Feasibility of Using Wearable Shielding for Radiographic

Testing Practitioners (Lead Apron)

Abstract: Lead is the industry standard for designing radiation protection systems. It can be
used to protect against high-energy radiation such as gamma rays, x-rays, and other types of
nuclear radiation. An apron with a thickness of 0.5 mm can reduce 90% or more of the
scattered radiation. In this research, qualitative data were derived from different research,
articles, and case studies. Meta-analysis is a type of survey research in which research reports
are questioned rather than people. It has the benefit of quantifying the impacts of specific
studies as well as describing the processes used by the authors. Wearable radiation shielding
using lead apron can still be feasible with slight adjustments and improvements. There are
scientific articles that compares lead to other elements such as barium (Ba) and bismuth (Bi)
compounds. It is also found that in creating an efficient and effective shielding, the radiation
scatter should be considered.
Members:
Dela Cruz, Mark Gil F.
Mangilit, Vince Edward B.
Martinez, Luke Henry S.

I. INTRODUCTION

For radiation shielding, lead metal s the chosen material since lead is extremely excellent
shielding metal against radiation sources. As a result, it becomes the industry standard for designing
radiation protection systems.

Lead is a dense metal that can be used to protect against high-energy radiation such as
gamma rays, x-rays, and other types of nuclear radiation. Other materials can theoretically be used
for radiation shielding, however, only if the thickness is adequate to keep the radiation below safe
levels. Because of its unique properties, lead metal is one of the most valuable and reliable shielding
materials available.

The actual material for shielding will be determined through a variety of parameters,
including heat dissipation ease, radiation damage resistance, reduced levels of radiation, needed
weight and thickness, shielding permanence, multi-use concerns, availability, and uniformity
capacity.

Personnel wearing lead aprons during fluoroscopy are wearing the principal radiation
protective gear. A lead apron provides about the same amount of radiation shielding as 0.25 to 1 mm
thick lead. An apron with a thickness of 0.5 mm can reduce 90% or more of the scattered radiation.

1
 According on the concept of as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA), the Time, Distance and
Shielding are the ways to reduce the exposure of the practitioners conducting Radiographic Testing,
running away to the source is the only way to reduce the exposure. Shielding minimizes the size of
the controlled area as well as the radiographers' radiation doses. Other forms of local shielding, such
as lead shot, sheets, and bricks, are used to supplement collimators. Radiography personnel must
organize the disposition of equipment and parts within the shielding given whenever existing
shielding, such as walls, vehicles, shielded enclosures, or similar structures, can be used to lower
radiation exposure levels. The conditions for site radiography remain the same.

Objectives of the Project

The researchers focused mainly in lowering the radiation penetration by using lead apron in
conducting radiographic testing and also to maintain the safety awareness in the field.

Specific Objectives

1. To determine the level of penetration of radiation (gamma ray)

2. To provide safety to the NDT practitioner performing radiography.
3. To contribute and innovate the safety awareness of radiographic testing
4. To introduce the ALARA concept (as low as reasonably achievable) in radiation exposure by
means of shielding

II. Review of Related Literatures

The Concept of ALARA

Using the ideas of time, distance, and shielding, the main principles of such efforts to
reduce the danger of exposure and limit the doses of irradiation is the "as low as reasonably
attainable" or ALARA principle. In radiation oncology, potential exposures are minimized by
combining the best design and installation of radiation delivery equipment with well-defined
standard operating procedures. All prevention and control measures are based on preventing
any such exposure to the virus, that can be achieved through limiting space for movement of
the virus, using barriers and increasing distance to vulnerable surfaces, and limiting the
duration of exposure (Mukherji et. Al, 2020).
According to Shavers et all (2004), the ALARA principle dictates that, if practicable,
radiological dangers be reduced through a dose optimization approach. ALARA for spaceflight
implementation relies heavily on the careful arrangement of efficient shielding materials in
areas where crewmembers sleep, rest, or operate. Radiographers must maintain a high degree
of radiographic positioning and exposure technique. They must possess, apply, and maintain
knowledge of radiation protection and safety, it specifically mentions that technologies must
apply ALARA to minimize exposure to patients (Schiska, 2021).

