‫هَّٰلل‬

hammad ibn Abdullah[n 1] (Arabic:  ‫مُحَ مَّد ٱبن عَ بْد ٱ‬, romanized: Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh, Classical Arabic
pronunciation: [muˈħammad]; c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE)[1][2] was an Arab religious, social, and political
leader and the founder of the world religion of Islam.[3] According to Islamic doctrine, he was
a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings
of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.[3][4][5][6] He is believed to be the Seal of the
Prophets within Islam.[n 2] Muhammad united Arabia into a single Muslim polity, with the Quran as well
as his teachings and practices forming the basis of Islamic religious belief.
Muhammad was born approximately 570 CE in Mecca.[1] He was the son of Abdullah ibn Abd al-
Muttalib and Amina bint Wahb. His father Abdullah was the son of Quraysh tribal leader Abd al-
Muttalib ibn Hashim, and he died a few months before Muhammad's birth. His mother Amina died
when he was six, leaving Muhammad an orphan.[7] He was raised under the care of his grandfather,
Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal uncle, Abu Talib.[8] In later years, he would periodically seclude himself
in a mountain cave named Hira for several nights of prayer. When he was 40, Muhammad reported
being visited by Gabriel in the cave[1][9] and receiving his first revelation from God. In 613,
[10]
 Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly,[11] proclaiming that "God is One", that
complete "submission" (islām) to God[12] is the right way of life (dīn),[13] and that he was a prophet and
messenger of God, similar to the other prophets in Islam.[14][15][16]
Muhammad's followers were initially few in number, and experienced hostility from Meccan
polytheists for 13 years. To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his
followers to Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina (then
known as Yathrib) later in 622. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar,
also known as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of
Medina. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad
gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca. The conquest went
largely uncontested and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed. In 632, a few months after
returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill and died. By the time of his death, most of
the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.[17][18]
The revelations (each known as Ayah – literally, "Sign [of God]") that Muhammad reported receiving
until his death form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the verbatim "Word of God" on
which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammad's teachings and practices (sunnah),
found in the Hadith and sira (biography) literature, are also upheld and used as sources of Islamic
law (see Sharia).
d ordered a number of raids to capture Meccan caravans, but only the 8th of them, the Raid of
Nakhla, resulted in actual fighting and capture of booty and prisoners. [126] In March 624, Muhammad
led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an
ambush for the caravan at Badr.[127] Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims. A
Meccan force was sent to protect the caravan and went on to confront the Muslims upon receiving
word that the caravan was safe. The Battle of Badr commenced.[128] Though outnumbered more than
three to one, the Muslims won the battle, killing at least forty-five Meccans with fourteen Muslims
dead. They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including Abu Jahl.[129] Seventy prisoners
had been acquired, many of whom were ransomed. [130][131][132] Muhammad and his followers saw the
victory as confirmation of their faith[16] and Muhammad ascribed the victory to the assistance of an
invisible host of angels. The Quranic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan verses, dealt with
practical problems of government and issues like the distribution of spoils. [133]
The victory strengthened Muhammad's position in Medina and dispelled earlier doubts among his
followers.[134] As a result, the opposition to him became less vocal. Pagans who had not yet converted
were very bitter about the advance of Islam. Two pagans, Asma bint Marwan of the Aws Manat tribe
and Abu 'Afak of the 'Amr b. 'Awf tribe, had composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims.
[135]
 They were killed by people belonging to their own or related clans, and Muhammad did not
disapprove of the killings.[135] This report, however, is considered by some to be a fabrication. [136] Most
members of those tribes converted to Islam, and little pagan opposition remained. [137]
Muhammad expelled from Medina the Banu Qaynuqa, one of three main Jewish tribes,[16] but some
historians contend that the expulsion happened after Muhammad's death. [138] According to al-Waqidi,
after Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy spoke for them, Muhammad refrained from executing them and
commanded that they be exiled from Medina. [139] Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad also made
mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the
northern part of Hejaz.[16]
Conflict with Mecca
Main article: Battle of Uhud

"The Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim Army at the Battle of Uhud", from a 1595 edition of the Mamluk-
Turkic Siyer-i Nebi

