast is issued twice in a week i.e. on Tuesday and Friday forecast error ranges from 30 to
40 per cent. Weather phenomena on which weather forecast is issued are as under:
• Increase or decrease in maximum and minimum temperature
• Cloudiness
• Speed and direction of wind
• Precipitation amount
III. Long range weather forecast
Forecasting of coming weather for more than 10 days or a month or a season in
advance is called as long range weather forecasting. It may also be categorized as monthly
forecast or seasonal forecast depending on the lead time. Long range forecasting is issued by
India Meteorological Department, New Delhi for south west monsoon rains, first in April and
then the forecast is updated in July. This forecast is issued region wise i.e. country is divided
in four zones: (1) North eastern region (2) Central region (3) North Western Region (4)
Peninsular region. The forecast error varied around 40 per cent.
The weather parameters on which forecast have been issued as under:
• Onset of monsoon rains
• Deviation of rainfall amount from long period average (LPA) rainfall
Methods of weather forecasting
1. Synoptic method: This is the oldest method of forecasting of a weather system. The data
of meteorological elements such as atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, rainfall,
wind, clouds, visibility, weather phenomena and waves are recorded at surface and various
heights above the earth surface at various meteorological stations situated throughout the
country and its surrounding at synoptic hours i.e. 0000, 0300, 0600, 1200 and 1800 hrs.
These data from different meteorological stations are sent to main centre (IMD) through
electro-magnetic signals. A large volume of meteorological observations from surface and
aloft obtained from a dense network of stations are depicted in pictorial and coded form on
the weather maps or charts by drawing isopleths, i.e. lines joining places with equal
numerical value of the weather element. The inferences on expected movement of weather
system are drawn using the previous and present synoptic charts. In addition to this the
satellite pictures (Visible and infrared) are also needed for accurate weather forecast. Visible
pictures enable to know cloud formation and wind velocity through cloud movement.
Infrared pictures helps in determining earth surface temperature, cloud temperature and its
height. The satellite pictures thus received at shorter intervals provide information on cloud
development and movement; thereby wind velocity, cloud type and height. Then weather
forecast is made with greater accuracy by superimposing synoptic charts and cloud pictures.
2
This method of forecast is mainly used for short range weather forecasting by IMD, New
Delhi.
2. Analogue method: This method is defined as any particular type of system if it is present
in the past also, it is assumed that the present system is likely to behave in the same way as
the previous one. There are a number of limitations on the success of this method. First, it is
difficult to select right analogue, and second, even if we succeed in picking up the right ones,
there is no guarantee that they will evolve in the same way. It has been suggested that
analogue should be used in conjunction with other methods, either as an aid or a check on
pressure pattern prognosis. The success of forecast depends upon the knowledge and the
experience of the forecaster.
3. Persistence method: Persistence Method is the simplest way of producing a forecast
among the different methods of forecasting. It assumes that the conditions at the time of the
forecast will not change and yesterday’s weather may continue to behave in same manner for
today also.Often summarized as "Tomorrow equals today". For example, if it is sunny and
37°C today, the persistence method predicts that it will be sunny and 37°C tomorrow. The
method a forecaster chooses depends upon the experience of the forecaster, the amount of
information available to the forecaster and the degree of accuracy or confidence needed in the
forecast. It may also appear that the persistence method would work only for short-term
forecasts (e.g. a forecast for a day or two), but actually one of the most useful roles of the
persistence forecast is predicting long range weather conditions or making climate forecasts.
For example, it is often the case that one hot and dry month will be followed by another hot
and dry month.
4. Climatological Method: Climatology is the main theme with which we can study the
present weather systems. The Climatology method is another simple way of producing a
forecast. This method involves historical weather data over long periods of time (years) to
predict conditions on a given date. The weather statistics accumulated over many years has
been averaged to make the weather forecast. For example, if you were using the climatology
method to forecast for temperature and precipitation for Hisar on September 4th, you would
go through the temperature and precipitation data that has been recorded for every September
4th and take an average. If these averages were 35°C with 25 mm of rain, then the weather
forecast would be 35°C temperature and 25 mm of rain for Hisar on September 4th. The
climatology method only works well when the weather pattern is similar to that expected for
the chosen time of year. If the pattern is quite unusual for the given time of year, the
climatology method will often fail.
5. Statistical methods: This method is based on statistical approaches such as regression and
auto regressive integrated moving average techniques. The regression equations are used to
predict weather parameters. Knowledge of correlation coefficient will also help to access
effect of one parameter over the other. This method is used for long range forecasting of
Indian monsoon rainfall. The forecast is issued region wise i.e. north eastern region, central
region, north western region and peninsular region using power regression model. This
method is used for forecasting Indian Monsoon rainfall based on 16 atmospheric land-oceanic
parameters (Table 1). It is introduced operationally by IMD in 1988 as 16 Parameters Power
Regression Model. Weather forecast to be made available at the end of May each year by
IMD up to the year 2000. A minor modification was made to this model in 2000, involving
the replacement of four parameters, as with time they had lost their correlation as described in
Table 1. The year 2002 turned out to be an all India drought year with an overall rainfall
deficiency of 19 per cent, while IMD had predicted a normal monsoon, resulting in a more
attention being focused on forecasting system of IMD.
3
Table 1. Comparison of 16 parameter model (1988) and the changes for the year 2000
model
Original 16 Parameters Power Revised 16 Parameters Power
Regression Model Regression model
1.50 hPa East-west wind (Jan-Feb) 1.50 hPa East-west wind (Jan-Feb)
2.10 hPa Zonal wind (Jan) 2.Arabian sea surface temperature (Jan-
3.East coast India temperature (Mar) Feb)
4.Central India temperature (May) 3.East coast India temperature (Mar)
5.Northern hemisphere temperature 4.Central India temperature (May)
(Jan-Feb) 5.Northern hemisphere temperature
6.North India minimum temperature (Jan-Feb)
(Mar) 6.Northern hemisphere temperature
7.Northern hemisphere pressure (Jan-Feb)
(Jan-Apr) 7.Northern hemisphere pressure (Jan-
8. Darwin pressure (Spring) Apr)
9. Argentina pressure (Apr) 8.Darwin pressure tendency (Jan-Apr)
10. 500 hPa Ridge (Apr) 9.Argentina pressure (Apr)
11.Equatorial Indian ocean pressure 10.South Indian ocean SST (Feb-Mar)
(Jan-May) 11.Equatorial Indian ocean pressure
12.Southern oscillation index (Mar- (Jan-May)
May) 12.Southern Oscillation Index (Mar-
13. El Nino (Same year) May)
14. El Nino (Previous year) 13.El Nino (Same year)
15. Himalayan snow cover (Jan- 14.El Nino (Previous year)
Mar) 15.Himalayan snow cover (Jan-Mar)
16.Eurasian snow cover (Dec) 16.Eurasian snow cover (Dec)
Table 2. Comparison of 8 parameters and 10 parameters Power Regression Model
8 Parameters Power regression 10 Parameters Power regression