2
 ALARA Study of Teaching Effectiveness on Reducing Radiation Exposure
The goal of this study was to determine the efficiency of radiation safety teaching and
its impact on radiation film badge levels. After being pretested for radiation safety knowledge, a
convenience sample of 144 endoscopy nurses and technicians were given a radiation safety
course, and then post tested immediately after the course and then 6 months later. Pre-
instruction, 1-month post-instruction, and 6 months post-instruction radiation badges were
examined for radiation exposure. The teaching was effective, according to the results. The
number of radiation badge readings only decreased slightly; nevertheless, the decline was not
statistically significant.
Civil engineering is a wide field involving construction of various structures which needs
high attention to safety. Radiography technique is one of the most widely utilized non-
destructive testing methods used in industry to evaluate the structural integrity or to find out
the hidden details of an assembled structure. Since this method uses ionizing radiation, it is
important to ensure not only the quality of product but also the safety of technician, public
around and the immediate environment. This paper involves designing of a radiographic testing
room in an industry according to the standards prescribed in National Building Code (NBC) and
Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB). Planning of the room, designing of the elements and
analysis of the structure has been done assuring prevention of hazards and accidents from
harmful radiations. This paper also explained about the safety management and emergency
plan to be implemented at the working site of radiographic testing room.
Radiation safety is very important in working in an industry that uses radiation as the
source to identify the defects or the flaws that the test subject have. Radiography is the most
traditional kind of NDT. Unfortunately, because of the presence of radiation, which ionizes
biological substance, radiography poses a safety risk. The radiation that happens during non-
destructive testing is dangerous since it is invisible, difficult to understand, and unexpected in
effects. However, both workers and the general public are subject to tight limits regarding its
exposure (Pope and Charles, 1994).
The ALARA principle is beneficial to both radiation workers and the general public. The
basic tenet of the ALARA philosophy is to minimize radiation exposures as low as reasonably
achievable as part of radiation protection programs in all nuclear facilities around the world.
Shielding is the technique of absorbing radiation by placing different materials between the
worker and the source. Shielding is chosen based on the type of radiation and might be
temporary or permanent (Dragusin, 2009).
In hospitals, clinics, and dentistry offices, radiation shielding garments are routinely used
to protect medical patients and personnel from direct and secondary radiation exposure during
diagnostic imaging. Other applications for similar materials include scanner curtains, which are
used to shield employees working near airport scanners or similar machines. Lead (Pb) powder-
3
loaded polymer or elastomer sheets have been used to make radiation shielding aprons and
covers. The average garment lifetime for these materials is about ten years, though abuse can
substantially reduce this duration (McCaffrey et.al, 2006).
Gamma radiation shielding analysis of lead-flyash concretes
According to Sing et al. (2014), six samples of lead-flyash concrete were prepared with
lead as an admixture and by varying flyash content – 0%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 60% (by
weight) by replacing cement and keeping constant w/c ratio. Different gamma radiation
interaction parameters used for radiation shielding design were computed theoretically and
measured experimentally at 662 keV, 1173 keV and 1332 keV gamma radiation energy using
narrow transmission geometry. The obtained results were compared with ordinary-flyash
concretes. The radiation exposure rate of gamma radiation sources used was determined with
and without lead-flyash concretes.
Simulation of radiation shielding properties of glasses contain PbO
Simulations were used to calculate the radiation shielding characteristics of lead glass
systems such as PbO-B2O3, PbO-SiO2, PbO-GeO2, and PbO-WO3-TeO2. The MCNP5
programme is used to simulate the mass attenuation coefficients of glass systems with photon
energies ranging from 0.015 to 10 MeV. The probability of partial gamma-ray interaction with
glass systems at different energies in the intermediate gamma energy region (662–1229 keV) is
