Ar

ea:ENGLI
SH

Focus:I
ntr
oduct
iont
oLi
ngui
sti
cs

Compet
enci
es:

1. demonst r
atef amili
ari
tywi ththetheori
esoflanguage
and language l earning and t heirinfl
uence on l
anguage
teaching
2. revi
sitt heknowledgeofl i
nguistictheori
esandconceptsand
applyitt otheteachingofcommuni cat
ionski
ll
s–list
ening,
speaking, r
eading,writi
ng,andgr ammar
3. show under standi
ngofhow l anguager ulesar
eusedinr eal
conver sati
ons

A.Li
ngui
sti
csandEngl
ishLanguageTeachi
ng

Teachers’knowledgeont hewor ki
ngsofl anguageandl anguage
teachingar eessenti
all
yi nt
ert
winedwi theachot her.Theteachers’
compet enceonhowal anguagebehaveswi l
lcertai
nlyhelpteacher
s
explaintothestudentshowt helanguagewor ks,
aswel lasantici
pat
e
andr espondappropriat
elytopossibl
elearni
ngdiff
icul
ties.

1.Knowl edgeofl i
nguisti
cs,specifical l
yphonol ogy ,maybeusef ul
forexpl aini
ngi nt
er f
erencepr oblemst hatmaybeexper i
enced
byEngl i
shlanguagel earnerswi t
ht heEngl i
shsoundsy stem.To
i
llustrate,intheabsenceoft hef ollowingsoundssuchas/ f/
and/ v/inPhi l
ippinelanguages,excepti nI vatanand I banag,
Fili
pino Engl i
sh learners arel i
kel yt o use / p/and / v/as
subst i
tutesounds,e. g.,/ pæn/f or/ f
æn/‘f an’and/ bæn/f or
/væn/‘ van’
.Languaget eachersar eadv i
sedt or emembert hat
eachl anguagehasi tsowni nvent oryofphonemest hatmay
diff
erf r
om t hatofanot herlanguage.Suchdi ffer
encesmay
resultinusi ngsoundst hatonl yappr oximatet het ar
getsounds,
asshowni ntheaforecitedexampl es.

2.Languaget eachersneedt or ealizet hatgrammat i

caluni tssuch
as mor phemes,wor ds,phr ases and cl auses behav e quit
e
di
fferentlyacrossl anguages.Forexampl e,plural
ity,andt ense
i
nEngl ishar eexpressedt hroughi nflecti
onsasi s{-s/-es}and{ -
ed}.Howev er,Tagalogplurali
tyisexpr essedassepar at ewords
asinmgabat a‘chil
dren’
.Lingui sticall
yspeaki ng,Tagal ogv er
bs
have no t ense,onl y aspect s – per fecti
v e“ kumai n’and
i
mper fective‘ kumakain’,whi ch may expl aint he Fi l
i
pinos’
probl
emsi ndeal i
ngwi t
hEngl isht enses.

3.Helpi
ngst udentstodiscov erthemeaningofwor dsbyparsing
them into smal lpar t
s depends heav i
ly on t he teacher’
s
knowledge of mor phology or wor d for
mat ion rules. To
exemplif
y,studentsmaypar seorsegmentthef oll
owingwor ds,
taki
ng not e of t he mor pheme { -
ment}t hat r ecurs in
embarrassment ,
government ,
disi
l
lusi
onment,enhancement .As
 studentsdiscoverthemeaningof{ -
ment }as‘st
ateorcondi ti
on’,
theymaybeabl etogi v
ethemeani ngoft hecitedexampl esas:
‘
stateofbei ngembarrassed’
,‘
st ateofgov erni
ng’,
‘st
ateofbei ng
disi
ll
usioned’,and‘stat
eofenhanci ng’
.Hence,t hepr ocessof
wordf ormat onsuchasder
i ivationmayhel plearner
si nterpr
et
andr emembermeani ngofwor dst hatfoll
owcer t
ainpatternsin
formingshor twordsintol
ongerwor ds.

4.Teacher s’knowledgeaboutl ar
geruni t
sofl anguageuse–
discourse structur
e – may be r elevant when t eaching
exchangesorconv ersati
ons.Theuseofl anguagef orsoci al
functi
onssuchasaski ngpermissioni nvolvesf amil
iari
tywi t
h
modal sthatexpressformali
tyandahi gherdegr eeofpol i
teness
whenspeaki ngwi t
hsomeonewhoi sol der ,whooccupi esa
higherpositi
on,ori sanaut hori
tyt hant hespeaker .Int hi
s
contextappropriacyhast obeobser vedi nsel ecti
ngmodal s.
Forexampl e,iti
sappr opr
iat
et ousemay ,notcanwhenaski ng
permissionfrom someonewhoi sol der,higherinpositi
ont han
thespeaker.e.g.MayIuset heoffi
cecomput er?

B.Vi
ewsaboutLanguage

1. Thest r
ucturali
stsbeli
evet hatlanguagecanbedescr i
bed
i
nt ermsofobser vableandv erif
iabledataasi tisbeing
used.They al so descri
be l anguage i nt erms of i t
s
str
uctureandaccor dingtot her egular
it
iesandpat t
ernsor
rul
es inl anguage st r
ucture.To t hem,l anguage isa
system ofspeech sounds,ar bitr
ari
lyassigned tot he
object
s,states,andconcept st owhi chtheyrefer
,usedfor
humancommuni cati
on.

 Language i s pr i
mar il
y vocal.Language i s speech,
pri
mar i
lymadeupofv ocalsoundspr oducedbyt he
speech appar atusi nt he human body .The pr imary
medi um ofl anguagei sspeech;t hewr i
ttenr ecordis
but a secondar yr epresentat
ion of t he l anguage.
Writ
ing is onl yt he gr aphi
cr epr esentati
on oft he
soundsoft hel anguage.Whi lemostl anguageshav e
wri
tingsy stems,anumberofl anguagescont i
nuet o
exi
st,event oday ,i
nt hespokenf orm only ,wi
thoutany
wri
ttenf orm.Li nguistsclaimt hatspeechi spr i
mar y
,
wri
ting secondar y
.Ther ef
ore,i ti s assumed t hat
speechhasapr iori
tyinlanguaget eaching.

 Languageisasy stem ofsystems.Languagei snota

di
sorgani
zed ora chaot i
c combi nation ofsounds.
Soundsar ear r
angedi ncertainfixedorest abl
ished,
syst
ematicor dert ofor
m meani ngfulunit
sorwor ds.
Forexample,nowor di
nEngli
shst artswihbz-
t ,lr
-orzl-
combinat
ion,butt herearethoset hatbeginwi hspr
t -
andstr-(
asinspr ingandstr
ing).Inlikemanner,wor ds
arealsoarrangedi napar t
icularsy st
em togener ate
 acceptablemeaningfulsent
ences.Thesent ence“ Shen
boughtanew nov el
”isacceptabl
ebutt hegr oupof
wor ds “
Shen boughtnew nov ela”i sunaccept able,
si
nce t he word or der of the latt
er v i
olat
es t he
establi
shed conv enti
on in English grammar ,t he
Subject-
Verb-
ObjectorS-V-Owor dorder.

Languagei sasy stem ofst r

uctur
allyrel
atedelement s
or‘buildi
ngbl ocks’f ortheencodi ngofmeani ng,the
element s being phonemes ( sounds), mor phemes
(words),tagmemes( phrasesandsent ences/clauses)
.
Languagel earni
ng, itisassumed,entail
smast eringthe
element s orbui lding blocks oft he language and
l
earning t he rules by whi ch these element s are
combi ned,from phonemet o morphemet o wordt o
phraset osentence.