model model
Model parameters (Month for data) Model parameters (Month for data)
1.El Nino previous year (Jly, Aug, 1.El Nino previous year (Jly, Aug,
Sep) Sep)
2.Eurasian snow cover (Dec) 2.Eurasian snow cover (Dec)
3.North west Europe temperature 3.North west Europe temperature
(Jan) (Jan)
4.Europe pressure gradient (Jan) 4.Europe pressure gradient (Jan)
5.50 hPa Wind pattern (Jan, Feb) 5.50 hPa Wind pattern (Jan, Feb)
6.Arabian sea SST(Jan, Feb) 6.Arabian sea SST(Jan, Feb)
7.East Asia pressure (Feb, Mar) 7.East Asia pressure (Feb, Mar)
8.South India Ocean temperature 8.South India ocean temperature
(Mar) (Mar)
9.El Nino (3+4) temperature (Apr,
May, Jun and Jan, Feb and Mar)
10.South Indian Ocean 850 hPa Z
wind (Jun)
4
In 2003, IMD reviewed the forecast models and attempted to develop new credible models
which come closer to requirement of users. The above power regression models were
modified to power regression and probabilistic models with 8 and 10 parameters (Table 2).
From 2003, IMD adopted a two stage long range forecast strategy. In the first stage, forecast
for south west monsoon season rainfall (June-September) for the country as a whole is issued
in April using the 8 parameters power regression and probabilistic models. In the second
stage, update forecast for the seasonal rainfall over the country as a whole is issued by the
first week of July using 2 more parameters.
6. Numerical weather prediction methods: Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) is the
methodology to predict the future state of the atmospheric circulation and weather from
knowledge of its present state, using known physical and hydrodynamic laws of atmospheric
motions. The physical processes are modeled in terms of differential equations using these
physical laws. Motion of atmosphere is governed by a set of non-linear differential equations
which involves variation of weather parameters. Though, there is difficulty in solving non-
linear equations, some approximations are made and these equations are solved. Numerical
Weather Prediction (NWP) method is extensively used after advent of fast computer.
Complex computer programs or forecast models run on supercomputers and give the
predictions on many meteorological parameters such as temperature, pressure, wind and
rainfall. The NWP method is flawed in that the equations used by the models to simulate the
atmosphere are not precise. This leads to some error in the predictions. In addition, they are
many gaps in the initial data since we do not receive many weather observations from areas
in the mountains or over the ocean. If the initial state is not completely known, the computer's
prediction of how that initial state will evolve will not be entirely accurate. Despite these
flaws, the NWP method is probably the best of forecasting methods for the day-to-day
weather changes.
Weather Service Organizations
India Meteorological Department: Government of India established the India
Meteorological Department as a national agency, bringing all meteorological work in the
country in 1875. Mr. H. F. Blanford was appointed the first imperial meteorological reporter
to the Government of India. The headquarter of IMD was Calcutta. In 1905, IMD
headquarters shifted to Simla and the Calcutta office was given the status of a branch office.
The transfer of IMD offices from Simla to Pune in 1926 and finally to New Delhi in 1976.
IMD maintains a countrywide network of observational stations viz. 559 surface
meteorological observatories, 701 hydrometeorological observatories, 65 pilot balloon
stations, 35 radiosonde/rawinsonde observatories, 219 agrometeorological stations, 45
radiation observatories from where weather reports are received at Pune through the Regional
Telecommunication Hub based at New Delhi. With the help of these reports and other
observations from the globe, IMD issues the weather forecasts for the entire country by the
forecasting offices at its 6 Regional Meteorological Centres i.e. Mumbai, Chennai, New
Delhi, Calcutta, Nagpur and Guwahati and Meteorological Centres at the State capitals. In
addition, warnings bulletins for tropical storms and other severe weather systems affecting
the Indian coastal and other marine activities over the Indian seas issued by IMD's Area
Cyclone Warning Centres at Chennai, Calcutta and Mumbai and Cyclone Warning Centres at
Ahmedabad, Bhubaneshwar and Visakhapatnam. Agrometeorological Advisory Bulletins for
farmers are issued by 17 IMD Centres in various states. IMD has strong international
linkages with World Meteorological Organization (WMO). IMD has been participating in all
the Antarctic expeditions and carries out regular meteorological observations at India's station
at Maitri.
National Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting: The National Center for
Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) is premier institution provide medium
5
range weather forecasting through deterministic methods and render Agro Advisory services
to the farmers. It was established in December 1988 by the Government of India as a mission
mode project under Department of Science & Technology mandated to develop operational
Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) system for forecasting weather in the medium range
(3-10 days in advance) scale and setting up of Agro-meteorological Advisory Service (AAS)
units in the 127 agro-climatic zones spread all over India to inform and guide the farmers in
advance to undertake various farming activities based on the expected weather. Headquarter
of NCMRWF is at NOIDA (UP). Currently, the NCMRWF functions under the Ministry of
Earth Sciences, Government of India. The Centre maintains high-end computing resource and
regularly upgrades it to meet the objectives.
The NCMRWF strives to improve the accuracy, and consistency of its operational
forecasts. A number of global, regional and meso-scale numerical forecast models are being
run in real time by the Centre. These are global modes T-80/L18 - horizontal resolution of
150 km, T-170/L28 with 75 km horizontal resolution, Embedded Regional Spectral Model
with 50 km grid resolution and Meso-scale Models MM5 with 30 and 10 km resolution and
ETA Model with 48 km resolution. At present, NCMRWF has established AAS units in 107
agro climatic zones. Agromet Advisory Bulletins comprising of expert advice on crop, soils
and weather are made available to the farming community through media and direct contact.
The location specific forecasts valid for 4 days comprising of six meteorological variables,
viz., total precipitation, average cloudiness, average wind speed, predominant wind direction,
maximum temperature and minimum temperature are derived NWP model outputs. These
forecasts of weather elements are subjected to fine tuning through statistical and synoptic
techniques to obtain final location specific weather forecast. They are disseminated biweekly
to AAS units on every Tuesday and Friday over Telephone, Fax or Internet system.
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology: The Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology
(IITM) was established on 17th November 1962 as Institute of Tropical Meteorology (ITM) at
Pune as a distinct unit of India Meteorological Department for the study of the fundamental
atmospheric problems in the tropical region. The Institute was transferred into an autonomous
organisation on 1st April 1971 under the name Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology.
Currently, the IITM functions under the Department of Science and Technology, Government
of India. The IITM has developed techniques and expertise in specialized area of research
such as studies on weather forecasting, climatology, monsoon studies, climate modeling,
hydrometeorology, weather modification, atmospheric chemistry, atmospheric electricity,
cloud physics and instrumentation for observational studies. The IITM has been playing
important role in the international activities such as Inter Governmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), International Geosphere Biosphere Programme (IGBP), Indian Climate
Research Programme (ICRP) and several research programmes of the World Meteorological
Organisation (WMO).
CSIR Centre for Mathematical Modelling and Computer Simulation (C-MMACS)
The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) established in 1988 the
"CSIR Center for Mathematical Modelling and Computer Simulation", briefly called C-
MMACS. The Centre is located in National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL), Bangalore. In
another program, the initial evolutionary features of cyclones have been studied in the context
of those originating in the Bay of Bengal. The first results indicate the possibility of
developing viable Mathematical Models for early warning of cyclones. The centre also
prepares the experimental forecasts of All India summer Monsoon rainfall by using
mathematical simulation models.
Significance of weather forecasting in agriculture
Agriculture is mainly dependent of weather. If the weather is favourable, then crop
production will be higher. But if the weather is not under optimum/favourable range, then it
6
will cause losses to crop production depending upon its intensity of abnormality. Such type of
weather is termed as aberrant weather or abnormal weather. However the losses due to
aberrant weather can be minimized if it is forecasted accurately. Rather it is impracticable to
avoid crop losses due to aberrant weather but it is possible to minimize crop losses to some
extent, if weather forecast is accurate and in time.
The input cost can be minimized by avoiding wastage of inputs through short term
adjustment of input applications with coming weather. The applications of forecasting also
depend upon the lead time of forecasting. So the applications can be grouped with the type of
forecasting:
A) Short range applications:
i) Adjustment of day to day field operation
ii) Scheduling of irrigation and application of agro-chemicals
iii) Protection of field crops & livestock from frost/cold wave & heat wave
iv) Efficient use of labour
B) Medium range applications:
i) Sowing and planting of crops
ii) Management of labour, irrigation water and agro-chemicals
iii) Protection measures again frost/cold wave and heat wave
iv) Management of inputs and products of livestock
v) Transportation of farm products
C) Long range applications:
i) Selection of crops, varieties and breeds
ii) Management of water resources
iii) Management of farm inputs such as labour, machinery, seeds, agro-chemicals etc.
iv) Management of dry and green fodder and feeds for livestock
Generally in the month of March, the weather in Haryana is highly variable and the
wheat crop is approaching maturity. If the farmers of the state are informed about anticipated
heavy rains and strong surface winds in advance for two to three days and also advised to
withhold the irrigation, it can save the wheat crop from lodging which can cause a great loss
in final yield. During April there are frequent thunderstorms and squalls which carry away
considerable quantities of the crop during harvesting operations. If the farmers are informed
about dust storms/ thunderstorms well in advance then farmers stop their harvesting operation
of rabi crops and can collect and make the bundle of harvested crop well in time to save the
crops being blown away.
The losses in seed, diesel, labour and time can also be minimized by not sowing the
crops if anticipated weather is not favourable for sowing. The loss of chemical fertilizers in
the State may be minimized if the farmers are informed well in time that the coming weather
may not be suitable for application of agri-chemicals. Timely application of agricultural
chemicals is economical and efficient as it minimizes the losses due to unfavourable weather.
Forecast on wind speed helps in determining suitable time for spraying of agri-chemicals.
Temperature determines the effectiveness of spraying, whereas precipitation immediately
following applications can dilute or wash out the chemicals. The severe cold waves during
winter adversely affect the mustard crops and vegetables as frost injury. This type of loss can
be minimized if the farmers are informed well in time about the frost occurrence and suggest
the measures to prevent frost injury.
It clearly showed that the weather forecast play a vital role in agricultural production.
It helps in enhancing economic gains by suitable adjustment of farming according to
anticipated weather conditions. The gain can be either through reducing input costs for farm
management or through increasing production or through minimizing the losses.
7
Climate and Crop Production, Pp 11
11. CLIMATE AND CROP PRODUCTION

India is a land of many rivers and mountains. Its geographical area of about 329 Mha is criss
crossed by a large number of small and big rivers, some of them figuring amongst the mighty
rivers of the world. The rivers and mountains have a greater significance in the history of Indian
cultural development, religious and spiritual life. It may not be an exaggeration to say that the
rivers are the heart and soul of Indian life.
Climate
The presence of the great mountain mass formed by the Himalayas and its spurs on the North
and of the ocean on the South is the two major influences operating on the climate of India. The
first poses an impenetrable barrier to the influence of cold winds from central Asia, and gives the
sub-continent the elements of tropical type of climate. The second, which is the source of cool
moisture-laden winds reaching India, gives it the elements of the oceanic type of climate. India
has a very great diversity and variety of climate and an even greater variety of weather
conditions. The climate ranges from continental to oceanic, from extremes of heat to extremes of
cold, from extreme aridity and negligible rainfall to excessive humidity and torrential rainfall. It
is, therefore, necessary to avoid any generalization as to the prevalence of any particular kind of
climate, not only over the country as a whole but over major areas in it. The climatic condition
influences to a great extent the water resources utilization of the country.
1. Rainfall
Rainfall in India is dependent in differing degrees on the Southwest and Northeast monsoons, on
shallow cyclonic depressions and disturbances and on violent local storms which form regions
where cool humid winds of the sea meet hot dry winds from the land and occasionally reach
cyclonic dimension. Most of the rainfall in India takes place under the influence of Southwest
monsoon between June to September except in Tamilnadu, where, it is under the influence of
Northeast monsoon during October and November. The rainfall in India shows
Figure 11 a: Annual rainfall climatology over India

great variations, unequal seasonal distribution, still more unequal geographical distribution (Fig.
11 a to 11d) and the frequent departures from the normal. It generally exceeds 100 cm in areas to
the East of Longitude 78°. It extends to 250 cm along almost the entire West Coast and Western
1
Ghats and over most of Assam and Sub-Himalayan West Bengal. On the West of the line joining
Porbandar to Delhi and then to Ferozpur the rainfall diminishes rapidly from 50 cm to less than
15 cm in the extreme west. The Peninsula has large areas of rainfall less than 60 cm with pockets
of even 50 cm.
Figure 11 b: Pre Monsoon rainfall climatology over India
Figure 11 c: Monsoon rainfall climatology over India
2
Figure 11 d: Winter rainfall climatology over India

2. Temperature
The variations in temperature are also marked over the Indian sub-continent during different
periods (Figure 11.1 a & b). During the winter seasons from November to February, due to the
effect of continental winds over most of the country, the temperature decreases from South to
North. The mean maximum temperature during the coldest months of December and January
varies from 29°C in some part of the peninsula to about 18°C in the North, whereas the mean
minimum varies from about 24°C in the extreme South to below 5°C in the North. From March
to May is usually a period of continuous and rapid rise of temperature. The highest temperature
occurs in North India, particularly in the desert regions of the North-West where the maximum
may exceed 48°C, whereas on the same day maximum temperature of 22 °C is recorded at
Gulmerg. The minimum temperature may fall below -20°C in Kargil and Dras areas, while on
the same day, it has been around 24°C at Madras. With the advent of Southwest Monsoon in
June, there is a rapid fall in the maximum temperature in the central region of the country. The
temperature is almost uniform over the area covering two thirds of the country which gets good
rain. There is a marked fall in temperature when the monsoon retreats from North India in
September. In Northwest India, in the month of November, the mean maximum temperature is
below 38°C and the mean minimum below 10°C. In the extreme North, temperature drops below
freezing point.
3. Evaporation
Evaporation rates closely follow the climatic seasons, and reach their peak in the summer months
of April and May and the central areas of the country display the highest evaporation rates during
this period. With the onset of monsoon, there is a marked fall in the rate of evaporation. The
annual potential evaporation ranges between 150 to 250 cm over most parts of the country.
Monthly potential evaporation over the Peninsula increases from 15 cm in December to 40 cm in
May. In the North-East, it varies from 6 cm in December to 20 cm in May. It rises to 40 cm in
June in West Rajasthan. After the onset of monsoon potential evaporation decreases generally all
over the country.
3
Figure 11.1 a. Average temperatures during January & April over India
Figure 11.1 b. Average temperatures during July & October over India
Haryana
Haryana is located in the northwest part of the country and the climate is arid to semi arid
with average rainfall of 455 mm. Around 80 per cent rainfall is received during the month from
July to September and the remaining rainfall is received during December to February. There are
two agro climatic zones in the state delineated by NARP (Figure 11.2). The north eastern part is
suitable for paddy, wheat, vegetable and temperate fruits and the south western part is suitable
4
for cotton, wheat, mustard, pulses, tropical fruits, exotic vegetables and herbal and medicinal
plants. The state of Haryana extends between 27°39' to 30°55'N latitude and 74°27' to 77°36'E
longitude. The altitude in the state ranges between 200 to 300 meters above mean sea level
(except the hilly ranges of Shivaliks in the north and Aravallis in the south). It is one of the
smaller states in the country with an area of 42,222 sq km and is land locked from all sides and
mostly covers the Indo-Gangetic plains.
Figure 11.2. Agroclimatic Zones of Haryana