The Meccans were eager to avenge their defeat. To maintain economic prosperity, the Meccans
needed to restore their prestige, which had been reduced at Badr. [140] In the ensuing months, the
Meccans sent ambush parties to Medina while Muhammad led expeditions against tribes allied with
Mecca and sent raiders onto a Meccan caravan.[141] Abu Sufyan gathered an army of 3000 men and
set out for an attack on Medina.[142]
A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a day later. The next
morning, at the Muslim conference of war, a dispute arose over how best to repel the Meccans.
Muhammad and many senior figures suggested it would be safer to fight within Medina and take
advantage of the heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were
destroying crops, and huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad
eventually conceded to the younger Muslims and readied the Muslim force for battle. Muhammad led
his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (the location of the Meccan camp) and fought the Battle of
Uhud on 23 March 625.[143][144] Although the Muslim army had the advantage in early encounters, lack
of discipline on the part of strategically placed archers led to a Muslim defeat; 75 Muslims were
killed, including Hamza, Muhammad's uncle who became one of the best known martyrs in the
Muslim tradition. The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims; instead, they marched back to Mecca
declaring victory. The announcement is probably because Muhammad was wounded and thought
dead. When they discovered that Muhammad lived, the Meccans did not return due to false
information about new forces coming to his aid. The attack had failed to achieve their aim of
completely destroying the Muslims. [145][146] The Muslims buried the dead and returned to Medina that
evening. Questions accumulated about the reasons for the loss; Muhammad delivered Quranic
verses 3:152 indicating that the defeat was twofold: partly a punishment for disobedience, partly a
test for steadfastness.[147]
Abu Sufyan directed his effort towards another attack on Medina. He gained support from the
nomadic tribes to the north and east of Medina; using propaganda about Muhammad's weakness,
promises of booty, memories of Quraysh prestige and through bribery. [148] Muhammad's new policy
was to prevent alliances against him. Whenever alliances against Medina were formed, he sent out
expeditions to break them up.[148] Muhammad heard of men massing with hostile intentions against
Medina, and reacted in a severe manner.[149] One example is the assassination of Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf,
a chieftain of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir. Al-Ashraf went to Mecca and wrote poems that roused
the Meccans' grief, anger and desire for revenge after the Battle of Badr. [150][151] Around a year later,
Muhammad expelled the Banu Nadir from Medina [152] forcing their emigration to Syria; he allowed
them to take some possessions, as he was unable to subdue the Banu Nadir in their strongholds.
The rest of their property was claimed by Muhammad in the name of God as it was not gained with
bloodshed. Muhammad surprised various Arab tribes, individually, with overwhelming force, causing
his enemies to unite to annihilate him. Muhammad's attempts to prevent a confederation against him
were unsuccessful, though he was able to increase his own forces and stopped many potential
tribes from joining his enemies.[153]
Battle of the Trench
Main article: Battle of the Trench

The Masjid al-Qiblatayn, where Muhammad established the new Qibla, or direction of prayer

With the help of the exiled Banu Nadir, the Quraysh military leader Abu Sufyan mustered a force of
10,000 men. Muhammad prepared a force of about 3,000 men and adopted a form of defense
unknown in Arabia at that time; the Muslims dug a trench wherever Medina lay open to cavalry
attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, Salman the Persian. The siege of Medina
began on 31 March 627 and lasted two weeks.[154] Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the
fortifications, and after an ineffectual siege, the coalition decided to return home. [155] The Quran
discusses this battle in sura Al-Ahzab, in verses 33:9–27.[94] During the battle, the Jewish tribe
of Banu Qurayza, located to the south of Medina, entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to
revolt against Muhammad. Although the Meccan forces were swayed by suggestions that
Muhammad was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was
unable to destroy him. No agreement was reached after prolonged negotiations, partly due to
sabotage attempts by Muhammad's scouts.[156] After the coalition's retreat, the Muslims accused the
Banu Qurayza of treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza
eventually surrendered; according to Ibn Ishaq, all the men apart from a few converts to Islam were
beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved. [157][158] Walid N. Arafat and Barakat
Ahmad have disputed the accuracy of Ibn Ishaq's narrative. [159] Arafat believes that Ibn Ishaq's Jewish
sources, speaking over 100 years after the event, conflated this account with memories of earlier
massacres in Jewish history; he notes that Ibn Ishaq was considered an unreliable historian by his
contemporary Malik ibn Anas, and a transmitter of "odd tales" by the later Ibn Hajar.[160] Ahmad
argues that only some of the tribe were killed, while some of the fighters were merely enslaved. [161]
[162]
 Watt finds Arafat's arguments "not entirely convincing", while Meir J. Kister has contradicted[clarification
needed]
 the arguments of Arafat and Ahmad.[163]
In the siege of Medina, the Meccans exerted the available strength to destroy the Muslim
community. The failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria vanished.
[164]
 Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad made two expeditions to the north, both ended
without any fighting.[16] While returning from one of these journeys (or some years earlier according to
other early accounts), an accusation of adultery was made against Aisha, Muhammad's wife. Aisha
was exonerated from accusations when Muhammad announced he had received a revelation
confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four
eyewitnesses (sura 24, An-Nur).[165]
Truce of Hudaybiyyah
Main article: Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
"In your name, O God!
This is the treaty of peace between Muhammad Ibn Abdullah and Suhayl Ibn Amr. They have agreed to allow their arms to rest
for ten years. During this time each party shall be secure, and neither shall injure the other; no secret damage shall be inflicted,
but honesty and honour shall prevail between them. Whoever in Arabia wishes to enter into a treaty or covenant with Muhammad
can do so, and whoever wishes to enter into a treaty or covenant with the Quraysh can do so. And if a Qurayshite comes without
the permission of his guardian to Muhammad, he shall be delivered up to the Quraysh; but if, on the other hand, one of
Muhammad's people comes to the Quraysh, he shall not be delivered up to Muhammad. This year, Muhammad, with his
companions, must withdraw from Mecca, but next year, he may come to Mecca and remain for three days, yet without their
weapons except those of a traveller; the swords remaining in their sheaths."
—The statement of the treaty of Hudaybiyyah[166]