 Languagei sar bitr

ary.Ther eisno i nherentr el
ation
betweent hewor dsofal anguageandt hei
rmeani ngs
orthei deasconv eyedbyt hem.Putanot herway ,ther e
i
s no one t o one cor respondence bet ween t he
str
uct ureofawor dandt het hingitstandsf or.Therei s
no‘ sacred’reasonwhyanani malthatf li
esi scal l
ed
i
bon i n Fi l
i
pino,paj aroi n Spani sh,bi rdi n English.
Selectionoft hesewor dsi nt helanguagesment i
oned
herei s purely an acci dentofhi storyt hatnat ive
speaker soft hel anguageshav eagr eedon.Thr ough
they ear sreferencet osuchani malhasbecomean
establishedconv ent i
onthatcannotbeeasi l
ychanged.

Thatlanguageisarbit
rarymeanst hatt
her elat
ionshi
p
between the wordsand t he ‘
thi
ngs’theydenot eis
merelyconventi
onal,i
.e.nati
vespeaker
sofEngl i
sh,i
n
somesense,agr eedtouset hesounds/kæt/‘ cat’i
n
Engli
shbecausenat i
vespeakersofEnglish‘want’itt
o
be.

 Languageisameansofcommuni cati
on.Languageis
an important means of communi cat
ing between
humansoft heiri
deas,beli
efs,orfeeli
ngs.Language
gi
vesshapet opeople’
st houghts,aswel lasguides
andcontr
olst hei
ract
ivi
ty.

2. The t ransf
ormat
ionali
sts/ cogni
ti
vi
sts bel
i
eve t hat
l
anguagei sasy stem ofknowledgemademani f
esti n
l
inguisti
cf or
msbuti nnat
eand,init
smostabstr
actform,
univ
er sal.

 Language i
sinnat
e.The presence oft
he l
anguage
acqui
sit
ion devi
ce (LAD) i n the human br ain
predi
sposesal
lnormalchi
ldrentoacqui
rethei
rfirst
 l
anguageinanamazi
ngl
yshor
tti
me,ar
oundf
ivey
ear
s
si
ncebir
th.

 Languagei screat
ive.Itenabl
esnati
vespeakersto
produce and underst
and sent
ences t
hey hav
e not
heardnorusedbefore.

 Language is a ment
al phenomenon. I
tis not
mechanical
.

 Languagei suniversal.I
tisuni v er
salinthesenset hat
allnormalchi l
drent hewor ldov eracquireamot her
tonguebuti tisalsouni versali nthesenset hat,ata
highlyabstractlevel,alllanguages mustshar e key
featur
esofhumanl anguages,suchasal llanguages
have sounds;al ll anguages hav er ul
es t hatf orm
soundsi ntowor ds,wor dsi ntophr asesandcl auses;
and alll anguages hav et r ansformati
on r ules that
enablespeaker stoaskquest ions,negatesent ences,
i
ssueor ders,def
ocust hedoeroft heaction,etc.

2. The functi
onali
stsbeliev
et hatlanguage i
sa dy namic
system thr
oughwhi chmember sofspeechcommuni t
y
exchangeinformati
on.Iti
sav ehi
clefortheexpr
essionof
functi
onalmeaningsuchasexpr essi
ngone’semot ions,
persuadi
ngpeopl e,
askingandgivingi
nformati
on,making
peopledothingsforother
s.

Thisv i
ew ofl anguage emphasizes the meani ng and
funct
ionsrathert hanthegrammat icalcharacter
ist
icsof
l
anguage,and l eads toal anguage t eaching cont
ent
consi
sting of cat egor
ies of meani ng/noti
ons and
funct
ions rather than of el
ement s of st r
ucture and
grammar .

3. Thei nteractionistsbelievet hatlanguagei sav ehicl

efor
establishing interpersonalr elat
ionsand f orperforming
socialt ransactionsbet weeni ndivi
dual
s.I tisat oolfor
creating and mai ntaining soci al relat
ions through
conv ersations.Languaget eachi
ngcont ent
,accordingto
thi
sv i
ew,maybespeci fiedandor gani
zedbypat ternsof
exchangeandi nteracti
on.

B. Acqui
sit
ionofLanguage

1. Behav i
oristlear
ningtheory.Der
ivedfrom agener
altheor
y
oflearning,thebehavior
istviewstatesthatthel
anguage
behav i
oroft heindi
vi
dualiscondi t
ionedbysequencesof
di
fferentialr
ewardsinhis/herenvir
onment.

I
tregar
ds l
anguage l
earni
ng as a behavi
orlike ot
her
f
ormsofhuman behav i
or,nota ment alphenomenon,
 l
ear nedbyapr ocessofhabi tfor
mat i
on.Sincelanguagei s
viewed asmechani sti
cand asa human act i
vi
ty,iti s
beli
ev edthatlearni
ngal anguagei sachievedbybui lding
up habi t
s on t he basis ofst i
mulus-r
esponse chai ns.
Behav ior
ism emphasi zes t he consequences of t he
responseandar guesthatitisthebehaviorthatfoll
owsa
responsewhi chr ei
nfor
cesitandt hushelpstost r
engt hen
theassoci at
ion.

Accor
ding t
o Litt
lewood (1984),t
he pr
ocess ofhabi
t
for
mationi
ncludesthefol
l
owi ng:

a.Thechildi mit
atest hesoundsandpat ter
nswhi chs/he
hearsaroundher /him.
b.Peoplerecognizet hechil
d’sat t
empt sasbei ngsi mil
ar
totheadul tmodel sandreinforce(r eward)thesounds
byapprov alorsomeot herdesirabler eacti
on.
c.I
nor dert oobt ai
nmor eoft heser ewards,t hechi l
d
repeatsthesoundsandpat ternssot hatthesebecome
habit
s.
d.I
nt hiswayt hechi l
d’sverbalbehav i
oriscondi ti
oned
(‘
shaped’)unt i
lt he habit
s coi ncide wi tht he adult
models.

Thebehav i
oristsclai
mt hatthet hreecruci
alelementsof
l
earningare:ast imulus,whichser vestoelicitbehavi
or;a
responsetriggeredbyt hest i
mul us,andr einfor
cement,
whichservest omar kt heresponseasbei ngappr opri
ate
(orinappropriate)and encour ages the r epeti
ti
on (or
suppressi
on)oft heresponse.

2. Cogni t
ive Lear ning Theor y. Chomsky ar gues t hat
l
anguagei snotacqui redbychi ldrenbysheeri mitation
andt hroughaf orm ofcondi t
ioni
ngonr ei
nfor
cementand
reward.Hebel i
ev est hatallnormalhumanbei ngshav ean
i
nbor n bi ological i nternal mechani sm t hat makes
l
anguagel earningpossi ble.Cogniti
vist
s/innati
stscl aim
thatthechi l
di sbor nwi than‘ i
nit
ial
’state’
aboutlanguage
whichpr edisposeshi m/ hertoacqui r
eagr ammaroft hat
l
anguage.Theymai ntaint hatthel anguageacqui si
tion
device (LAD)i s whatt he child bri
ngs tot he task of
l
anguage acqui sition,gi vi
ng him/heran act iv
er olei n
l
anguagel ear ni
ng.

Oneimpor t
antfeat
ureofthement ali
staccountofsecond
l
anguageacqui si
ti
onishy pothesi
stesti
ng,apr ocessof
for
mul at
ingrul
esandt estingthesamewi thcompetent
speakersofthetar
getl
anguage.