Climate
The geographical location of Haryana in the north-west of Indian sub-continent, over
1600 km away from the bay of Bengal, and between western Himalayas in the north and thar
desert in the south, mainly determines its climatic conditions. Climate is one of the important
agricultural resources which have not been exploited to its full for increasing the productivity.
Year to year variations in climate and sudden departure from normal weather features have
deleterious effects on crops and keep the food production highly fluctuating. Scanty rains, excess
and untimely rains, heat waves, cold waves, high and hot winds during summer (locally known
as ‘loo’), dust storms, fog, frost and hails are important weather abnormalities occurring in the
state and adversely affect the crop production. The climate of Haryana is strongly influenced by
north-westerly cold and south-westerly monsoon winds. Only tails of summer monsoon
depressions are received during months from July to September.
i) Western Zone of Haryana
The rainfall during the monsoon season is very erratic and limited (250-500 mm) in 10-
20 rainy days, prolonged dry spell, delayed onset and early withdrawal. The coefficient of
variation is about 50 per cent in kharif and nearly 100 per cent in rabi season. Moisture stresses
of varying degrees in both seasons. Potential evapotranspiration is around 1500-1650 mm per
annum with Aridity index > 0.66.
5
ii) Eastern Zone of Haryana

The Rainfall during the monsoon season varies between 500-1200 mm in 40-45 days. Excess
moisture in kharif but severe moisture stress in rabi crops. Potential evapotranspiration is around
1250-1350 mm per annum.
1. Rainfall
Normal annual rainfall features (Figure 11.3 a to c) show that amount of annual rainfall in the
state ranges between below 400 mm (south-western parts) to 1200 mm (northern parts-Shivalik
foothills) with 25 to 45 per cent coefficient of variation. Above 80 per cent of this rainfall is
received during monsoon season (July to September) which coincides with the growing season
of Kharif crops. On an average around 300 mm of rains are received during this period in the
south-western (SW) region and above 750 mm in the northern most region with coefficient of
variation ranging between 45 to 55 per cent. Only 10 to 15 per cent of the annual rainfall is
received during October to March period coinciding with the growing season of rabi crops.
Rainfed agriculture is mostly practiced during
Figure 11.3 a. Annual rainfall zones in Haryana
6
Figure 11.3 b. Rainfall Climatology of Haryana during monsoon season
Figure 11.3 c. Rainfall Climatology of Haryana during winter season
7
the monsoon season with possibility of rabi crop sowing in areas where abundant soil moisture
conservation is possible with receipt of good rains during later monsoon season.
2. Temperature
Mean temperature during Kharif season in SW region is around 32°C and decreases to 29°C in
the northern parts. However, during Rabi season the mean temperature of 15°C in the northern
parts with an increase towards the south-western upto 20°C is observed. Day temperature of
48°C during summer (May/June) and night temperature below 0°C during winter (December to
February) are not uncommon to the state. Haryana state has arid, semi-arid climate in the south-
west and dry sub-humid environment in the remaining parts. Annually, air temperature below
24°C, 24 - 25°C and above 25°C prevails in Zone I, Zone II and Zone III, respectively (Figure
11.4).
Figure 11.4. Annual temperatures in Haryana

3. Sunshine and radiation
Abundant sunshine (6 to 10 hrs/day) and solar radiation of sufficient intensity available in the
state throughout the year except few occasions of abnormal weather. Multiple cropping with two
or more cereals or four to five vegetable crops can be cultivated if moisture is not the limiting
factor.
Importance of weather elements in crop production
Each phase of agricultural activity from preparatory tillage to plant growth, harvest and storage
is influenced by weather elements (Rainfall, temperature, humidity, sunshine & radiation and
wind etc.) directly or indirectly. The healthy growth and yield of crops depend upon certain
optimum conditions of weather. The important elements of weather which influence the
cropping pattern, plant suitability, adaptability, growth and final yield etc are given below.
8
1. Rainfall
The most important climatic element for agriculture in the tropics is the rainfall. The rainfall
received during the SW monsoon season is the most important as the country's agricultural
production is dependent on its quantum and distribution. In agriculture, rainfall largely manifests
itself through its influence on the edaphic factors, viz., soil moisture, and soil temperature and
aeration. In area with winter rains the winter - annuals germinate quickly and smother in the slow
germinating annuals.
Similarly, winter annuals are suppressed in area of summer rains. There is adverse effect of
denial of rainfall in rainy months of July and August on cane yield in spite of adequate irrigation.
Flowering of a number of tropical plants including coffee is induced by rain.
Rain occurring during flowering period is harmful. Rainfall within six hours of foliar sprays
adversely effect the efficiency of chemicals. Excessive rains can cause mineral deficiency in
plants. Rain causing regular wetting of leaves encourage growth of bacteria on leaf surfaces. Dry
weather is obligatory for ripening of a wide range of crops. Excessive rainfall occurring during
vegetative and flowering phase may delay tillering and reduce yields.
2. Temperature
Due to the latitudinal extent from near equatorial to sub-tropical. The country experiences wide
range of temperature conditions from North to South and East to West. The mean annual
temperature across the country varies from <10°C in the extreme north to more than 28°C in
south. The temperature starts to increase over the country from March onwards and reaches a
peak in May and June. By May, many parts of India record mean daily maximum temperature
above 40°C. On individual days temperature can be over 46 to 49°C. During winter northern
states experience minimum temperature less than 10°C. These states are prone to occasional
frost during the rabi season.
The influence of temperature are conditioned by its effects on the plant activities that regulate
mechanisms of hormones, genes etc. Temperature effects from sowing of crops to final yields
with various degrees. Low temperatures effects are on both roots and shoots. The worst trouble
is in fruit and flowers.
Regardless of how favorable light and moisture conditions may be plant growth ceases when the
temperature drop below a certain minimum value or exceeds a certain maximum value. Between
these limits, there is an optimum temperature at which growth proceeds with great rapidity.
Influence of temperature on chemical processes is more pronounced than on physical processes
of crop plants. Generally speaking, active growth of commercial crops is confined to the
temperature range of 5° to 40°C. Within this range the cardinal temperatures and the optimum
temperature range vary from species to species.
Role of temperature on net photosynthesis (photosynthesis - respiration) is of vital concern in
crops. Photosynthesis consists of dark enzymatic reactions as well as light driven reactions.
Available evidence suggests that at lower temperature range enzymatic reactions are limiting. On
other hand respiration increases exponentially with temperature. Therefore, higher temperature
can be expected to have a more deleterious effect on net photosynthesis than lower temperatures,
leading to decreased production of photosynthates above a certain temperature.
In considering role of temperature on crop production not only mean temperature but
temperature during night and day time periods must be considered. If days are warm, increased
respiratory loss might, to some extent, be made good by photosynthesis. However, if nights are
warm, loss by respiration is high. Unfavorable temperature conditions leads to slow development
of leaf surface in young seedling stage and will have permanent deleterious effect on total foliage
9
area even if subsequent condition turn to be favorable. However, if conditions are congenial in
early stages of crop, occurrence of unfavorable temperature in later stage of crop are not that
harmful.
Further, a considerable fraction of dry matter in the grains of crops arises from photosynthesis in
the ears, thus influence of temperature during the flowering period becomes important.
Temperature often exerts a modifying influence on the control of flowering by photoperiods.
Too high or too low temperature in photo induction period may partly or wholly offset the
influence of photoperiod on flowering. Ordinarily higher temperature in this period hasten
flowering.
3. Sunshine and radiation
Solar radiation is the primary source of energy for various agricultural purposes. Out of the total
spectrum, the visible part of the spectrum (0.4 to 0.7 µ) constitutes about 45 per cent of total
global radiation, which affects a number of plant functions and regulates the plant growth and
development. Agriculture is infact an exploitation of solar radiation, made possible by an
adequate supply of water and nutrients to maintain plant growth. Intercrops are greatly benefited
as prolonged periods of radiation are available for photosynthesis in most part of the country.
Light quality, duration & intensity affect plant development and plant- processes to varying
degree in different plants.
i) Quality: Quality of light refers to the wavelength of the radiation. Full range of visible
spectrum of light is required for the normal growth and development. Flowering in the case of
long day plant is inhibited by red light with 0.66 µ. Germination of the seeds is also inhibited
when exposed to green, blue and infra-red portion of the spectrum. Red portion of the light
induces germination. Stem elongation is promoted by far red. Phototropism, the process of
orientation of shoots in the direction of light is enhanced by blue light with wavelength 0.45 µ, it
increases with red to blue part but declines in th UV portion. UV rays, however, kill
microorganisms, disinfect soil, and eradicate diseases, influence germination and quality of
seeds.
ii) Duration: Based on flowering behavior to the photoperiod, plants are classed as 'long day',
'short day' and 'day neutral' types. It has been demonstrated that even a brief interruption of dark
period by a flash of light can offset the effects of the duration of day.
Since photoperiodic reaction processes can proceed at very low intensity, the entire duration
from sun rise to sunset constitutes the photoperiod duration. Weakness of moonlight in red wave
length, most effective wavelength for photoperiodism, restricts its role as flowering factor to
some kinds of plants only.
Photoperiod, in addition to its effect on flowering, may a) exerts other effects like inculcation
and breaking of bud dormancy and winter hardiness, and b) influence i) elongation and
branching of stem ii) shape, size, succulence and abscission of leaves iii) formation of tubers,
tuberous roots and bulbs iv) fruit setting v) sex expression vi) germination.
iii) Intensity: Light intensity influences growth through its effect on photosynthesis. Two points
on the light intensity scale assume importance, which are ‘compensation point' and 'saturation
light intensity'. Compensation point is the minimum light intensity at which respiration equals
photosynthesis rate. Rates of photosynthesis of tropical crops (sugarcane, maize, sorghum) are
often twice as great as temperate species (wheat, oats, beans, cotton etc.) because of different
methods of CO2 fixation. Light saturation point is higher for tropical crops/plant species than for
temperate species. Higher the temperature the higher is compensation point.
10
If there is no limiting factor, the rate of photosynthesis increases logarithmically with the
increasing light intensity. But there occurs a point at which further increase in light intensity fails
to accelerate photosynthesis. This intensity is known as light-saturation intensity and varies
considerably with plant species.
Weather hazards and their impact on crops
1. Rainfall
* Excessive rainfall (> 75 mm/day or 50 mm/h)
Effects: Devastation of Crops
Management: Construction of dams, planned afforestation, growing flood obstructing
crops.
* Scanty Rainfall: Droughts or insufficient rains/monsoon breaks
Effects: Wilting, drying of crops, no growth, yield loss
Management: Conservation of rains, reduction in runoff, thinning, weeding etc
* Untimely Rains: Too early, too late or rains during flowering periods etc
Effects: Poor fertilization, pest attacks, loss of harvestable products,
Management: Follow the weather forecast, operation of contingency plans
* Storm/Cyclones/Depressions/Thunderstorms/Hails/Tornado
Effects: Damage or destruction of the crops
Management: Hail, lightening suppression, cloud seeding
2. Temperature
* Cold wave: Frost, chilling injury, advection frost, radiation frost
Effects: Plants yellowing in chilling, plants are mostly killed in frost, mechanical injury,
cell destruction, crop-diseases attack
Management: Wind breaks for chilling or frost management, overhead sprinklers,
heaters, wind machines use, irrigation etc.
* Heat Wave
Effects: Desiccating winds cause stress to the plants, shedding of leaves, flowers, fruits,
shriveling of milk stage, wilt and plants may die
Management: Heat evasion, heat trapping, shelter belts, wind breaks etc.
3. Radiation
* Defective Insolation: Too excessive or defective due to cloudy weather
Effects: Affect crop quality and yield, cloudy weather retard growth, affects pollination,
cause disease and pest incidence Intense and bright solar radiation causes pollen burst or
flower drop
Management: Proper site selection, hormone sprays, pruning of orchards.
11
Climatic Requirements of Different Crops, Pp 3
12. CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS OF DIFFERENT CROPS