Although Muhammad had delivered Quranic verses commanding the Hajj,[167] the Muslims had not
performed it due to Quraysh enmity. In the month of Shawwal 628, Muhammad ordered his followers
to obtain sacrificial animals and to prepare for a pilgrimage (umrah) to Mecca, saying that God had
promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision when he was shaving his head after completion of
the Hajj.[168] Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh dispatched 200 cavalry to
halt them. Muhammad evaded them by taking a more difficult route, enabling his followers to reach
al-Hudaybiyya just outside Mecca.[169] According to Watt, although Muhammad's decision to make the
pilgrimage was based on his dream, he was also demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam did
not threaten the prestige of the sanctuaries, that Islam was an Arabian religion. [169]

The Kaaba in Mecca long held a major economic and religious role for the area. Seventeen months after
Muhammad's arrival in Medina, it became the Muslim Qibla, or direction for prayer (salat). The Kaaba has been
rebuilt several times; the present structure, built in 1629, is a reconstruction of an earlier building dating to 683.
[170]

Negotiations commenced with emissaries traveling to and from Mecca. While these continued,
rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, Uthman bin al-Affan, had been killed by the
Quraysh. Muhammad called upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with
Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This
pledge became known as the "Pledge of Acceptance" or the "Pledge under the Tree". News of
Uthman's safety allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled to last ten years was
eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh.[169][171] The main points of the treaty included:
cessation of hostilities, the deferral of Muhammad's pilgrimage to the following year, and agreement
to send back any Meccan who emigrated to Medina without permission from their protector. [169]
Many Muslims were not satisfied with the treaty. However, the Quranic sura "Al-Fath" (The Victory)
(Quran Quran 48:1–29) assured them that the expedition must be considered a victorious one. [172] It
was later that Muhammad's followers realized the benefit behind the treaty. These benefits included
the requirement of the Meccans to identify Muhammad as an equal, cessation of military activity
allowing Medina to gain strength, and the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the
pilgrimage rituals.[16]
After signing the truce, Muhammad assembled an expedition against the Jewish oasis of Khaybar,
known as the Battle of Khaybar. This was possibly due to housing the Banu Nadir who were inciting
hostilities against Muhammad, or to regain prestige from what appeared as the inconclusive result of
the truce of Hudaybiyya.[142][173] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad also sent letters to many
rulers, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date is given variously in the sources). [16][174][175] He
sent messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman
Empire), Khosrau of Persia, the chief of Yemen and to some others.[174][175] In the years following the
truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad directed his forces against the Arabs on Transjordanian Byzantine
soil in the Battle of Mu'tah.[176]

Final years
Conquest of Mecca
Main articles: Conquest of Mecca and Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca

A depiction of Muhammad (with veiled face) advancing on Mecca from Siyer-i Nebi, a 16th-
century Ottoman manuscript. The angels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and Azrail, are also shown.