3. Krashen’
sMoni t
orModel( 1981)
.Pr obablythi
si st he
mostof ten ci
ted among theori
esofsecond l anguage
acquisi
ti
on;consideredthemostcompr ehensiv
e,ifnot
themostambi t
ious,consi
sti
ngoffivecentral
hypotheses:
Thef
ivehy
pot
hesesar
e:

a.Theacqui sit
ion/learning hypot
hesis.Itclai
mst hat
therearetwoway sofdev el
opingcompetenceinL2:
Acquisi
ti
on-thesubconsci ousprocessthatresul
ts
from i
nformal,naturalcommunicati
onbet ween
peoplewherel anguageisameans,notaf ocus
noranend, i
nitself
.

Lear
ning-theconsciousprocessofknowi ngabout
languageandbei ngablet otalkaboutit,t
hat
occursi namor ef ormalsituati
onwher ethe
propert
iesorrulesofal anguagear etaught
.
Language lear
ning has traditi
onal
l
yi nvol
ved
grammarandv ocabularyl
earning.

Acquisiti
onpar all
elsfi
rstlanguagedevelopmentin
chil
dren whi l
el earni
ng appr oxi
mates the f
ormal
teaching ofgr ammari n classrooms.Conscious
thi
nkingaboutt herul
esi ssaidtooccuri nsecond
l
anguagel earni
ngwhi l
eunconsci ousfeeli
ngabout
whati scor r
ectandappr opriat
eoccursinlanguage
acquisit
ion.

b.The nat ural order hy pothesis. It suggests that

grammat i
calstructuresar eacqui r
edi napr edict
able
orderforbot h children and adults,thatis,cer t
ain
grammat i
calst r
uctur es are acqui
red before others,
i
rrespecti
veoft hel anguagebei ng lear
ned.Whena
l
earnerengagesi nnat uralcommuni cat
ion,thent he
st
andar dorderbelowwi lloccur.

Group1: pr
esentpr ogr
essi
ve -i
ng (Sheis
eadi
r ng)
pl
ural-s(bags)
copul
a‘ t
o be’( The gi
rlis atthe
l
i
brar
y.)

Gr
oup2:auxi
liar
y‘t
obe’Shei
( sr
eadi
ng.
)
ar
ti
clestheandan(
Thatsabook.
’ )

Gr
oup3:i
rr
egul
arpastf
or Shedr
ms( ankmi
l
k.)

Group4: r
egul
arpast -ed(Shepr edl
ay ast
ni
ght
.)
thi
rd-
per
son-
singul
ar -s(Shepr
ays
 ev
eryday
.)
possessi
v s(
e- Thegi
r’
lsbagi
snew.
)

b.The moni t
orhy pot hesi
s.I tclaims thatconsci
ous
l
earningofgr ammat i
calruleshasanext r
emel
ylimi
ted
functi
on inl anguageper for
mance:asamoni toror
editorthatchecksout put.Themoni torisanediti
ng
device thatmaynor mallyoper at
e beforel
anguage
performance.Such edi ting may occur befor
et he
naturaloutputoraftertheouput.

Krashensuggest sthatmonit
oringoccurswhent her
e
i
s suf f
icient ti
me, wher e there is pressur
e to
communi catecorrect
lyandnotj ustconveymeaning,
andwhent heappropr
iat
erul
esar eknown.

d.Thei nputhy pothesis.Krashen pr oposest hatwhen

l
earnersar eexposedt ogr ammat i
calf eaturesal it
tl
e
beyondt heircurr
entl evel(
i.
e.,i+1), t
hosef eaturesare
‘
acquired’.Acqui siti
on result
sf r
om compr ehensibl
e
i
nput,whi ch i smade under standable wi t
ht he help
provi
ded by t he cont ext. I f lear ners r eceiv
e
understandablei nput,language st ructures wi l
lbe
natur
allyacqui r
ed.Abi l
ityt
ocommuni catei nasecond
l
anguage‘ emerges’r at
hert hanindirectlyputi nplace
byteaching.

c.The af fecti
v ef il
ter hypot hesis.Fi l
ter consi st
s of
atti
tudet ol anguage,mot iv ati
on,sel f
-confidenceand
anxiety.Thusl earnerswithf avorabl
eat ti
tudeandsel f -
confidence mayhav ea‘ low f il
ter
’whi ch pr omotes
l
anguagel earning.Learnerswi thal ow af f
ectivefil
ter
seekandr eceivemor einput ,i
nteractwi t
hconf idence,
andar emor er ecepti
vetot hei nputtheyar eexposedt o.
On t he otherhand,anxi ous l earners hav e a high
affecti
vef i
lt
erwhi chpr event sacqui si
tionf r
om t aki
ng
place.

d.I
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
ort
eachi
ng:

1.Teachersmustconti
nuousl
ydel
i
verata l
evel
underst
andabl
ebyl
earner
s.

2.Teachingmustpr eparethelearnersforreall
i
fe
communi cati
on si tuat
ions. Classr
ooms must
provi
deconv ersati
onalconfidencesot hatwhen
i
nt heout si
dewor l
d,thestudentcancopewi th
andcontinuelearning.

3.Teacher
s mustensurethatl ear
ners do not
become anxi
ous or defensi
ve in language
l
earni
ng.Theconf
idenceofal anguagelear
ner
 mustbeencour agedi nal anguageacqui sit
ion
process.Teachersshouldnoti nsi
stonl earners
conversingbeforet
heyf eelcomfort
ableindoi ng
so;neithershouldtheycor r
ecterr
orsnormake
negativer emarks that inhi
bitlearnersf r
om
l
earning.Theyshoulddev isespeci
fi
ct echniques
torelaxlear
nersandprotectthei
regos.

4.Teachers mustcr eate an atmosphere where

l
earners are notembar r
assed byt hei
rer r
ors.
Err
orsshouldnotbecor r
ectedwhenacqui si
ti
on
i
soccur ri
ng.Er r
orcor recti
onisv al
uablewhen
l
earni
ng simpl er ules butmay hav e negativ
e
eff
ectsintermsofanxi etyandinhi
bit
ions.

5.Formalgr ammart eachi

ng is ofli
mited val
ue
because i
tcontri
butest olear
ning r
atherthan
acqui
sit
ion.Onl
ysimplerul
esshouldbelearned.

6.Teacher
sshoul
dnotexpectlear
nerstolear
n‘lat
e
st
ructur
es’
suchast
hirdpersonsingul
arearl
y.

C. I
nfl
uencesofTheor
iesonLanguageTeachi
ng

1.Appliedl inguistscl aimt hatt heoriesofl anguagel ear ningas

wel last heor i
esofl anguagemaypr ov i
det hebasi sf ora
par ti
cul art eachi ng appr oach/ met hod.To i ll
ust rate,t he
li
nki ngofst r
uctur al
ism andbehav i
or i
sm haspr oducedt he
audi oli
ngual met hod ( ALM) , or al appr oach/ situat ional
languaget eaching,oper antcondi t i
oningappr oach,bot tom-
upt extpr ocessi ng,cont rol l
ed- t
o-freewr i
ting,toci teaf ew.
Thesemet hodsunder scoret henecessi tyofov er lear ning,a
principlet hatl eadst oendl essandmi ndlessmi mi cryand
memor ization( ‘
mi m- mem’ ).Theyar ealsochar act erizedby
mechani cal habi t-
for mat i
on t eachi ng, done t hrough
unr emi tti
ngpr actice:sent encepat ter
nsar er epeat edand
dril
led unt ilt hey become habi t
ualand aut omat ict o
mi nimi ze occur rences ofmi stakes.Gr ammari st aught
throughanal ogy,hence,expl anationsofr ulesar enotgi ven
unt i
lt hest udentshav epr act i
cedapat t
er ninav arietyof
cont ext s.