Weather or climate is the basic input in crop production. The external environment is the climate which
regulates and determines the growth and development of crop plants and animals. The excess or
deficiency of climatic elements exerts a negative influence on the life cycle of plants. The genetic yielding
potentials of the improved or hybrid crop varieties can only be expressed under favorable weather. Under
unfavorable weather, every thing including inputs, pesticides, weedicides, labor cost etc. cannot
contribute in increasing yield and may go in waste. Every crop requires certain set of optimum conditions
relating temperature, photoperiod, light intensity and water for maximum possible yield. In this chapter
climatic requirements of few important crops have been given.
1. Rice (Oryza sativa L.)
Rice cultivation in India extends from 8 to 35°N latitude and from sea level to as high as 3000 meters.
Rice crop needs a hot and humid climate. It is best suited to regions, which have high humidity, prolonged
sunshine and an assured supply of water. Rice is a heat loving crop. Rice-growing seasons vary in
different parts of India, depending upon temperature, rainfall and other climatic conditions. In parts of
eastern region and Peninsular India, the mean temperatures throughout the year are favorable for rice
cultivation and hence two or three crops of rice are taken in a year. In northern and western parts of the
country where winter temperatures are fairly low only one crop of rice is taken during Kharif
Season. Photo periodically, rice is a short-day plant. However, there are varieties, which are non-sensitive
to photoperiodic conditions.
The average temperature required throughout the life period of the crop ranges from 21 to 37°C. At the
time of tillering, the crop requires a higher temperature than for growth. The optimum temperature range
for germination is 22-31°C. The optimum temperature required for flowering is 22 to 23°C. At the time of
ripening the temperature should be between 20 – 25°C. If the temperature is high at grain filling stages,
the respiration rate is accelerated and grain filling period is reduced. The crop tolerates day temperatures
upto 40°C, provided water is not a limiting factor. If the night temperatures drop lower than 15°C
towards the vegetative phase, even the flower primodia initiation fails to take place. The rice yield is
greatly reduced by formation of sterile spikelets, which are induced by low temperatures. On an average
the critical low temperature for inducing sterility is 15-17°C. The base or lower threshold temperature is
10°C. Total growing period ranges 90-150 days. Its mean thermal requirement is 1872 day°C for
transplanting to maturity. For flowering its photoperiodic requirement is short day to day neutral. Short
day length decreases the rice plant growth period.
Water Requirement: It requires abundant moisture. Crop is generally grown in regions with rainfall
about 1250 mm. Its seasonal water requirement ranges 750-2500 mm. A heavy rainfall of 125 cm is
required during its vegetative period. There should be a monthly rainfall of 200 mm to grow lowland rice
and 100mm to grow upland rice successfully. The feet of the plant should remain submerged in water
from time of sprouting to the milk stage of the grain. Its water utilization efficiency for getting harvested
yield is 0.7 to 1.1 kg per m3 of water.
2. Wheat (Triticum aestivum)
Wheat crop has wide adaptability. It can be grown not only in the tropical and sub-tropical zones but also
in the temperate zone and the cold tracts of the far north, beyond even 60 degree latitude. The best wheat
is produced in areas favored with cool, moist weather during the major portion of the growing period
followed by dry, warm weather to enable the grain to ripe properly. It can be cultivated from sea level to
as high as 3300 meters. Wheat is mainly a rabi (winter) season crop in India. Wheat can tolerate severe
cold and snow and resume growth with the setting in of warm weather in spring.
Wheat is cold loving crop. Minimum, optimum and maximum cardinal temperatures for the germination
of wheat crop are 3-4°C, 25°C and 30-32°C, respectively. Optimum temperature requirement
1
for growth and development of wheat is 15-20°C. It can survive at temperature -8 to -10°C in the spring
during the early periods of its vegetative growth. High temperature significantly reduced tillering in
wheat. During the heading and flowering stages, excessively high or low temperatures and drought are
harmful to wheat. Cloudy weather, with high humidity and low temperatures are conducive for rust attack.
Higher temperatures of about 30- 35°C have detrimental effects on growth. High temperatures during
winter accelerate growth, force early maturity and finally reducing the yields. The temperature conditions
at the time of grain filling development are very crucial for yield. Temperatures above 25°C during this
period tend to depress grain weight. When temperatures are high, too much energy is lost through the
process of transpirations by the plants and the reduced residual energy results in poorer grain formation
and lower yields. Higher temperature 30- 35°C have in general detrimental effects on the wheat crop. The
base temperature is 5°C. Wheat is quantitative long day plant. Shading or cloudy days greatly reduces
wheat grain yields. Decrease in day length increases growing period of all varieties.
Water Requirement: Wheat is grown in regions with rainfall 500-875 mm. Its moisture requirements
ranges 450-650 mm. 350 to 400 mm of well distributed rainfall in the entire crop season or four
irrigations one at crown root initiation and subsequently three at 40 to 45 days interval produce the best
yields for the crop. Its water use efficiency for harvested product is 0.8 to 1.0 kg/m3 of water. Its daily
water requirement increases from 1.6 mm per day to 4 to 5.0 mm per day during heading or flowering.
Soil moisture stress at any stage decreases grain yield.
3. Cotton (Gossypium spp)
Cotton is a heat loving crop. Generally cotton requires abundant sunshine, adequate soil moisture and
fairly high temperature. Cotton plant cannot stand frost and hence its cultivation is restricted to an altitude
of 1000 meters only. A frostless season of 180 to 240 days is required in north India for successful cotton
cultivation.
Soil temperature is the most important factor affecting either the extent or speed of establishment of the
initial crop stand. The maximum and minimum soil temperature limits are 14°C and 40°C. Soil
temperature of 10°C or below increases seedling mortality due to pathogenic infection The minimum,
optimum and maximum cardinal temperatures for the germination and growth of seedling of cotton crop
are 16°C, 34°C and 39°C, respectively. The minimum, optimum and maximum cardinal temperatures for
cotton growth are 15-20°C, 25-30°C and 35-40°C, respectively. Air temperature less than 16°C or greater
than 38°C are not conducive for good vegetative development. A day time temperature of 26-32°C with
cooler night temperatures is optimum for fruiting. A mean temperature of 22-27°C is optimum for boll
and fibre maturation. Optimum temperature requirement of cotton for the growth is 15-20°C. A daily
minimum temperature of 16°C is required for germination and 21-22°C for proper vegetative growth. It
can tolerate temperatures as high as 43°C but does not do well if the temperature falls below 21°C. During
fruiting phase, the day temperature ranging from 27 to 32°C and cool nights are needed. If during the
fruiting period heavy showers of rain occur or heavy irrigation is applied, shedding of the flowers and
young bolls may result. Low temperatures of 15-20°C retard growth and reduce fruiting. High
temperatures 30-40°C and above have detrimental effects on growth and fiber quality. Cold nights and hot
days favour the cotton aphid or cotton louse. Cotton is a short day plant for flowering. Sunshine affects
cotton growth during bloom. Cloudiness prolongs vegetative growth. Abundant sunshine during the
period of boll maturation and harvesting is essential to obtain a good quality produce.
Water Requirement: Cotton is grown in regions having 550-750 mm/season rainfall. The minimum
rainfall limit for cotton is 500 to 650 cm. Heavy rainfalls, during sowing and early stage is undesirable.
Excessive rainfall at later stage may cause the shedding of leaves, squares, blooms and bolls. Its water
requirement ranges 700- 1300 mm. Its sensitivity to water supply is medium to low. Its water use
efficiency is 0.4 -0.6 kg/m3 of water. Shedding is closely related with water supply of the plant. Heavy
continuous rains also result in shedding. Continuous rains during flowering cause
2
improper pollination and bad quality fiber in boll developed.

4. Sugarcane (Saccharum spp)
Sugarcane is a tropical plant. It grows most successfully in those areas where the climate is more or less
tropical, but it can grow in sub-tropics too like in north India. Under warm and humid condition it can
continue its growth, unless terminated by flowering. The minimum soil temperature for the germination
of sugarcane setts is in the range of 19-21°C. The optimum range is from 27-38°C, while temperatures
above 38°C are not conducive. No root development occurs below 12°C.The minimum threshold
temperature for cane growth is 16°C.Tillering is maximum at 30°C. Maximum temperature above 35°C
and minimum temperature less than 18°C during tillering phase decrease cane yield. Optimum day and
night temperatures for elongation are 31°C and 20°C, respectively. Maximum temperature above 37°C
inhibits growth and growth also stops below 7°C. Growth and yield both fails with low temperature 0°C
during winter nights. During ripening cool (10-20°C), dry sunny weather is required. Longer nights and
shorter days, bright sunshine, and low humidity are conductive to effective dehydration and rapid
accumulation of sucrose. The yield of the crop is reduced to one half if sunshine is reduced to half of its
normal value.
Moisture: Crop requires 125-165cm of rainfall in a year. Its water requirement ranges 1500-2500 mm. Its
sensitivity to water supply is high. For harvesting and handling it requires comparatively dry conditions.
5. Mustard (Brassica spp)
Mustard is the crop of tropical as well as temperate zones and requires somewhat cool and dry weather for
satisfactory growth. The mean air temperature of 25°C is better for germination. They require a fair
supply of moisture during the growing period and a dry clear weather at the time of maturity. These crops
are not drought tolerant. They require an annual precipitation of 25-35 cm. Higher temperatures during
shorter days markedly reduced the height of plants, developed a large number of leaves on the main stem
and suppressed flowering. High temperatures and absence of rain during flowering periods decrease seed
yields. This combination also disrupts the biosynthesis of fat and fatty acid content in the seeds. They
require a fair supply of soil moisture during the growing period and daily clear weather at the time of
maturity. Cool temperature, clear dry weather with plentiful of bright sunshine accompanied with
adequate soil moisture increases the oil yield. In India, it is grown in rabi season from September-October
and in February-March. Toria is more liable to suffer from frost and cold and is, therefore, usually sown
earlier and harvested before the onset of frost. Rapeseed and mustard are long day in periodic response.
These crops are not drought tolerant.
6. Pearlmillet (Pennisetum glacum)
Millets are heat-loving plants, mostly distributed in sub-humid and semi-arid climates. For germination,
the minimum temperature required is 8 to 10°C. The plants are not frost-resistant; when temperatures fall
below 1°C, the young leaves of plant are damaged and growth is retarded. A temperature of 35 to 40°C is
normally tolerated by them. The optimum temperature for the growth of millets is difficult to define.
However, best yields have been obtained where the mean temperature during the growth period is 26 to
29°C. High yields are rarely obtained below a mean air temperature of 24°C.
Millets have low moisture requirements and are highly drought-resistant. The transpiration coefficient of
millets is very small and is about one-half to one-third that of wheat. They have an exceptionally high
capacity for soil water uptake through their root system. Plants become dormant during drought periods,
but revert to normalcy subsequently. A minimum of 28 to 35 cm rain fall is needed for the crop to be
successful. During a 5-week period, from flowering to seed setting, a minimum of 2-5 mm of water a day
for normal growth and 3.7 mm for higher yields, is required.
3
7. Chikpea (Cicer aeritinum):