The truce of Hudaybiyyah was enforced for two years.[177][178] The tribe of Banu Khuza'a had good
relations with Muhammad, whereas their enemies, the Banu Bakr, had allied with the Meccans.[177]
[178]
 A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuza'a, killing a few of them. [177][178] The Meccans
helped the Banu Bakr with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part
in the fighting.[177] After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking
them to accept one of them. These were: either the Meccans would pay blood money for the slain
among the Khuza'ah tribe, they disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr, or they should declare the
truce of Hudaybiyyah null.[179]
The Meccans replied that they accepted the last condition. [179] Soon they realized their mistake and
sent Abu Sufyan to renew the Hudaybiyyah treaty, a request that was declined by Muhammad.
Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign.[180] In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with 10,000
Muslim converts. With minimal casualties, Muhammad seized control of Mecca. [181] He declared an
amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women who were "guilty of murder or other
offences or had sparked off the war and disrupted the peace". [182] Some of these were later pardoned.
[183]
 Most Meccans converted to Islam and Muhammad proceeded to destroy all the statues
of Arabian gods in and around the Kaaba.[184][185] According to reports collected by Ibn Ishaq and al-
Azraqi, Muhammad personally spared paintings or frescos of Mary and Jesus, but other traditions
suggest that all pictures were erased.[186] The Quran discusses the conquest of Mecca.[94][187]
Conquest of Arabia
Main articles: Battle of Hunayn and Expedition to Tabouk

Conquests of Muhammad (green lines) and the Rashidun caliphs (black lines). Shown: Byzantine empire
(North and West) & Sassanid-Persian empire (Northeast).

Following the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was alarmed by a military threat from the confederate
tribes of Hawazin who were raising an army double the size of Muhammad's. The Banu
Hawazin were old enemies of the Meccans. They were joined by the Banu Thaqif (inhabiting the city
of Ta'if) who adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of the prestige of Meccans.
[188]
 Muhammad defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in the Battle of Hunayn.[16]
In the same year, Muhammad organized an attack against northern Arabia because of their previous
defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah and reports of hostility adopted against Muslims. With great difficulty he
assembled 30,000 men; half of whom on the second day returned with Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy,
untroubled by the damning verses which Muhammad hurled at them. Although Muhammad did not
engage with hostile forces at Tabuk, he received the submission of some local chiefs of the region. [16]
[189]

He also ordered the destruction of any remaining pagan idols in Eastern Arabia. The last city to hold
out against the Muslims in Western Arabia was Taif. Muhammad refused to accept the city's
surrender until they agreed to convert to Islam and allowed men to destroy the statue of their
goddess Al-Lat.[126][190][191]
A year after the Battle of Tabuk, the Banu Thaqif sent emissaries to surrender to Muhammad and
adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to Muhammad to safeguard against his attacks and to benefit
from the spoils of war.[16] However, the bedouins were alien to the system of Islam and wanted to
maintain independence: namely their code of virtue and ancestral traditions. Muhammad required a
military and political agreement according to which they "acknowledge the suzerainty of Medina, to
refrain from attack on the Muslims and their allies, and to pay the Zakat, the Muslim religious
levy."[192]
Farewell pilgrimage
Main article: Farewell Pilgrimage
See also: The event of Ghadir Khumm
Anonymous illustration of al-Bīrūnī's The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries, depicting Muhammad prohibiting
Nasī’ during the Farewell Pilgrimage, 17th-century Ottoman copy of a 14th-century (Ilkhanate) manuscript
(Edinburgh codex).

In 632, at the end of the tenth year after migration to Medina, Muhammad completed his first true
Islamic pilgrimage, setting precedent for the annual Great Pilgrimage, known as Hajj.[16] On the 9th
of Dhu al-Hijjah Muhammad delivered his Farewell Sermon, at Mount Arafat east of Mecca. In this
sermon, Muhammad advised his followers not to follow certain pre-Islamic customs. For instance, he
said a white has no superiority over a black, nor a black any superiority over a white except by piety
and good action.[193] He abolished old blood feuds and disputes based on the former tribal system
and asked for old pledges to be returned as implications of the creation of the new Islamic
community. Commenting on the vulnerability of women in his society, Muhammad asked his male
followers to "be good to women, for they are powerless captives (awan) in your households. You
took them in God's trust, and legitimated your sexual relations with the Word of God, so come to
your senses people, and hear my words ..." He told them that they were entitled to discipline their
wives but should do so with kindness. He addressed the issue of inheritance by forbidding false
claims of paternity or of a client relationship to the deceased and forbade his followers to leave their
wealth to a testamentary heir. He also upheld the sacredness of four lunar months in each year. [194]
[195]
 According to Sunni tafsir, the following Quranic verse was delivered during this event: "Today I
have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a