2.Thecogni t
ivelearningtheoryhasgi venbirt
htot hecogni t
ive
appr oacht olearning thatput slanguageanal ysi
sbef ore
l
anguageuseand i nstructi
onbyt heteacher ,beforet he
student spracti
cef or
ms.I tiscompat i
blewi t
ht hev i
ewt hat
l
ear ning isat hinki
ng pr ocess,a belieft hatunder pins
cogni ti
ve-
basedandschema- enhancingst r
ategiessuchas
DirectedReadi ngThi nkingAct i
vi
ty,Stor
yGr ammar ,Think-
Aloud, tonameaf ew.

3.The f uncti
onal view of language has r esul
ted i n
communi cat
ion-
based methods such as Communi cati
ve
Language Teaching/Communicat
ive Appr
oach,Not ional
-
 Functi
onal Appr oach, Nat ural Appr oach, Task-Based
LanguageTeachi ng.Thesemet hodsar elearner-
cent
ered,
al
lowingl earner
st owor kinpai rsorgroupsi ni nf
ormati
on
gap t asks and pr oblem-solving acti
v i
ti
es wher e such
communi cat
ion st rat
egies as i nf
or mati
on shar ing,
negoti
ationofmeani ng,andinteracti
onar eused.

4.Thev iewt hatisbot hcogniti

v eandaf fectiv
ehasgi venr i
seto
ahol isticappr oacht ol anguagel ear ni
ngorwhol e- person
l
earning whi ch has spawned humani sti
ct echniques i n
l
anguagel earning and Communi tyLanguageLear ni ng.In
thesemet hods,t hewhol eper soni ncludingemot ionsand
feel
ingsaswel lasl anguageknowl edgeandbehav i
orski ll
s
become cent ralt ot eaching.The humani sti
c appr oach
equipsl earners“ v
ocabularyf orexpressingone’sfeelings, f
or
sharingone’ sv aluesandv iewpointswi t
hot hers,andf or
developing a bet terunderst andi
ng oft heirfeeli
ngs and
needs. ”

D. Li
ngui
sti
cConcept
s:

ScopeofLi
ngui
sti
cSt
udi
es:

1.Phonology
.I t studies the combination of sounds i nto
organi
zedunitsofspeech,t hecombinati
onofsy l
labl
esand
l
argerunit
s.I tdescribesthesound sy st
em ofa par t
icul
ar
l
anguage and distr
ibution ofsounds whi ch occurint hat
l
anguage.Classi
fi
cati
oni smadeont hebasisoft heconceptof
thephoneme.

Phonologyisthestudyoft hesoundsy stem oflanguage:t

he
rul
esthatgovernpronunci
ation.I
tcomprisestheelementsand
pri
nci
plesthatdet
erminesoundpat t
ernsinalanguage.

2.Phonetics.Itstudiesl anguageatthelev
elofsounds:how
soundsar earti
culatedbyt hehumanspeechmechanism and
recei
vedbyt heaudi t
orymechanism,aswellashow sounds
canbedi st
ingui
shedandchar act
eri
zedbyt
hemannerinwhich
theyareproduced.

3.Mor phology.Itstudies the pat

terns off orming wor
ds by
combi ningsoundsi nt
omi ni
maldistinct
iveunitsofmeaning
cal
ledmor phemes.Itdeal
swi tht
her ulesofattachi
ngsuf
fi
xes
orprefixestosingl
emor phemestofor m words.

Mor phol
ogyisthestudyofwor df ormat i
on;itdeal
swi ththe
i
nt er
nalstr
uct
ureofwords.I
talsostudiesthechangesthattake
placeinthest
ruct
ureofwords,e.g.t
hemor pheme‘go’changes
to‘went’and‘
gone’t
osigni
fychangesint enseandaspect.

4.Syntax.Itdealswit
hhow wor dscombinet of or
m phrases,
phrasescombinetoform clauses,andcl
ausesconjoint
omake
sentences.Sy
ntaxi
st hestudyofthewayphr ases,cl
ausesand
 sentences ar
e constr
uct
ed.Itist he sy
stem ofr ules and
categori
esthatunderl
i
essentencefor
mation.Italsoi
nvolves
the descri
pti
on ofrul
es,ofpositi
oni
ng ofel ementsint he
sentence such as noun phr
ases,verb phrases,adverbial
phrases,et
c.

Syntaxalsoat temptstodescri
behowt heseelementsfunct
ion
i
nt he sent ence,i.
e.,t
he functi
on thatt heyperf
orm int he
sentence. Forexampl e,thenounphr ase“ t
hest udent
”has
dif
ferentfuncti
onsinthefol
lowingsentences:

a)Thestudentiswri
ti
nganewplay.
b)Theteachergavet
hestudentanewpl
ay.

Insentencea)
,thestudentfuncti
onsast hesubj ectoft he
sent
encewhil
einsent
enceb),
itfunct
ionsasindi
rectobject
.

5.Semant i
cs.Itdeal
swi t
ht hel ev elofmeaningi nl
anguage.It
attemptstoanalyzethest ructureofmeani ngi nalanguage,
e.g.,how wordsarerel
atedi nmeani ng;i
tat t
emptst oshow
these i nt
er-
rel
ati
onshi
ps t hr ough f or
mi ng ‘categor
ies’
.
Semant i
csaccount
sforbot hwor dandsentencemeaning.

6.Pragmat i
cs.Itdealswi t
hthecontext
ualaspectsofmeaningin
part
icularsi
tuations.Pragmati
csisthestudyofhowlanguage
i
susedi nrealcommuni cat
ion.Asdisti
nctfrom t
hestudyof
sentences, pr agmatics considers utter
ances – t hose
sentenceswhi char eactual
l
yut t
eredorsaidbyspeakersofa
l
anguage.

7.Discour se.I
tisthest udyofchunksofl anguagewhi chare
biggerthanasinglesentence.Atthi
slevel,i
nter
-sententi
all
i
nks
thatf or
m aconnectedorcohesi vetextar eanalyzed.Theuni
t
ofl anguagestudi
edi ndiscourseandpr agmaticsmaybean
utteranceinanexchangeorat extinwri
ttenform.

Phonol
ogy
:

1.Phonemei sadist
incti
ve,contr
astedsounduni
t,e.
g./m /
,/æ/,
/n/ .Thesedisti
nctsoundsent erint
ocombinati
onwit
hother
soundstofor
m wor ds,e.
g.,/mæn/‘man’.

Phonemei st hesmal lestunitofsoundofanyl anguaget hat

causesadi fferenceinmeani ng.Itisaphonesegmentt hathas
a cont rast
ive st at
us. The basi c t est for a sound’ s
dist
inct
ivenessi scal l
edami nimalpairt est
.A mi ni
malpai r
consist
soft wof ormswi thdisti
nctmeani ngthatdif
ferbyonl y
onesegmentf oundi nt hesameposi t
ioni neachf orm.For
example,[sɪp]‘sip’and[zɪp]‘
zip’form ami ni
malpairandshow
thatthesounds[ s]and[ z]cont r
astinEngl i
shbecauset hey
causethedi f
ferencei nmeani ngbet weent hewords‘ sip’and
‘
zip’
;hence,theyar eseparatephonemes-/ s/and/z/.
 2.All
ophonesarev ari
antsorotherwaysofproduci
ngaphoneme.
They are phoneti
call
y simil
arand ar efrequent
lyfound i
n
complementary distr
ibut
ion. For example,the sy
stemati
c
var
iat
ionsof/t/are:
h
The/t
/intopi
saspi r
ated[t]
;the/
t nst
/i opi
srel
eased[
t]
;the
7
/t
/inpoti
sunr
eleased[t].