Chickpea is a winter legume withstanding temperature between 8°C minimum and 22°C
maximum during the coldest month. During the flowering period the average minimum temperatures 10-
14°C and average maximum temperature between 25-31°C are considered optimum for hybridization and
seed setting in most cultivars. Chickpea is Sensitive to both light and temperatures. It requires long days
and cool temperatures. Average around 20°C with warm days (20°- 25°C) and cool (5°-10°C) or even
cold frosty nights (-1° to 0°C). The optimum soil temperature for establishment of desi chickpea in India
has been reported to be between 25-30°C.
Water requirements:
Chickpea uses 100 to 450 mm of water and is generally grown under rainfed conditions in India
but gives good results in irrigated conditions as well. Heavier rainfall seasons (over 750 mm. annually)
show reduced yields due to disease outbreaks and stem lodging problems from the excessive vegetative
growth. Areas with lighter, well distributed rainfall patterns have produced the highest yield and quality
chickpea seed. They produce good yields in drier conditions because of their deep tap root.
8. Guar (Cymposis tetragonoloba):
Guar has been characterized as a warm weather, drought tolerant, deep rooted, summer annual
legume adapted to semi-arid climates. The ability of guar to endure high temperatures and soil water
deficit may be due to the crop ability to deplete soil water deep within the profile and to a thick foliar
epidermis that may reduce the transpiration losses. The soil temperature of 21°C or higher is necessary for
guar seed germination. Optimum temperature fro guar growth and development is in the range of 24-30°C
4
Climate Change, Pp 5
13. CLIMATE CHANGE

The atmosphere covers the earth. It is a thin layer of mixed gases which make up the air we
breathe. This thin layer also helps the earth from becoming too hot or too cold, much like
clothing does for us. The biosphere is that part of Earth's atmosphere, land, oceans that supports
any living plant, animal, or organism. It is the place where plants and animals, including humans,
live. Large quantities of carbon dioxide are exchanged between the land based biosphere and the
atmosphere as plants take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen, and animals inhale oxygen and
exhale carbon dioxide. Weather systems, which develop in the lower atmosphere, are driven by
heat from the sun, the rotation of the earth, and variations in the earth's surface. The earth has
been warming since 1910, with a temperature maximum reached in the 1990s. And the four
warmest years of the 20th century all happened in the 1990s. Periods of increased heat from the
sun may have helped make the Earth warmer. But many of the world's leading climatologists
think that the greenhouse gases people produce are making the
Figure 13.1. Global temperature anomalies during 1860-2000

earth warmer, too. Once, all climate changes occurred naturally. However, during the Industrial
Revolution, we began altering our climate and environment through agricultural and industrial
practices. The Industrial Revolution was a time when people began using machines to make life
easier. It started more than 200 years ago and changed the way humans live. Before the Industrial
Revolution, human activity released very few gases into the atmosphere, but now through
population growth, fossil fuel burning, and deforestation, we are affecting the mixture of gases in
the atmosphere.
Since the Industrial Revolution, the need for energy to run machines has steadily increased.
Some energy, like the energy we need to do our homework, comes from the food we eat. But
other energy, like the energy that makes cars run and much of the energy used to light and heat
our homes, comes from fuels like coal and oil – fossil fuels. Burning these fuels releases
greenhouse gases. This has caused an increase in global temperatures, a phenomenon known as
global warming. If the amount of carbon dioxide were doubled instantaneously, with everything
else remaining the same, the outgoing infrared radiation would be reduced by about 4 Wm-2. In
other words, the radiative forcing corresponding to a doubling of the CO2 concentration would
be 4 Wm-2. To counteract this imbalance, the temperature of the surface-troposphere system
1
would have to increase by 1.2°C (with an accuracy of ±10%), in the absence of other changes. In
reality, due to feedbacks, the response of the climate system is much more complex.
Weather observations indicate that the global average surface temperature has increased by 0.6o
C (IPCC 2001) since the 19th century (Fig.13.1). The rate of warming is faster than that at any
other time during the past 1,000 years, which is attributed to the increase in the proportion of
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere over the last century. Observations
also indicate that all the warmest years across the globe during the past century occurred during
the last two decades (1981-1990 and 1991-2000).
The Greenhouse Effect
The Greenhouse Effect is the natural phenomenon that warms the Earth, enabling it to support
life (Fig. 13.2). The sun's warmth passes easily through the blanket of gases around the Earth to
reach the Earth's surface. However, instead of this heat being lost back to space when it is
radiated by the Earth's surface, certain gases in the atmosphere (called greenhouse gases viz.,
Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous Oxide (N2O) and Halocarbons block this heat.
Greenhouse gases are a natural part of the atmosphere and without them we could not live on
Earth. However, the problem we now face is that human actions, particularly the burning of
fossil fuels, are increasing the concentration of these gases. This is believed to be raising the
Earth's temperature, creating the prospect of global climate change. This is the Enhanced
Greenhouse Effect.
Figure 13.2. The Greenhouse Effect

Anticipated Warming
Increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases are likely to accelerate the rate of climate change.
Scientists expect that the average global surface temperature could rise 0.6 to 2.5°C in the next
fifty years, and 1.4 to 5.8°C by the end of century (Fig.13.3), with significant regional variation
including a 2.7–4.3 °C increase over India by the 2080s. There are predictions of an increase in
rainfall over the sub-continent by 6–8 per cent and that sea level would rise up to 88 centimeters
by 2100. Local climate change will affect the region in various ways. In India, rainfall patterns
are also set to change. Western and central areas could have up to 15 more dry days each year,
while in contrast, the north and north-east are predicted to have five to ten more days of rain
annually. In other words, dry areas will get drier and wet areas wetter. Extreme events, such as
droughts, torrential rain, flash floods, cyclones and forest fires, could become more common.
Changing rainfall patterns are likely to affect food security. Rising sea levels could threaten
2
coastal mangrove and wetland systems, and increase the flood risk faced by the quarter of India's
population that lives on the coast. The scientific conclusion reached is that warming is real.
Carbon dioxide has been rising since the time of James Watt (1736 - 1819), inventor of the auto-
controlled steam engine that helped in jump-start the industrial revolution. Since then, coal, oil
and natural gas have powered our economies. Hydro-power and nuclear power are comparatively
minor contributors to energy needs (excepting certain countries such as Norway and France).
Figure 13.3. Anticipated global mean temperature rise (oC)

Weather is the most important cause of year-to-year variability in crop production, even in high-
yield and high-technology environments. There is strong evidence that change is an ongoing
feature of the global climate system on various time scales. The global climate system is a
consequence of and a link between the atmosphere, the oceans, the biosphere, the cryosphere,
and the geosphere. Any change to this system produced by forcing agents - results in climate
change. Climate variations, both in the mean state and in other statistics such as, for example, the
occurrence of extreme events, may result from radiative forcing–an imposed perturbation of the
Earth’s energy balance. While climate variability involves relatively short-term changes and can
occur as a result of natural alterations in some aspect of the climate system, climate change
represents longer-term trends that occur over many decades or centuries due to changes in
atmospheric composition.
Impacts of Climate Change on Crop Production
People's ability to grow enough to feed themselves and their animals is determined to a large
extent by the weather - by temperature, light and water. Short or long-term fluctuations in
weather patterns - climate variability and climate change - can have extreme impacts on
agricultural production, slashing crop yields and forcing farmers to adopt new agricultural
practices in response to altered conditions. Climate, therefore, has a direct impact on food
security.
Plants grow through the well-known process of photosynthesis, utilizing the energy of sunlight to
convert water from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air into sugar, starches, and cellulose the
carbohydrates that are the foundations of the entire food chain. CO2 enters a plant through its
3
leaves. Greater atmospheric concentrations tend to increase the difference in partial pressure
between the air outside and inside the plant leaves, and as a result more CO2 is absorbed and
converted to carbohydrates. Crop species vary in their response to CO2. Wheat, rice, and
soybeans belong to a physiological class (called C3 plants) that respond readily to increased CO2
levels. Corn, sorghum, sugarcane, and millet are C4 plants that follow a different pathway. The
C4 plants, though more efficient photosynthetically than C3 crops at present levels of CO2, tend
to be less responsive to enriched concentrations.
Higher levels of atmospheric CO2 also induce plants to close the small leaf openings known as
stomata through which CO2 is absorbed and water vapor is released. Thus, under CO2
enrichment crops may use less water even while they produce more carbohydrates. This dual
effect will likely improve water-use efficiency, which is the ratio between crop biomass and the
amount of water consumed. At the same time, associated climatic effects, such as higher
temperatures, changes in rainfall and soil moisture, and increased frequencies of extreme
meteorological events, could either enhance or negate potentially beneficial effects of enhanced
atmospheric CO2 on crop physiology.
Higher concentrations of CO2 generally result in higher photosynthesis rates and may also reduce
water losses from plants. Photosynthesis is enhanced when additional carbon is available for
assimilation and so crop yields generally rise. The actual response to increased CO2 differs
among crops. Most commercial crops including wheat, rice, barley, oats, potatoes, and most
vegetable crops, tend to respond favorably to increased CO2, with a doubling of atmospheric
CO2, concentration leading to yield increases in the range of 15-20 per cent. The crop models
used in this assessment assume a CO2 fertilization effect in this range, and also assume that
sufficient nutrients and water will be available to support these increases. Other crops including
corn, sorghum, sugar cane, and many tropical grasses, are less responsive to increases in CO2,
with a doubling of its concentration leading to yield increases of about 5 per cent. In situations
where crop yields are severely limited by factors such as nutrient availability, an enduring CO2
fertilization effect is very likely to be of only minor importance.
In middle and higher latitudes, global warming will extend the length of the potential growing
season, allowing earlier planting of crops in the spring, earlier maturation and harvesting, and the
possibility of completing two or more cropping cycles during the same season. Crop-producing
areas may expand poleward in countries such as Canada and Russia, although yields in higher
latitudes will likely be lower due to the less fertile soils that lie there. Many crops have become
adapted to the growing-season day-lengths of the middle and lower latitudes and may not
respond well to the much longer days of the high latitude summers. In warmer, lower latitude
regions, increased temperatures may accelerate the rate at which plants release CO2 in the
process of respiration, resulting in less than optimal conditions for net growth. When
temperatures exceed the optimal for biological processes, crops often respond negatively with a
steep drop in net growth and yield. If nighttime temperature minima rise more than do daytime
maxima--as is expected from greenhouse warming projections--heat stress during the day may be
less severe than otherwise, but increased nighttime respiration may also reduce potential yields.
Another important effect of high temperature is accelerated physiological development, resulting
in hastened maturation and reduced yield.
Extreme meteorological events, such as spells of high temperature, heavy storms, or droughts,
disrupt crop production. Recent studies have considered possible changes in the variability as
well as in the mean values of climatic variables. Where certain varieties of crops are grown near
their limits of maximum temperature tolerance, such as rice in Southern Asia, heat spells can be
4
particularly detrimental. Similarly, frequent droughts not only reduce water supplies but also
increase the amount of water needed for plant transpiration. Global warming will affect the
scheduling of the cropping season, as well as the duration of the growing period of the crop in all
the major crop producing areas.
In India, while the wheat crop is found to be sensitive to an increase in maximum temperature,
the rice crop is vulnerable to an increase in minimum temperature. The adverse impacts of likely
water shortage on wheat productivity could be minimized to a certain extent under elevated CO2
levels. They would largely be maintained for rice crop, resulting in a net decline in rice yields.
Acute water shortage conditions combined with thermal stress should adversely affect both
wheat and, more severely, rice productivity in northwest India, even under the positive effects of
elevated CO2 in the future.
Climate change over the long-term, in particular global warming, could affect agriculture in a
number of ways - the majority of which would threaten food security for the world's most
vulnerable people:
• The overall predictability of weather and climate would decrease, making planning of farm
operations more difficult.
• Climate variability might increase - putting additional stress on fragile farming systems.
• Climate extremes - which are almost impossible to plan for - might become more frequent.
• The sea-level would rise, threatening valuable coastal agricultural land, particularly in low-
lying small islands.
• Biological diversity would be reduced in some of the world's most fragile environments, such
as mangroves and tropical forests.
• Climatic and agro-ecological zones would shift, forcing farmers to adopt, as well as
threatening natural vegetation and fauna.
• The current imbalance of food production between cool and temperate regions and tropical
and subtropical regions could worsen.
• Distribution and quantities of fish and sea foods could change dramatically, wreaking havoc
in established national fishery activities.
• Pests and vector-borne diseases would spread into areas where they were
previously unknown.
If climate changes and temperatures rise, there are a number of potential effects on agriculture.
The timing and length of growing seasons might shift geographically, which would alter planting
and harvesting dates and likely result in a need to change crop varieties currently used in a
particular area. Seasonal precipitation patterns and amounts could change. With warmer
temperatures, evapotranspiration rates would rise, which would call for much greater efficiency
of water use. Weed and insect pest ranges could shift. Perhaps most important of all, there is
general agreement that in addition to changing climate, there would likely be increased
variability in weather, which might mean more frequent extreme events such as heat waves,
droughts, and floods.
5
Agroecological Classification, Pp 10
14. AGROECOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Climate is the average condition of the atmosphere near the earth’s surface at a certain place on
earth. It is the long-term weather of that area (at least 30 years). This includes the region’s
general pattern of weather conditions, seasons and weather extremes like hurricanes, droughts, or
rainy periods. Two of the most important factors determining an area’s climate are air
temperature and precipitation.
World biomes are controlled by climate. The climate of a region will determine what plants will
grow there, and what animals will inhabit it. All three components, climate, plants and animals
are interwoven to create the fabric of a biome.
The climatic classification in general and agroclimatic classification in particular are of great
importance for the introduction of plants, their species and annual types from one area to the
other of analogous climatic conditions. Agroclimatic classification attempts for the evaluation of
potential productivity of crops and for improving of productivity of crops for which a number of
simple as well as complex climatic/agroclimatic indices have been developed.
I. Climatic classification
Greeks were first to divide the earth into three climatic zones viz. tropical climate having mean
monthly temperature above 18ºC, Temperate/middle latitude climate having temperature
between 10-18ºC and Polar climate having mean monthly temperature below 10ºC.
1. Koppen’s classificastion:
The Koppen climate classification system is the most widely used for classifying the
world climates. Most classification systems used today are based on the one introduced in 1900
by the Russian-German climatologist Wladimir Koppen. Koppen (1936) classified the climate
based on annual rainfall/ precipitation and mean monthly temperature into five main climatic
types (Figure14):
Mean temperature (0C)