computed, and it found out that Compton scattering interaction has dominated interaction,
contributing to the different total attenuation coefficients in each glass matrix (El-Mallawany et
al., 2018).
Conventional and new lead-free radiation shielding materials for radiation protection
in nuclear medicine: A review
A gamma ray is a high-energy ionizing radiation that can harm living cells by slowing
down and transferring its energy to nearby cells. Radiation shielding materials have included
lead and concrete. However, it demonstrates that lead toxicity is a serious environmental illness
with fatal consequences for humans. As a result, there is a pressing need to develop a long-
term radiation shielding material to protect humans and the environment from the harmful
effects of radiation. Materials with a high atomic number and density, such as tungsten and
concrete, are the most effective radiation shielding materials (AbuAlRoos, et al., 2019).
Radiation shielding of ultra-high-performance concrete with silica sand, amang and
lead glass
The study of Azreen, et al., (2018) selected steel fibre-reinforced ultra-high-performance
concrete (UHPC) samples with different inert materials, namely, silica sand, amang and lead
glass as the study object and tested them experimentally for their mechanical properties and
radiation absorption capabilities. At 28 days, the compressive strength of the UHPC samples
exceeded 155 MPa. Meanwhile, UHPC with lead glass lost compression strength with time,
4
while UHPC with amang posed a problem with radiological safety, despite the fact that it was
an effective -ray shield. Because of the quantity and cost-effectiveness of the materials
involved, the usage of UHPC with silica sand is practicable for constructing nuclear plants.
Bismuth oxide-coated fabrics for X-ray shielding
To protect radiographers and patients from dangerous radiation, lead aprons are
commonly employed in medical imaging. Due to its excessive weight, inflexibility, poor
durability, and toxicity, Maghrabi et al., (2015) revealed that lead is not a desirable material for
radiation protection. In this regard, the suitability of bismuth oxide (Bi2O3) coating for textiles
as a replacement for lead was investigated to be able show how concept and technology may
be used to create a lead-equivalent lightweight X-ray protective textile with increased
wearability. The main goal was to determine how effective are the two textile materials coated
with Bi2O3 were at shielding X-rays. To achieve this, X-ray exposures were taken at 80 kVp, 12
mAs, and 80 SID on the system (the distance from the X-ray beam source to the specimen). It is
evident from the study that Bi2O3 in a suitable resin matrix can be coated on fabrics and is an
effective method to produce flexible, wearable, and lead-free aprons. Coated polyester fabrics
with over 50% Bi2O3 showed enhanced shielding ability for transmitted X-rays. This research
has shown that microparticle size Bi2O3 can be effective for X-ray attenuation.
The study of Sheyn et.al (2008) indicated that wearing lead made products reduces the
chance of exposing the body part to radiation. Technologists are strongly encouraged to wear
leaded eyewear at all times, even if they are far away from the radiation source. The IR
physicians taught the PICC nurses about radiation safety and encouraged them to buy and wear
leaded eyewear, but none of them had done so as of yet. Because the PICC nurses did not
report to Radiology, they can only recommend, but not require, their usage. The study
anticipated that continuing to raise radiation safety awareness will inspire PICC nurses to adopt
the habit of wearing leaded eyewear on a regular basis.
Material Cost
Highly cost-effective shielding composite made from vanadium slag and boron-rich slag
and its properties- In this research, vanadium slag, boron-rich slag, and epoxy resin were used
to create a highly cost-effective shielding composite. The gamma ray shielding properties were
investigated using the WinXCOM application and a 60Co gamma ray source. A 60Co gamma ray
irradiation field was used to test gamma ray irradiation for composites. The material properties
of composites were investigated using a combination of DSC-TGA, electronic universal testing
equipment, and scanning electron microscopy. For the 60Co gamma ray, the HVL of all
composites is essentially identical, around 3.90 cm at 1173 keV and 4.15 cm at 1332 keV.
Composites have a maximum resistance temperature of around 230°C. All composites have
almost the same bending strength, which is greater than 10 MPa. Under 93.5 kGy dosage
gamma irradiation, composites offer good resistance to gamma ray irradiation. (Dong, et al.,
2017)