3.Soundsarecat
egor
izedi
ntot
womaj
orcl
asses:v
owel
sand
consonant
s.

4.Consonantsounds ar e produced with some rest r

icti
on or
closureint hev ocaltractast heairfrom thelungsi spushed
throught hegl otti
soutt hemout h.Theai r
flowiseitherblocked
moment aril
yorr estr
ictedsomucht hatnoiseisproducedasai r
fl
owspastt heconst r
iction.Consonantsaredescribedi nter
ms
of phy sicaldi mensi ons:pl ace of arti
culat
ion,manner of
arti
culati
on, voicing,
asshowni nFigure1.
al
al
odent

ar
al

al
dent

al
ar
eol
abi

at

t
Vel
ot
Pal
er
l

Gl
v
Labi
Bi

Al
nt
I

St
ops v
oicel
ess p t k
v
oiced b d g
Fr
icativ
es voicel
ess f θ s š h
v
oiced v ð z ž
Aff
ricates v
oicel
ess č
v
oiced ǰ
Nasals v
oicel
ess
v
oiced m n ŋ
Li
quids v oicel
ess
v
oiced l r
Gl
ides
v
oicel
ess
v
oiced w y
Sour
ce:Par
ker
,F.&K.Ri
l
ey.( .Li
1994) ngui
sti
csf
orNon-
Lingui
sts.
Bost
on:
All
ynand
Bacon.

FI
GURE1.ConsonantPhonemesofEngl
ish

PlaceofArt
icul
ati
on.Foranyar
ti
cul
ationcor
respondingtoone
oftheseconsonantphonemes,t
hevocalt
racti
sconstri
ctedatoneof
thefol
lowingpoi
nts.

(a)Bi
labial(
from bi‘
two’+labi
al‘
l
ips’
).Theprimaryconst
ri
cti
on
i
satthe
l
ips(/p,
b,m,w/).
(b)Labiodental(fom l
r abi
o‘ p’+dent
l
i al‘
teeth’
).Thepri
mary
const
ricti
on
 isbet weent helowerl ipandt heuppert eeth( /
f,
v/).
(c)Inter dent al( f
rom i nter‘between’+ dent al‘teeth’)
.The
primary
const ri
ctionisbet weent het ongueandt heuppert eeth
(/θ,
ð/).
(d)Alv eolar( from alveolarr i
dge).Thepr i
mar yconst rict
ioni s
betweent he
tongueandt heal veolarri
dge( /t,
d,
s,z,
n,l
/ )
.
(e)Pal atal( from palate).Thepr i
mar yconst ri
ctoni sbet ween
thet ongueandt hepal at
e( /
š,ž,č,
ǰ
,r
,y/)
.
(f)Velar( from v el
um) .Thepr imaryconst ri
ctioni sbetweent he
t
ongueand
thev elum (/k,g,
ŋ/).
(g)Glot t
al( from glotti
s,whi chreferstothespacebet weent he
vocalcor ds).Thepr imaryconst ri
cti
oni satt hegl otti
s
(/h/ )
.

MannerofAr t
icul
ati
on.Foranyar
ticul
ati
oncorr
espondi
ngto
oneoftheseconsonantphonemes,t
hevocaltr
acti
sconstri
ctedi
n
oneoft
hef ol
l
owingways.

(
a)Stops.Twoar ticulators( l
ips, tongue, t
eet h, etc.)ar ebr ought
toget hersucht hatt hef lowofai rt hrought hev ocalt r
act
iscompl et elybl ocked( /p,b,t,
d,k,g/ ).
(
b)Fricat ives.Twoar t
iculatorsar ebr oughtneareachot her
sucht hatt hef l
ow ofai risi mpededbutnotcompl etel
y
bl ocked.Theai rf lowt hrought henar rowopeni ngcr eates
frict i
on, hencet het ermf ricat i
ve( / f,
v,θ,ð,s,z,š,ž,h/).
(
c)Af fricates.Ar ticulations cor respondi ng t o af fricates ar e
thoset hatbegi nl i
kest ops( wi thacompl etecl osur eint he
v ocalt ract )andendl i
kef r
icat i
v es( wi t
hanar rowopeni ng
int he v ocalt r act)( /č,ǰ
/) .Because af fricates can be
descr ibed asa st op pl usa f ricative,some phonemi c
al phabet st ranscr ibe/č/as/ tš/and/ ǰ/as/ dž/ .
(
d)Nasal s.A nasalar ti
culationi sonei nwhi cht heai rflow
thr ought hemout hi scompl etel ybl ockedbutt hev elum is
lower ed, forci ngt heai rthrought henose( /m, n,ŋ/).
(
e) Liqui ds and Gl ides. Bot h of t hese t er ms descr i
be
ar ticulationst hatar emi d-waybet weent rueconsonant s
(i.e.,st ops,f ri
cat i
ves,af fricates,andnasal s)andv owel s,
al thought heyar ebot hgener allycl assifiedasconsonant s.
Li qui disacov ert ermf oral ll-lkeandr
i -li
kear ticulations
(/ l
,r/).

Voicing.Foranyar t
icul
ati
oncor respondingt o oneoft hese
consonant phonemes, t he v ocal cor ds are ei t
her v i
brat
ing
(/
b,d,
g,v,
ð,z,ž,
ǰ,
m,n,
ŋ,l
,
r,w,
y/)ornot( p,
t,
k,f
,θ,s,
š,
č,
h/).Stops,fr
icat
ives,
andaf f
ri
cat escomei nv oicedandv oicelesspair
s( exceptfor/h/);
nasal
s,li
qui ds,andgl
idesareallvoi
ced,asar evowels.

Eachconsonantphonemeisnotr eal
l
yani ndi
vi
sibl
eunit
,but
rat
heracompositeofv al
uesalongthesethreedimensi
ons.Each
suchdi
mensionconsti
tut
esadisti
nct
ivefeatur
e.Forexampl
e,fr
om
oneperspecti
ve/p/and/b/arenotr
eal
l
yunit
sint
hemsel
ves,but
rat
hereachisbundl
eoff
eatur
eval
ues,
asfol
l
ows.

+bil
abial +bil
abi
al
/
p/ = +stop /
b/ = +st op
−v
oice +voi
ce

5.Vowelsarepr oducedwi thl i

tt
leobstruct
ioni nthev ocaltract
andar egenerallyvoiced.Theyar edescr ibedint er
msoft he
fol
lowi
ng phy si
caldi mensi ons:tongue height,frontness,l i
p
roundi
ng,tenseness.Di ff
erentpar t
s oft he tongue maybe
rai
sed orlower ed.Thel i
psmaybe spr ead orpur sed.The
passagethroughwhi cht heairtrav
els,howev er
,isnevernarrow
astoobstructthefreeflowoft heairst
ream.

Vowelsoundscar
rypit
chandl
oudness;onecansi
ngv
owel
s.
Theymaybelongorshort
.

Fr
ont Back

i u

ɪ ℧

e o

ε Λ(
ә)

æ a

Spr
ead Round
Hi
gh Tense

Lax

Mi
d
 Low

Sour
ce:Par
ker
,F.&K.Ri
l
ey.( .Li
1994) ngui
sti
csf
orNon-
Lingui
sts.
Bost
on:
All
ynandBacon.