Climatic types
Coldest month Warmest month
Tropical rainy
A >18 ---
climate
Mean annual temperature >18ºC and
B Dry climate
evaporation > precipitation
Meso thermal
C >-3 and <18 >10
climates
Micro thermal
D <-3 >10
climates
E Arctic climate --- <10
1
Figure.14. World climate types by Koppen’s classification

2. Thornthwaite classification:
Thornthwaite (1948) proposed a rational classification of climates based on the concept
of potential evapotranspiration and water balance. On the basis of moisture index (Im), climate is
classified into nine climatic types:
S −D
Im = × 100
PE
Where,
S = Annual water surplus, D = Annual water deficiency
PE = Annual potential evapotranspiration
Climatic types Moisture index
A Per humid >100
B4 Humid 80 to 100
B3 Humid 60 to 80
B2 Humid 40 to 60
B1 Humid 20 to 40
C2 Moist sub humid 0 to 20
C1 Dry sub humid -20 to 0
D Semi arid -40 to -20
E Arid -60 to -40
2
Thornthwaite and Mathor (1955) revised the moisture index and they classified 9 climatic type
based on the value of moisture index expressed as:
P −P E
Im = × 100
PE Where, P is precipitation/rainfall
Climatic types Moisture index
A Per humid >100
B4 Humid 80 to 100
B3 Humid 60 to 80
B2 Humid 40 to 60
B1 Humid 20 to 40
C2 Moist sub humid 0 to 20
C1 Dry sub humid -33.3 to 0
D Semi arid -66.7 to -33.3
E Arid -100 to -66.7
II. Agroclimatic classification
A. Agroecological zones of India
Planning Commission has demarcated the geographical area of India into 15 agro-climatic
zones based on rainfall, soils, cropping systems and water resources (Figure 14.1). These are
further divided into more homogenous 72 sub-zones. The 15 agro-climatic zones are as given
below:
Agroclimatic zone Regions
1. Western Himalaya J&K, HP, UP, Uttranchal
2. Eastern Himalaya Assam Sikkim, W.Bangal & all North-Eastern states
3. Lower Gangetic Plains West Bangal
4. Middle Gangetic Plains UP, Bihar
5. Upper Gangetic Plains UP
6. Trans-Gangetic Plains Panjab, Haryana, Delhi and Rajasthan
7. Eastern Plateau and Hills Maharastra, UP, Orissa and West Bangal
8. Central Plateau and Hills MP, Rajasthan, UP
9. Western Plateau and Hills Maharastra, MP & Rajasthan
10. Southern Plateau and Hills AP, Karnatak, Tamil Nadu
11. East Coast Plains and Hills Orissa, AP, TN,& Pondicheri
12. West Coast Plains and Ghat TN, Keral, Goa, Karnatka and Maharastra
13. Gujarat Plains and Hills Gujrat
14. Western Dry Rajasthan
15. The Islands Andeman & Nicaobar and Lakshya Deep
3
The ICAR has broadly divided the whole country into 127 agroclimatic zones under the
National Agricultural Research Project in 1980s.
Figure 14.1: Agro-climatic zones of India

B. Climatic zones of Haryana
Based on Thornthwaite’s classification Haryana state can be broadly divided into three
climatic zones namely arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid (Fig. 14.2).
Figure 14.2: Climatic zones of Haryana.

Climatic zone Moisture index
1. Arid < -66.6
2. Semi arid -66.6 to -33.3
3. Dry sub humid -33.3 to 0
4
1. Arid zone comprises southwestern parts of Haryana covering districts of Sirsa, Fatehabad,
Hisar, Bhiwani and parts of Rohtak, Jhajjar and Mahendragarh. This zone is deficient in
precipitation against the high evapotranspiration rates. Variation in rainfall is also highest.
2. Semi-arid zone covers the districts of Jind, Kaithal, Karnal, Kurukshetra, Panipat, Sonepat,
Gurgoan, Faridabad and parts of Ambala, Rohtak, Jhajjar and Mahedragarh.
3. Dry sub-humid zone comprises districts of Panchkula, Yamunanagar and northern parts of
Ambala. This zone receives good amount of rainfall to meet out the water requirements of the
atmosphere.
C. Soil Climatic Zones
Krishnan and Singh (1968) demarcated the soil climatic zones by superimposing the moisture
index and mean temperature on the soil map of India showing major soil types. Based on the
moisture and temperature belts entire Haryana could be divided into 5 major soil climatic zones.
1. Extremely dry zone: This zone consisted of south-western part of Hisar, Sirsa, Loharu,
Siwani, Tosham, Dabawali and Baraguda.
2. Dry zone: This comprised most of the area of the state and included Fatehabad, Hisar, Hansi,
Bhiwani, districts of Rohtak, Jhajjar, Sonepat, Kaithal, Gurgoan, Faridabad, Rewari,
Mahederagarh and Jind.
3. Semi-dry zone: This zone extended from district Kaithal, Panipat, Karnal and south western
portion of Ambala.
4. Slightly dry zone: It covered Jagadhari, Dadupur, Kalka, Barara, south Naraingarh,
Chhachhrauli and Bilaspur.
5. Slightly moist zone: This zone comprises north Nariangarh and Raipur Rani areas.
III. Agro-ecological classification
The climatic classification based on standard climatic indices may not take into consideration
other important factors of soil productivity and cropping system. For this reason, their utility
decreases in large areas where such factors become increasingly varied. The agroecological
zones to a large extent provide the factfile of related variables to explain cropping systems.
National Bureau of Soil Survey and land use planning (1992) on the basis of physiography, soil,
bioclimate and length of growing period has divided the country into twenty agro-ecological
region and the criteria followed is as under:
Physiograpahy
A Western Himalyas C Eastern Himlayas
D North Eastern Hills E Western Ghats
H Eastern Ghats & Tamilnadu uplands I Central High land
J Eastern Plateau K Decan Plateau
M Western Plains N Northern Plains
O Eastern Plains Q Asam and Bengal
S Eastern Coastal Plain T Islands
Soil types
1. Red loamy soils 2. Red laterite soils
3. Red and yellow soils 4. Shallow and medium black soils
5. Medium and deep black soils 6. Red and black soils
7. Coastal alluvium derived soils 8. Alluvium derived soils
9. Desert and saline soils 10. Brown and red hill soils
11. Shallow skeletal soils 12. Brown forest and podzoic soils
5
Climate types
A Per humid B Humid
C Sub humid D Semi arid
E Arid F Island
Length of growing period
1. 90 days 2. 90 – 150 days
3. 150 – 180 days 4. 180-210 days
5. 210 days
Each zone has a code consisting of a first letter (represents physiogrpahy), a numeral (represents
soil type), a second letter (represents climatic type) and a numeral (represents length of growing
period). The code K4E1 zone indicates:
K Decan Plateau
4 Shallow and medium black soils
E Arid
1 Growing period of 90 days
Eight eco-systems were demarcated namely
1. Arid eco-system
2. Semi arid eco-system
3. Sub-humid eco-system
4. Humid eco-system
5. Per humid eco-system
6. Coastal eco-system
7. Island eco-system
The 20 agro-ecological zones of India have been demarcated on the basis of
physiography, soil, bioclimate and length of growing period as depicted in Figure 14.3. Detail
characteristics of these agroecological zones are presented in Table 1.
Figure 14.3: Agro-ecological region of India
6
Table 1: Agro-Ecological regions of India