5
 As cited by Vaulo et al (2017), Protecting astronauts from space radiation is one of the
main critical challenges in space exploration. This concern has been addressed by all space
agencies, since the early days of human space flight; nowadays radiation shielding in space is of
renewed importance, in view of future deep-space long-duration human missions, projecting
man to the Moon and beyond, in particular towards Mars.
Experiments about Lead as Shielding in X-ray
Light weight, easy formable and non-Toxic Polymer-Based Composites for Hard X-ray
Shielding: A Theoretical and Experimental Study For X-ray shielding applications, composite
lightweight materials were studied and developed with the goal of replacing traditional lead
and steel screens with innovative materials with similar shielding properties, but lighter, more
easily formed, and workable, with lower environmental impact and lower toxicity for human
health. Simulations using software based on Geant4 were used to design new epoxy-based
composites using barium sulfate and bismuth oxide. The samples were then prepared and
analyzed using a variety of procedures, beginning with digital radiography to determine the
composites' radiopacity in comparison to typical materials. Within the open LCA framework,
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) calculations based on the ecoinvent database were used to
quantify the lower environmental impact and toxicity of these revolutionary screens (Lopresti,
et al., 2020).

In this study, X-ray shielding properties of bulk and nanostructured thin lead films were
investigated by means of Monte-Carlo computational and experimental methods, respectively.
the Results imply that the nanostructured thin lead films attenuate more photons than the bulk
structured thin lead films with the same thicknesses (Vagheian et. Al, 2019).

Polymer nanocomposite-based shielding against diagnostic X-rays

Lead is commonly used in medical radiology departments as a shielding material. Lead-
based protective materials are also used by clinical personnel during X-ray image-guided
interventional radiology (IVR) procedures. However, lead is exceedingly poisonous, and
continuous exposure can cause major health problems. Lead-free polymer composites, on the
other hand, can be developed to be lightweight, conformable, cost-effective, and possibly
capable of greatly attenuating X-rays. Nanomaterials have unique material properties that can
be exploited to develop novel lead-free radiation-protection materials. In this study,
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) nanocomposites were fabricated using different weight
percentages (wt %) of bismuth oxide (BO) nanopowder. (Nambiar, et al., 2012)
Experiments about Lead as Shielding in gamma ray
A heavy shield for the gamma-ray detector used in fast neutron experiments
As a shielding material for the gamma-ray detector used in fast neutron experiments, an
80-20 wt. percent mixture of paraffin and boric acid was proposed. Neutron and gamma-ray

6
transport calculations were used to assess its neutron shielding performance, which was
compared to that of other materials. Therefore, when utilized in conjunction with a lead shield,
borated paraffin was proven to be an excellent and cost-efficient shielding material against fast
neutrons. Furthermore, a heavy shield for the gamma-ray detector was built, and the typical
shield performance for keV-neutron capture studies was evaluated (Igashira, et al., 2002).
According to Rezaei-Ochbelagh and Azimkhani (2012) they observed that gamma-ray
shielding properties of concrete containing different percentages of lead when the lead-to-
cement ratio is high. When the ratio in concrete is increased from 0% to 90%, the compressive
strength of the concrete increases. The strength and gamma ray shielding qualities of the
material have been improved and when the cement-to-lead ratio is the gamma ray protection
in concrete has been raised from 90% to 300%. Concrete's qualities have improved, but its
compressive strength decreased. Its effectiveness as a shielding element has been reduced, and
is no longer usable.
Human beings are continuously exposed to cosmogenic radiation and its products in the
atmosphere from naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) within the earth, their
bodies, houses and foods. Especially, for the radiation protection environments where high
ionizing radiation levels appear should be shielded. Generally, different materials are used for
radiation shielding in different areas and for different situations. In this study, a novel shielding
material produced by a metallurgical solid waste containing lead was analyzed as shielding
material for gamma radiation. The photon total mass attenuation coefficients (μ/ρ) were
measured and calculated using WinXCom computer code for the novel shielding material,
concrete and lead. Theoretical and experimental values of total mass attenuation coefficient of
the each studied sample were compared. Consequently, a new shielding material prepared
from the solid waste containing lead could be preferred for buildings as shielding materials
against gamma radiation.
Novel Lead Oxide Polymer Nanocomposites for Nuclear Radiation Shielding
Applications
Hashim, A., & Hadi, A. (2018) found that Polymer nanocomposites have been used in
many applications such as a fabrication of protective enclosures for humans and devices at
nuclear power plants and hospitals. The aim of this paper is the preparation of novel polymer
nanocomposites with high linear attenuation coefficients for nuclear radiation shielding. The
study produced the nanocomposites of polyvinyl alcohol, polyacrylic acid, and lead oxide
nanoparticles with various concentrations of components and have studied their optical
properties. As the concentration of PbO2 nanoparticles increases, the absorbance of a polymer
blend and the optical constants increase, whereas energy band gap decreases. The tests of the
nanocomposite for the gamma radiation shielding showed that it has high attenuation
coefficients for gamma radiation.