Fi
gur
e2.VowelPhonemesofEngl
ish

6.Suprasegmental
sarepr
osodicproper
tiesthatfor
m partofthe
makeupofsoundsnomat t
erwhatt hei
rplaceormannerof
art
icul
ati
onis.Thesepropert
iesarepitch,int
onati
on,str
ess,
andjunctur
e.Theyar
evari
ati
onsinint
ensity
,pit
ch,andt
iming.

7.Stressi sapr opert

yofasy ll
ableratherthanasegment .Iti
sa
cov ertermforacombi nedef fectofpitch,l
oudnessandl ength-
--t
her esultofwhichisv owelpr ominence;hence,i
treferstothe
rel
at i
vepr ominenceofsy l
lables.Thesy ll
ablethatreceivesthe
mostpr ominentst r
essi sr eferr
edt o aspr i
mar yst r
ess.To
produceast r
essedsy l
lable,onemaychanget hepitch(usuall
y
byr ai
singit)
,maket hesy l
l
ablel ouder,
ormakei tlonger.

e.
g.
2 1 2 1 1 2
f
undament
al i
ntr
oduct
ory
secondar
y

8.Pitchi stheaudi t
orypr opert
yofasoundt hatenabl
esust o
placeitonascal ethatrangesf r
om lowt ohigh.
9.Intonation i
st her i
seand f allofpi t
ch whi ch maycont rast
meani ngs of sent ences.The pi tch mov ement in spoken
utterances is notonl yr el
ated to diff
erences inthe wor d
meani ng,butser ves to conv ey inf
ormat i
on ofa br oadly
meani ngfulnatur
esuchascompl et
enessori ncompletenessof
anut t
erance.Int
onat i
onr ef
erst othepi t
chcont oursast hey
occuri nphrasesandsent ences.

I
nEngli
sh,thest
at Mar
ement‘ i
anisal
ingui
st’endswit
hafalli
n
pi
tchwhil
easaquest i Mar
on,‘ i
anisali
nguist?’t
hepi
tchgoes
up.

10. Juncturer eferstot hepausesorbreaksbetweensy ll

ables.
I
tr eferstot het ransiti
onbet weensounds.Thel ackofanyr eal
break bet ween sy ll
ables ofwor ds i
sr ef
err
ed t o as close
j
unct ure;plusj unct ureoropenj unct
ureisusedt odescribea
breakorpausebet weensy ll
ablesinthesamewor doradjacent
wor d;e.g.nitr
atev s.nightrat
e;whyt ryvs.whi
tery e;bl
ackbi r
d
vs.blackbird

Mor
phol
ogy
:

1.Morphemei
sashor
tsegmentofl
anguaget
hatmeet
sthr
ee
cr
it
eri
a:
 a.I
tisawor dorpartofawordthathasmeaning.
b.I
tcannotbedividedint
osmallermeaningf
ulpartswithout
vi
olat
ion of its meaning or wi thout meani ngless
r
emai nder
s.
c.I
tr ecursin diff
erentwords withar elat
ivel
y stable
meaning.

Thewordunhappi
nesshas3mor
phemes:{
un-}
,{happy
},{
-ness}
whil
ethewordsal
amanderi
sasi
ngl
emorpheme.

2.All
omorphsar emor phswhi chbel ongtot hesamemor pheme.
Forexample,/s/,/z/and/ əz/in/ kæts/‘ cat
s’,/bægz/‘ bags’
and/bΛsəz/‘ buses’areal lomorphsoft hepl uralmorphemes
{(
e)s}
.All
omor phsar ev ar
iantsofamor phemet hatmaybe
phonol
ogical
lyormor phological
lycondit
ioned;e. g.{-
en}asi n
oxenandchil
drenar eallomor phsof{pl
ural}mor pheme.

3.Freemorphemesar ethoset hatcanstandont heirownas

i
ndependentwords,e.
g.{happy}inunhappi
ly
,{ l
ike}indisl
ike,
{boy}i
nboyhood.Theycanalsooccuri
nisol
ation;e.g.{
happy},
{l
ike}

4.Boundmor phemesarethosethatcannotstandont hei

rownas
i
ndependentwor ds.They are always att ached toaf ree
morphemeoraf reef
orm,e.g.{un-}
,{-l
y},{dis-
}{-hood}.Such
morphemesar eal
socal
ledaff
ixes.

Boundmor phemesarethosethatcannotstandal
oneaswor ds;
theyneedtobeat t
achedtoanothermor pheme;e.
g.{con-
};{
de-}
,
{per-
}t o be att
ached to{ -
ceiv
e}as i n concei
ve,deceive,
perceiv
e.

5.Infl
ecti
onalmorphemesar et hoset
hatneverchangetheform
classofthewor dsormor phemestowhicht heyareatt
ached.
Theyar ealwaysattachedt ocomplet
ewor ds.Theycapt he
wor d;t
heyareaclosed-endedsetofmorphemes-Engl i
shhas
only8infl
ect
ionalmorphemes.

-
s t hi
rdpersonsi
ng.pr
es. Shest
ay-
sathome.
-
ed pastt ense Shest
ay-
edathome.
-
ing progr
essive Sheisst
ay-
ingat
home.
-
en pastpar
ti
cipl
e Shehaseat
-enat
home.
-
s plur
al Shewrot
enovel
-s.
-‘
s possessi ve Mari
e’
s car is
new.
-er compar at
ive Thi
sroadi
slong-
ert
hanthat.
-est superl
ati
ve Thi
sist
hel
ong-
estroad.
6.Deri
v ati
onalmor phemes ar ethose thatar e added tor oot
morphemesorst emst oderi
venewwor ds.Theyusual l
ychange
theform cl
assoft hewor dst
owhichtheyar eattached;theyare
open-ended,thati s,t herearepotent
iall
yi nfi
nit
enumberof
them; g.act
e. ual+{ -
ize} actual
i
ze;help+{ -f
ul} helpful
;{un
}+l
- ucky unlucky .

7.Wor
d–For
mat
ionpr
ocesses

Der
ivat
ion.Thisinv ol
vestheadditi
onofader i
vat
ionalaff
ix,
changi
ng thesy ntacti
ccategoryoftheit
em to whichitis
att
ached( e.
g.,discer
n( V)discer
nment( ;woman(
N) N)
womanl y(
Adj)).

Cat
egory Extensi
on. This inv
olves the extension of a
morphemef r
om onesyntact
iccategor
ytoanother(e.g.
,house
(N) house(V);f
ast(
Adj)fast(Adv)
)

Compoundi
ng.Thisi
nvol
vescreat
inganewwor dbycombi
ning
twofr
eemor phemes(e.
g.sunset
, ;drugst
ore)
.

RootCreat
ion.Iti
sabrandnewwordbasedonnopr
e-exi
sti
ng
morphemes(e.
g.Col
, gate;
Xerox)
.

Cl
ippedForm.Iti
sashort
enedf
orm ofapr e-
exi
sti
ngf
orms
(e.g.
,gy
m <gymnasi
um;
mike<mi
crophone)
.

Blend.Iti
sacombinat
ionofpar
tsoftwopre-exi
sti
ngf
orms
(
e.g.smog<smoke+f
, og;mot
el<motor+hot
el).

Acr
onym.Itisawor df or
medfrom t
hef i
rstlett
er(s)ofeach
wordinaphrase(e.
g.NASA<Nat
, i
onalAeronauti
csandSpace
Admini
str
ati
on;SARS<Sev er
eAcuteRespi
ratorySyndrome).

Abbrevi
ati
on.Iti
sawor dfor
medf r henamesoft
om t hefirst
l
ett
ersoftheprominentsyl
l
ablesofawor
d(e.g.
,TV<tel
evi
sion)
orofwor ds i
n a phrase (e.
g.,FBI< FederalBur
eau of
I
nvesti
gati
on).