Region Map unit Physiography Soil Climate Precip. PET (mm) Growing
No. (mm) period (days)
1. A13E1 Western Himalaya Shallow, sandy to loamy, skeletal soils Cold <150 <800 <90
with low AWC Arid
2. M9E1 Western Plain and Deep, sandy and coarse loamy, desert soils Hot <300 1500-2000 <90
Kachchha Penisula with low AWC; deep, loamy, saline and Arid
alkali soils with medium AWC
3. K6E1 Deccan Plateau Deep, loamy red soils and clayey, black Hot 400-500 1800-1900 90-150
soils with medium and high AWC Arid
4. N8D2 Northern plain and Central Deep, loamy, alluvium derived soils with Hot semi-arid 500-800 1400-1900
High Lands including parts medium AWC and shallow to medium,
of Gujarat Plains sandy to loamy, gray brown soils with low
to medium AWC
5. I5D2 Central (Malwa) Highlands, Medium and deep, fine loamy and clayey, Hot semi-arid 500-1000 1600-1200 90-150
Gujarat Plains and black soils with medium and high AWC
Kathiawar Peninula
6. K4D2 Deccan Plateau Shallow and medium, loamy to clayey, Hot semi-arid 600-1000 1600-1000 90-150
black soils with low and medium AWC;
inclusion of deep, clayey, black soils with
high AWC
7. K6D2 Deccan (Telagana) Plateau Medium, red loamy soils with low and Hot semi-arid 600-1000 1600-1700 90-150
and Eastern Ghats medium AWC and deep, clayey, black
soils with medium and high AWC
8. H1D2 Eastern Ghats (TN Uplands) Shallow to deep, loamy, red soils with low Hot semi-arid 800-1000 1300-1600 90-150
and Deccan Plateanu to medium AWC; inclusion of deep clayey
(Karnataka) black soils with high AWC
9. N8C3 Northern Plain Deep, loamy, alluvium derived soils with Hot semi-humid 1000-1200 1400-1800 150-180
medium and high AWC
7
Region Map unit Physiography Soil Climate Precip. PET (mm) Growing
No. (mm) period (days)
10. I6C3 Central Highlands (Malwa Medium and deep, clayey, black soils with Hot sub-humid 1000-1500 1300-1500 150-180
& Bundekhand) medium and high AWC and clayey red
soils with low AWC
11. J3C3 Eastern Plateau Medium and deep, loamy, red and yellow Hot sub-humid 1200-1600 1400-1500 150-180
(Chhatisgarh region) soils with medium AWC
12. J2C3/4 Eastern (Chhota Nagpur) Shallow and medium, loamy, red soils and Hot sub-humid 1000-1600 1400-1700 150-180
Plateau and Eastern Ghats deep, loany, lateritic soils with low and
medium AWC
13. O8C4 Eastern plain Deep, loamy, alluviu-derived soils with Hot sub-humid 1400-1600 1300-1500 180-210
medium and high AWC
14. A15 C/B/A Western Himalayas Shallow and medium, loamy, brown forest Warm sub- 1600-2000 800-1300 180-210
4/5 and podzolic soils with low and medium humid to humid
AWC; and deep loamy tarai soils with high and per-humid
AWC
15. 08BA/C5 Bengal Basin and Assam Deep, loamy, alluvium derived soils with Hot sub-humid 1400-2000 1000-1400 >210
& O8C/ plain medium and high AWC to per humid
BA5
16. C11A5 Eastern Himalayas Shallow and medium brown red hill soils Warm per- 2000-4000 <1000 >210
with low AWC humid
17. D2A5 North-Easter Hills Shallow and medium, loamy red, yellow Warm to hot 1600-2600 100-1100 >210
and lateritic soils with low AWC per-humid
18. S7 CD2-5 Eastern Coastal Plain Deep, loamy, coastal and deltaic alluvial Hot semiarid to 900-1600 1200-1900 >210
soils with medium and high AWC sub humid
19. E2B/A5 Western Ghats and Coastal Shallow and medium, loamy, red and Hot humid per- 2000-3200 1400-1600 >210
Plain lateritic soils with low AWC and deep humid
coastal alluvial soils with high AWC
20. T1B/A5 & Islands of Andaman and Medium and deep, red, loamy and sandy Hot per-humid 1600-3000 1400-1600 >210
T1A/B5 Nicobar and Lakshadeep soils with very low to medium AWC
8
With consideration to three dominant factors i.e. soil, rainfall and quality of underground water,
Haryana can be divided into 7 agroecological zones (Figure 14.4).
Figure 14.4: Agro ecological zones of Haryana
9
1. Moist zone: This zone comprises Siwalik Hilly region with high rainfall and covers Kalka,
Nariangarh and Chhachharauli areas. In this zone wheat and paddy are grown under irrigated
conditions whereas, maize, gram and wheat under rainfed conditions.
2. Slightly moist zone: This zone covers Jagadhri, Ambala, Karnal, Panipat, Asand, Thanesar,
Kaithal, Guhla, Pehwa, Sonipat, Safidon and Jind areas and crops grown are rice, wheat,
sugarcane, rapeseed & mustard and barseem.
3. Slightly dry zone: The areas under this zone are Rohtak, Bahadurgarh, Gohana and Ganour.
The crops grown under irrigated conditions are wheat, rice, sugarcane, rapeseed & mustard
and cotton. Under rainfed conditions pearl millet, sorghum, gram, guar and barley are grown.
4. Moderately dry zone: This zone comprises areas of Palwal, Ballabgarh, Hathin, Nuh,
Gurgoan, Ferozpur-zhirka and Pataudi. Rice, wheat, barley, sugarcane and rapeseed &
mustard crops are grown in irrigated situation and in rainfed situation the crops grown are
pearl millet, sorghum, guar, gram and rapeseed & mustard.
5. Semi dry zone: This zone covers parts of Sirsa, Fatehabad and Hisar along with Hansi,
Tohana and Narwana. Irrigated crops of this zone are cotton, wheat and rapeseed & mustard
and rainfed crops are pearl millet, gram and guar.
6. Dry zone: The zone covers the parts of Dabwali, Sirsa, Fatehabad and Hisar along with areas
of Jhajjar, Meham, Kosli, Bhiwani, Dadri, Bawani Khera, Mahindergarh, Narnaul, Rewari
and Bawal. Cotton, wheat and barley are the crops under irrigated conditions, whereas, pearl
millet, sorghum, gram, guar and rapeseed & mustard are rainfed crops.
7. Extremely dry zone: This zone covers parts of Dabwali. Sirsa and Hisar along with Siwani
and Loharu. Cotton and wheat are the irrigated crops. Under rainfed situation the crops
grown are pearl millet, guar, gram and rapeseed & mustard.
Significance of Agroecological zoning
• It enables to get potential yield of genotypes.
• Efficient utilization of soil and bioclimatic resources can be achieved.
• Helps in transfer of technology from one region to another.
• It helps in double cropping.
• It enables to introduce new genotypes in a region.
• Constraints to maximize crop production can be identified.
10
Sample Questions
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Type A: Tick ( √ ) the correct answer of the following
1. Decrease in temperature with altitude is termed as
a) Inversion b) Lapse rate c) Isothermal lapse rate d) None
2. Reflectivity of solar radiation is called as
a) Solar constant b) Albedo c) Insolation d) Scattering
3. Isotherm may be defined as
a) Line joining places having equal temperature
b) Line joining places having equal air pressure
c) Both of these d) None of these
4. Solar constant is equal to
a) 1.0 cal/cm2/minute b) 2.0 cal/cm2/minute
c) 2.5 cal/cm2/second d) None of these
5. Air in horizontal motion is termed as
a) Wind b) Storm c) Tornado d) Hurricane
6. The altitude of tropopause at equator is about
a) 18.0 km b) 8 km c) 25 km d) 10 km
7. Scale used for temperature measurement are
a) Celsius b) Fahrenheit c) Kelvin d) All of these
8. Increase in temperature with increase in height in troposphere is called
a) Isobar b) Inversion c) Isotherm d) Lapse
9. In northern hemisphere, due to coriolis force wind turns
a) Left b) Right c) Back d) None of these
10. Relative humidity is measured in
o
a) C b) g/cc c) Per cent d) None of these
11. The term precipitation is used for
a) Rainfall b) Fog c) Dew d) All of these
12. Humidity is a measure of
a) Air pressure b) Wind direction
c) Atmospheric moisture d) None of these
13. Specific humidity is expressed in
a) ml b)Per cent c) g/cm3 d) None of these
1
Sample Questions
14. Frost is the form of

a) Precipitation b) Radiation c) Condensation d) None
15. Solar radiation ranges between
a) 0.15-0.40 μm b) 15-40 μm c) 8-14 μm d) 0.4-0.7 μm
16. Local dry and warm wind in Haryana during the months of May and June is called
a) Chinook b) Loo c) Simoon d) None of these
17. Valley wind moves from
a) Mountain to valley b) Valley to mountain
c) Valley to valley d) None of these
18. Long wave radiation wavelength is
a) > 4.0 μm b) < 4.0 μm c) >0.4 μm d) None
19. Pressure of air at saturation is called
a) Actual vapour pressure b) Saturated vapour pressure
c) Partial vapour pressure d) None of these
20. Relative humidity is the ratio of
a) Humidity and temperature b) Sensible and latent heat
c) Actual and saturated vapour pressure d) None of these
21. Water loss in vapour form from water surface is called
a) Respiration b) Transpiration c) Evaporation d) Condensation
22. Presence of water vapours in air is treated as
a) Rain b) Fog c) Mist d) Humidity
23. In lower most layer of atmosphere, fall of temperature is known as
a) Isotherm b) Lapse rate c) Inversion d) Isohyte
24. Horizontal movement of air is named as
a) Gale b) Wind c) Storm d) Cyclone
25. Specific humidity is measured in
a) g/kg b) Unit of volume c) Degree Celsius d) Centimeter
26. Term Precipitation is used for
a) Hailstorm b) Snowfall c) Rainfall d) All of these
27. Western disturbances commonly occur in
a) Summer b) Winter c) Autumn d) Spring
28. Burst of monsoon takes place in Haryana during
2
Sample Questions
a) June-July b) September-October
c) January-February d) March-April
29. Annual rainfall in general, in Haryana State, increases as we move in a direction
a) South-West to North-East b) South to North
c) West to East d) All of these
30. Over a large continent, annual range of temperature is likely to be
a) Large b) Small c) Constant d) None of these
31. On a hot, humid & cloudy day diurnal (daily) range of temp would be
a) Normal b) Big c) Constant d) None of these
32. National Centre for Medium Range Weather forecasting (NCMRWF) is located at
a) Pune b) Kolkata c) Noida d) Mumbai
33. The emissivity and absorptivity is equal for all black bodies at a given wavelength. It is
known as
a) Vant Hoff’s law b) Plank’s law
c) Kirchoff’s law d) Boyle’s law
34. The solar constant is the flux of solar radiation at the outer boundary of the earth’s
atmosphere received on a surface held___ to the sun’s direction at the mean distance
between the sun and earth
a) Angular b) Horizontal c) Perpendicular d) Parallel
35. The sum of direct solar radiation reaching to the earth and sky diffused radiation is
a) 25 % b) 45 % c) 60 % d) 99 %
36. Standard atmospheric pressure corresponds to the value of acceleration due to gravity as
a) 979.543 cm/sec2 b) 980.665 cm/sec2
c) 981.621 cm/sec2 d) 982.270 cm/sec2
37. In alluvial plains of Haryana with coarse textured soils & low rainfall, the annual rainfall is
a) 150-300 mm b) 300 –500 mm c) 500 – 600 mm d) 600 –900 mm
38. During monsoon rainy season, the moisture adequacy index in the northern and north-
eastern parts of the Haryana State is
a) 0.50 b) 1.00 c) 1.20 d) 1.50
39. The mass of water vapour contained in unit volume of air is called as
a) Relative humidity b) Specific humidity
c) Absolute humidity d) Specific density
40. Following is a type of high clouds
3
Sample Questions
a) Alto-cumulus b) Strato-cumulus
c) Cirro-cumulus d) Cumulo-nimbus
41. Which region in Haryana receives the highest average rainfall during the monsoon season
a) North-west b) North-east c) South-west d) South-east
42. The part of solar radiation which helps in photosynthesis is
a) X-rays b) Ultra-violet c) Visible d) Infra-red
43. Human hair is used as sensor in an instrument used for measuring the following weather
parameter
a) Precipitation b) Air Pressure c) Evaporation d) Humidity
44. Areas near the equator are also known as
a) Horse latitudes b) Sub-tropics c) Roaring latitudes d) Doldrum
45. On an average, the highest values of annual total solar radiation at the surface in the
northern hemisphere are obtained between the following latitudinal belts
a) 0-20 deg. N b) 20-40 deg. N c) 50-70 deg. N d) 70-90 deg. N
46. The value of solar constant (in calories/sq cm/min) is about
a) 0.2 b) 2.0 c) 0.5 d) 5.0
47. Cloudiness is measured in terms of
a) Pentads b) Octas c) Deciles d) Percentiles
48. The atmosphere is divided into different vertical layers based on the increase/decrease of
the following
a) Air temperature b) Air pressure c) Air humidity d) Air density
49. Density of air in the atmosphere decreases with height in the
a) Stratosphere b) Mesosphere c) Thermosphere d) All of these
50. The height of homosphere is
a) 40 km b) 80 km c) 400 km d) 60 km
Write ‘T’ for true or ‘F’ for false statements
51. The temperature increases with altitude in troposphere
52. The normal lapse rate of atmosphere in troposphere is 3.5oF/1000 feet
53. Relative humidity is affected by vapour pressure in the air
54. Instaneous state of atmosphere is defined as Climate
55. Height of troposphere is more at equator than poles.
56. Air density increases continuously with height in the atmosphere.
57. Wheat is a heat loving plant.
4
Sample Questions
58. Wind moves from low pressure to high pressure area.