ProperName.Thi
spr
ocessf
ormsawordfr
om apropername
(e.
g.,hambur
ger<Hamburg(Ger
many
);sandwi
ch <Earlof
Sandwich)
.

FolkEty
mology.Thisprocessformsawor dbysubst
it
uti
nga
commonnat i
veformf oranexot i
c(of
tenforei
gn)f
orm(e.g.
,
cockr
oach<Spanishcucuracha‘woodl
ouse’
).

BackFormat
ion.Thi
sprocessf
ormsawor dbyr
emovingwhat
i
smi st
akenf
oranaffi
x( g.edi
e. t<edi
tor
;beg<beggar
).

8.Mor
phophonemi
cPr
ocesses

Ther
ear
epr
ocessest
hatpr
oduceagr
eatdealofl
i
ngui
sti
c
 var
iabi
li
ty:assi
mil
ati
on,di
ssi
mil
ati
on,del
eti
on,epent
hesi
s,
metathesi
s.

Assimilati
oni saprocessthatresultsfr
om asoundbecomi ng
morel i
keanot hernearbysoundint ermsofoneormor eofits
phoneti
cchar acteri
sti
cs;aprocessinwhi chsegmentstakeon
the characteri
sti
cs ofneighbori
ng sounds;e. g.probable–
i
mpr obable; potent -impotent; separabl
e – i nseparable;
sensit
ive–i nsensi
ti
ve

Dissi
milati
onisaprocessthatr
esultsi
ntwosoundsbecoming
l
essalikeinarti
cul
ator
yoracoust i
cter
ms;apr ocessi
nwhich
unit
swhi choccuri nsomecont ext
sar e‘
lost’i
nother
s;e.g.
l
‘i
bary’i
nsteadof‘l
i
brar
y,’
‘govenor’f
or‘
governor’

Delet
ionisaprocessthatremov esasegmentf r
om certai
n
phoneti
ccont
exts.Itoccur
si n ever
ydayr
apid speech;e.g.
[
blaɪnmæn]‘
bli
ndman’

Epent
hesi
sisaprocessthati
nsert
sasyl
labl
eoranonsyl
l
abic
segmentwit
hinanexist
ingstri
ngofsegment;e.
g.[
plæntɪ
d]
‘
plant
ed’

Metathesisisaprocessthatreorder
sorrever
sesasequence
ofsegment s;i
toccurswhentwosegment sinaseriesswi
tch
pl
aces,e.g.ask aks;r
uler lur
er;v
i et v
ol i
loy
et

Sy
ntact
icSt
ruct
ures

1.StructureofPredi
cati
onhastwocomponents:asubj
ectanda
predicat g.t
e;e. heseagul
lfl
i
es,t
hewaterlevelr
oseabruptl
y,
thetrialhasbegun

2.Struct
ureofCompl ementati
onhast wobasiccomponent
s:a
verbal elementandacompl ement
;e.
g.dist
ur hecl
bedt ass,
renderedser
vice,
beconscient
ious

3.Str
uct
ureofModi ficat
ionhast wocomponent s:aheadword
andamodi fi
er,whosemeani ngservesto broaden,qual
if
y,
sel
ect
,change,ordescribe,orinsomewayaf fectthemeani
ng
ofthe head word;e.g.r esponsi
ble of
fi s,t
cer rust
ed f
ri
end,
impar
ti
all
yconducted

4. St
ructure of Coordinati
on has t wo basic component
s:
equivalentgrammati
calunitsandj oi
nedoft
enbutnotalways
byacoor di
nati
ngconjunct
ion;e.g.br
eadandbut
terpeacenot
,
war,nei t
herextr
over
tnorintrovert

Semant
ics

1.
Lexicalambiguit
yrefer
st oachar
act
erist
icofawordthathas
moret hanonesense,e.g.t
heEngl
i
shwor df
lyi
sambi guous
becauseithasmor ethanonemeaning:‘ani
nsect
,’‘
azipper
 onapai
rofpant
s,’
or‘
abasebal
lhi
tint
otheai
rwi
thabat
.’

2. Sy ntact
icambiguit
yr eferstot hecharacter
ist
icofaphr ase
thathasmor e t han onemeani ng,e. g.Engli
shlit
erat
ure
teachercan mean ‘ at eacherofEngl ish li
ter
atur
e’or‘ a
l
iteratur
eteacherwhoi sfrom Engl
and.’

3.Synonymyref
erstowordshavi
ngt hesamesense; thatis,
they
havethesamev al
uesforal
loftheirsemanti
cfeatures.happy
and glad;repl
y and respond;hast i
ly and hurri
edly are
synonymouswordsinEngli
sh.

4. Hyponymyi sachar acter

ist
icofawor dt hatcontainsthe
meaningofanot herwor d;t
hecont ai
nedwordi sknownast he
superordi
nate. For exampl e, sampagui t
a cont ains the
meaningoff lower;theref e,sampagui
or taisahy ponym ofthe
superordi
natef l
ower .Putanot herway,ahy ponymi sawor d
whose meani ng contains allthe same featurev alues of
anotherword, pl
ussomeaddi ti
onal f
eat
urevalues.

5. Antony myrefer
st ot hechar acteri
sticoft wowor dswhi char e
dif
ferentbot hinf orm as wel las meani ng.An ant onym
convey stheoppositesense( binar
yant ony ms),e.g.ri
ch-poor ;
good–bad.Theyar eal sowor dswhosemeani ngsdi f
feronly
inthev al
ueforasi nglesemant icfeature; g.r
e. i
ch–poor r
;ich
ismar ked[+wealh]andpoori
t smar ked[ -wealth];dead–al ive;
dead ismar ked[ -
life]and al iveismar ked[+l i
f .Gr
e] adable
antonyms ar e wor ds t hatdescr i
be opposi te ends of a
conti
nuousdi mensi on,e.g.hotandcol d.Notev erythi
ngt hat
canbehotorcol di s,inf act,eit
herhotorcol d.Liquid,for
exampl e,maybewar m orcool .

6.Homony myr ef
erstosenser el
ati
oninwordswitht
hesame
phoneti
cform butdiff
erenti
nmeani g.batmeani
ng,e. ng‘a
noctur
nalanimal’and batmeaning ‘
anequi
pmentused i
n
basebal
lorsoft
ball
.’

7.Corefer encer ef
erstot hesenser elationoft woexpr essions
thathav et hesameext ral
i
nguisti
cr eferent.Inthesent ence
“Mer curyist henearestplanetfr
om t hesun, ”Mercuryandt he
nearestpl anetfrom thesunar ecor eferenti
albecauset hey
bothr efert othesameext r
ali
nguisticobj ect– thepl anet
Mer curyi nthesolarsystem.

8.Anaphor
ai sa linguisti
cexpr ession t
hatrefer
st o another
li
ngui
sti
cexpression;e.g.“ Thetsunamikill
edt housandsof
peopl
e.Itwasdev astati
ng.”Iti
nt hesecondsentenceisused
anaphor
ical
l
y(topoi ntbackwards)t or
efert
o‘t
het sunami’
.

9. Dei
xisref
erstot hecharacteri
sti
cofanexpr essionthathas
onemeani ngbutcanrefertodiff
erentent
it
ieswithint
hesame
contextofutterance.Deicti
cex pressi
onshav ea ‘pointi
ng
functi
on.’Exampl es of deixi
s arey ou,I,she ( personal
 pronouns);here,there,r
ight
,left
,(expr
essionsofplace)
;thi
s,
that,
those,these(demonst r
aties)
v ;now,yester
day
,today,l
ast
year(ti
meexpr essions).