59. The process of conversion of vapours into liquid is known as inversion.
60. Cumulonimbus clouds are rain bearing clouds.
61. Bajra is important crop of north-eastern region of Haryana.
62. Land breeze prevails during night in costal region.
63. Western disturbances give rainfall during winter season in northern India.
64. Rice can be successfully grown in arid region.
65. Radiation intensity decreases with increase in latitude.
66. Temperature increases as we move towards poles.
67. Hail storms in Haryana are most common during south west monsoon season.
68. Extreme climate are commonly found near sea.
69. In mountaneous region the orrographic rainfall is most common.
70. Cyclone is a high pressure system.
71. Extremes of elements like temperatures as well as others are treated under the head weather.
72. Relative humidity is in relation to actual and maximum water holding capacity of air at same
temperature.
73. Troposphere is highest at equator and lowest at either of the poles.
74. High clouds cause more rainfall than low clouds.
75. Moderate climates are found surrounded by water on all sides.
76. Damage caused by hailstorm, in Haryana, is most often before or at the time of harvest of rabi
crops.
77. Extremes of climate are found on a small island.
78. Density of atmosphere decreases as we ascend from the surface of the earth.
79. Moist air is lighter than dry air.
80. Wheat, gram and barley are kharif crops.
81. Wet bulb depression increase, shows decline in relative humidity.
82. The artificial simulation of precipitation can be caused by Silver Iodide spraying in the
atmosphere over cloud elements.
83. The presence of Ozone layer in the stratosphere is essential for well-beings of human and animal
life on the earth.
84. During the day time there is land breeze while during the night there is sea breeze.
85. Any process in which no heat is supplied to or withdrawn from is to be non-adiabatic.
86. The conversion of water vapour into the ice is called crystallization while the conversion of ice
into water vapour is called as sublimation.
5
Sample Questions
87. Any process in which an accumulation of water vapour molecules into the exceedingly small
droplets take place is called the condensation process.
88. Nimbostratus is a dense, shapeless and raged layer of low clouds from which precipitation does
not fall.
89. The amount of incoming solar radiation varies strongly with latitude and depends essentially
upon the altitude of sun.
90. The horizontal exchange of heat between the oceans and continents exerts a strong moderating
influence on the annual range of temperature.
Fill in the blanks with appropriate word:
91. Atmospheric pressure at mean sea level is ……………..
92. Isotherm is the line joining the places having ….. ……….temperature.
93. In southern hemisphere isotherms are more or less………….
94. Albedo of field crops varies between………… per cent.
95. The height of tropopause over poles is………… kilometers
96. About……… per cent solar radiation is confined between 0.15 and 4.0 μm.
97. An average height of mesosphere is …………… km
98. In mesosphere temperature…………… with height.
99. UV-radiations are absorbed by………………. gas layer present in stratosphere.
100. During day time in coastal region, prevails……………..breeze.
101. ………percent of total rainfall in Haryana is received by south-west monsoon.
102. Shimla is ….. …………than Delhi.
103. The process of conversion of vapours into liquid is called………..
104. Climate of sub mountaineous region of Haryana is …………
105. Albedo of coniferous forests lies between………. and ……….per cent.
106. Time period of medium range weather forecasting is …….in advance.
107. Increase in air temperature in atmosphere is called as …………
108. The solar radiation between 0.4 to 7.0 μm wavelength is called………..
109. Air pressure in atmosphere………… with increase in altitude.
110. Lower part of thermosphere is called as…………..
111. Pressure of air is measured in…. …..by India Meteorological Department.
112. Lapse rate of temperature in upper troposphere is ………...than in its lower portion.
113. About four fifths of weight of atmosphere is confined to height of ………..Km.
114. Mean sea level air pressure is normally…………..milibars.
6
Sample Questions
115. A wind speed of one KNOT is equal to …………. metre per second.
116. 50 degree celsius temperature equals to ………….degree Fahrenheit.
117. Germination and growth of wheat is restricted below……….…..temperature.
118. Length of plant cycle decreases with …………….in altitude.
119. Light is essential for absorption of CO2 and …………….in plants.
120. Specific day length requires by plants to produce flowers is called …………
121. The mean vertical variations in atmospheric pressure is about ……………
122. Knots is the unit of …………….
123. Winds which blow constantly throughout the year in a particular direction from high pressure to
low pressure area are called as ……………..
124. The angular distance of a place from the equator is called as …………….
125. In some parts of the troposphere there is a shallow layer in which the temperature increases with
height. Such a layer is called as …………..
126. The ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of moist air is called as …………….
127. The surface wind usually varies rapidly and continuously, and the variations are irregular both in
period and time. This property of the wind is referred to as the ……………….
128. The total amount of water lost due to evapotranspiration and that used by the plant for its
metabolic activities is called…………….
129. Haryana state is divided into …………….agro climatic zones.
130. When an air mass moves over a warmer surface it absorbs heat from below and becomes unstable
resulting in……………….
131. A wind speed of one Knot is equal to ……………km per hour.
132. Milibar (mb) is a unit of ……………..
133. 45 degree Celsius is equal to ……………. degree F.
134. Boiling point of water in Kelvin (absolute) scales is ….. ……. K.
135. Precipitation is measured in ………………
136. Specific heat of pure water is ……………..
137. Valley winds are also known as………….winds.
138. Alto-cumulus is a type of ……………...height clouds.
139. Diameter of US Class A Open Pan Evaporimeter is ……………….
140. Trade winds blow from ………to …….. in the southern hemisphere.
7
Sample Questions
KEY TO ANSWERS
Que Ans Que Ans Que Ans Que Ans Que Ans
1 b 31. d 61. False 91. 1013 mb 121. 1 cm/100 meter
2 b 32. c 62. True 92. Equal 122. Wind
3 a 33. c 63. True 93. Parallel 123. Permanent wind
4 b 34. c 64. False 94. 15 and 25 124. Latitude
5 a 35. b 65. False 95. About 8 km 125. Inversion layer
6 a 36. b 66. False 96. 99 126. Specific humidity
7 d 37. b 67. False 97. 80 127. Local
8 b 38. b 68. False 98. Decreases 128. Consumptive use
9 b 39. c 69. True 99. Ozone 129. Two
10. c 40. c 70. False 100. Sea 130. Precipitation
11. a 41. b 71. True 101. 80 131. 1.854
12. b 42. c 72. True 102. Colder 132. Pressure
13. d 43. d 73. True 103. Condensation 133. 113
14. c 44. d 74. False 104. Dry sub-humid 134. 373
15. a 45. a 75. True 105. 10 and 15 135. mm
16. b 46. b 76. False 106. 3-10 days 136. 1 cal/gm
17. b 47. b 77. False 107. Inversion 137. Anabatic
18. a 48. a 78. True 108. Visible radiations 138. Medium
19. b 49. d 79. True 109. Decrease 139. 122 cm
20. c 50. d 80. False 110. Ionosphere 140. SE to NW
21. c 51. False 81. True 111. Millibar
22. d 52. True 82. True 112. Greater
23. b 53. True 83. True 113. 18
24. b 54. False 84. False 114. 1013
25. a 55 True 85. False 115. 0.5148
26. d 56. False 86. True 116. 122
27. b 57. False 87. True 117. 5oC
28. a 58. False 88. False 118. Increase
29. a 59. False 89. True 119. Photosynthesis
30. a 60. True 90. True 120. Threshold photoperiod
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A Text Book on Agricultural Meteorology

Book · December 2006

Ram Newas Surender Singh

Diwan Singh Raj Singh

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Chapter # Subject Page #

The authors wish to acknowledge the financial assistance received from

1. AIM, COMPONENTS AND SCOPE OF AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY

12. Economic value of agro-meteorological information and advice - Services used in

2. THE ATMOSPHERE AND SOLAR RADIATION

Nitrogen oxide, a product of combustion dissociates by the action of solar radiation

1. Homosphere: The gaseous proportion of the atmosphere remains fairly constant in

• It is also called convective region, and convective activities ceases at tropopause.

56×1026 cal min-1

56×1026 cal min-1

= 1.98 cal cm-2 min-1

Table 3. Mean albedo of various surfaces

a & b = Constants (a=0.32 & b=0.46 for Hisar),

Radiation and heat budget

RA = 100 units r = 34 percent = 0.34

Solar radiation absorbed by earth : 47 per cent

Factors affecting insolation or radiation distribution over earth surface

Figure 2.8. Solar Solstices and Equinoxes

3. Sub-polar low pressure belt

3. Land and water surface

2.Temperate cyclone: This type of cyclone originates in temperate or cold regions.

Forces acting on wind

Gradient wind in anticyclone:

5 Fresh breeze 20 Large branches in movement and pond water

1. Permanent circulation: It includes the planetary/permanent wind system, where,

6. HUMIDITY AND EVAPORATION

p (H2O)= Partial pressure due to water vapour

PET = 0.8×4.11 = 3.3 mm/day

9. Plant spacing: Wider row spacing decreases the rate of evapotranspiration.

7. CONDENSATION AND PRECIPITATION

Figure 7.2. Orographic Precipitation

Figure 7.3. Cyclonic or Frontal Precipitation

precipitation ranged between 80 to 120 cm.

8. CLOUDS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

High Clouds Medium Clouds Low Clouds

Cirrus Altocumulus Stratus

Cirrostratus Cirrostratus with halo

Figure 9.1. World Monsoon Regions

Figure 9.2. Monsoon wind pattern in Southeast Asia

Figure 9.3. Branches of Southwest Monsoon over India

Figure 9.4. Normal dates of onset and withdrawal of SW Monsoon

S.No Predictor (Period) Used for the forecasts in

10. WEATHER FORECASTING FOR AGRICULTURE

Heavy rainfall 24 hours

Thunder storms 24 hours

Temperature and rainfall departure from normal 3 months

I. Short range weather forecast

Table 2. Comparison of 8 parameters and 10 parameters Power Regression Model

8 Parameters Power regression 10 Parameters Power regression

11. CLIMATE AND CROP PRODUCTION

Figure 11 a: Annual rainfall climatology over India

Figure 11 b: Pre Monsoon rainfall climatology over India