10.
Entailmentisapr oposi
tion( expressedi nasent ence)that
foll
owsnecessar i
lyfrom anothersentence.Asent enceentail
s
anotherift
hemeani ngoft hefi
rstincludesthemeani ngofthe
second;i tis also cal ed par
l aphrase.For exampl e,the
sent Raulhadaf
ence,‘ atalaccident’entail
st hat‘Rauldied’
sinceitisi
mpossi bletofigureinaf atalaccidentwithoutl
oss
ofl i
fe.Semanticall
yspeaki ng,fatalmeans[ -l
if
e]whi edi
l ed
alsomeans[ -
li
fe].

11.Pr esupposi ti
on r eferst o a pr opositi
on ( expr
essed i na
sent ence)t hati sassumedt obet rueinor dertoj udget he
trut horf al
sityofanot hersentence.I tal
sor eferstot hetruth
relationbet weent wosent ences;onesent encepr esupposes
anot herifthef al
sit
yoft hesecondr ender sthef i
rstwi t
houta
trut hvalue;e.g.Thesent ence‘TheKi ngofCanadai sdead.’
presupposest Ther
hat‘ eexi st
s(is)aKi ngofCanada. ’ Thefi
rst
sent encepr esupposest hesecondsent encebecausei ft he
secondsent enceisf al
se,thenthef i
rstsent encehasnot ruth
val ue.
Pragmat ics

1. Speechactt heor
y. Ev
eryutt
eranceofspeechconsti
tutes
some sor t of act (promi
sing,apologi
zi
ng,thr
eat
ening,
war ni
ng,et
c.).Ever
yspeechactconsistsofthr
eeseparate
acts:

Locuti
onaryfor
ce an actof sayi
ng somethi
ng;i
ti sa
descri
pti s,e.
onofwhataspeakersay g.
,Ipr
omisetoret
urn
yourbooktomor
row.

Il
locuti
onaryact/f
orce ist heactofdoi ngsomet hi
ng;itis
whatt hespeakeri
ntendstodobyut t
eringasent
ence,e.
g.,by
saying“Ipromisetoretur
ny ourbooktomorr
ow,”thespeaker
hasmadeanactofpr omising.

Perlocutionaryactisanactofaf fect
ingsomeone(i.
e.,t
he
l
istener);iti
stheeff
ectont hehearerofwhataspeakersays,
e.g.,bysay ng“
i Iwil
lretur
ny ourbook t omor
row,
”thehearer
mayf eelhappyorr
eli
evedthats/hewi l
lgett
hebookback

2.Categori
es of Il
locut
ionary Acts. These are categor
ies
pr
oposed byJohnSear l
et o gr
oup togethercl
osel
yr el
ated
i
ntenti
onsforsay
ingsomet hi
ng.

Declarati
on.Adecl arat
ionisanut ter
anceusedtochangethe
statusofsomeent i
ty–f orexample,Foul
!utt
eredbyarefer
ee
atabasket ballgame.Thi sclassincl
udesactsofappointi
ng,
nami ng,r
esigning,bapti
zing,sur
renderi
ng,excommunicati
ng,
arresti
ng,andsoon.
 Representati
ve.A r epresentat
ivei s an utterance used to
descri
besomest ateofaf fai
rs– f orexampl e,Recessi
onwi l
l
worseninEur opei nt henextfivey ears.Thisclassincludes
acts ofst at
ing,asser ti
ng,denying,conf essing,admi tt
ing,
noti
fyi
ng,concluding,predi
cti
ng,andsoon.

Commi ssive.Acommi ssiv

ei sanut t
eranceusedtocommi t
thespeakert odosomet hi
ng–f orexample,I
’l
lmeety ouat
thel
ibr
aryat10: 00a.
m.Thi scl
assincludesact
sofpromi si
ng,
vowi
ng,v olunt
eeri
ng,of
feri
ng,guarant
eeing,pl
edgi
ng,betti
ng,
andsoon.

Direct
ive.A di
recti
veisanut t
eranceusedt ot r
ytogett he
hearertodosomet hing–forexample,Reviewthoroughlyfor
theexams.Thi sclassincl
udesactsofr equesti
ng,orderi
ng,
forbi
dding, war ni
ng, adv i
sing, suggesting, insisti
ng,
recommending,andsoon.

Expr
essive.Anexpr essiv
eisanutter
anceusedt oexpressthe
emoti
onalst ateofthespeaker–f orexample,Congratulat
ions
fortopping t he barexam! .This class includes acts of
apol
ogizi
ng,t hanking,congrat
ulati
ng,condoling,welcomi ng,
depl
ori
ng, object
ing, andsoon.

Question.Aquest ionisanut t
eranceusedt ogetthehearerto
provi
dei nfor
mation–f orexampl e,Whowont hepresi
denti
al
el
ecti
on?Thi sclassi ncl
udesact sofasking,i
nquiri
ng,andso
on.(Not e:Searlet reated questions as a subcat
egory of
dir
ecti
v es;howev er,itis more usef ultotreatthem as a
separatecategor
y .)

3.Conv er
sati
onalMaxims ar
er ul
es thatare obser
ved when
communi cati
ont
akespl
aceinasituat
ionwherepeopleareco-
operati
ve.Whenpeoplecommunicate,theyassumet hatthe
otherpersonwil
lbecooper
ati
veandt heythemsel
veswi shto
cooperate.

I
nthe“Cooperati
vePrinci
ple,
”thef
oll
owi
ngmaxi
msorr
ules
gov
ernor
ali
nteracti
ons:

Maxi
m ofquant
it
y–apar ti
cipant’scontri
but
ionshouldbeas
inf
ormat i
veaspossi ble– “Givetheright
amountofi nformati
on,neitherless nor
mor ethanwhati srequir
ed.
”
e.g. A:Ar eyouattendi
ngtheseminar?
B:Yes, Iam.

Maxi
m ofqual
it
y–apar ti
cipantshouldnotsayt hatwhichis
fal
se ort hatwhi ch the par
ti
cipantlacks
evidence -“ Make yourcontribut
ion such
thatitistrue;donotsaywhaty ouknow is
fal
seorf orwhichy oudonothav eadequate
 evi
dence.
”
e.
g. A:Whodidyouseeent
ert
her
oom
l
ast?
B:Thej
ani
tor

Maxi
m ofr
elat
ion – apar t
ici
pant
’scont r
ibut
ion shoul
d be
rel
atedtothe subjectoftheconversat
ion–
“Berelev
ant.”
e.g. A:Whydidy oucomel at
e?
B:Ihadtotakemysont oschool .

Maxi
m ofmanner– apar ti
cipant’
scontr
ibut
ion shoul
d be
dir
ect,notobscure,ambi
guous,orwordy–
“Avoi
dobscur i
tyandambigui
ty;
bebr i
efand
order
ly.
”

e.
g. A:Ar
eyouaccepti
ngtheposit
ion?
B:
Yes,Iam.Thankyouforyourtr
usti
nme.

4.Impli
caturesr
efertostatement
sthati
mplyaproposi
ti
onthat
i
snotpar toft
heutter
anceanddoesnotfol
lowasanecessary
consequenceoftheut
terance.

Forexampl e:Dansay
st ohiswif
eNi t
z,“
UncleErnieisdriv
ingusto
Tagaytay”to whi
chNi tzresponds,“ IguessI’d bettert
ake
tr
anquil
izers.
” Nit
z’s ut
ter
ance raises the i
mplicaturet
hat
UncleErniemustbeaf ast
, r eckl
essdr i
ver.