7
 Estimation of the lead thickness required to shield scattered radiation from
synchrotron radiation experiments

Wroblewski (2014) stated that secondary radiation occurs from two phenomena,
namely fluorescence and scattering in the enclosure of synchrotron radiation experiments using
a monochromatic beam. The angular dependence of Compton scattering must be considered if
the shielding is not to grow unnecessarily thick, even though fluorescence can be considered
isotropic. The goal of this paper was to show how various factors, ranging from the source's
spectral properties and the shielding's attenuation coefficient to the scattered radiation's
spectral and angular distribution, as well as the experiment's geometry, influence the lead
thickness required to keep the dose rate outside the enclosure below the desired threshold.
According to Chiang et al (2015) stated that in operating room, it was to simulate space
exposure doses, measuring at a distance of 2m from the tube and the radiation doses behind
the lead barrier. The experiment aimed to investigate spatial distribution of scattered radiation
doses induced by exposure to the portable X-ray, the C-arm machine, and to simulate the
radiologist without a shield of lead clothing, radiation doses absorbed by medical staff at 2 m
from the central exposure point.
The efficiency of lead shielding for background reduction in underground neutrino
experiments
According to Peak, L. S. et al (2002), underground gamma ray fluxes in the energy range 0.5–
6.0 MeV have been observed at a depth of 1230 m for varied thicknesses of lead shielding. The
exterior and internal components of the response of the 10 cm cubical NaI crystal may be isolated
and examined using the results. The Sydney Solar Neutrino Group's plans to expand these
measurements with a much larger Cherenkov apparatus were discussed in the future.

III. Methodology

Data Collection

This research used qualitative research design where the data were derived from
different researches, articles, and case studies both from Non-Destructive Testing field and
medical field of studies and aggregating it to determine the feasibility of implementation and
use of wearable shielding for Radiographic Testing practitioners. The researchers used meta-
analysis to investigate and review the different articles and case studies gathered. Also, the
results from the Meta-analysis was used to prove if it is feasible or not.

8
 Conceptual Paradigm

INPUT
OUTPUT
Background in
Radiographic Testing
Principles
PROCESS
Hazards and Safety Comparison of
Measures in Characteristics
Gathering of Data Utilization of lead
Radiographic Testing
using Case Studies and apron for radiographic
Scientific Articles Background in Medical testing
Radiography Filling the Gap
Personal Protective
Shielding Equipment in
Medical Field

The figure shows consisting of the gathered data such as case studies and scientific
articles about background in Radiographic testing principles, hazards and safety in radiographic
testing, background in medical radiography, and personal protective shielding equipment in
Medical Radiography. The process of this study included the comparison of the characteristics
and by filling the gap of the research, the output of the research should be the Analysis and
Evaluation, Review of the proposed solution, and the investigation of possible project.

Data Analysis
Meta-analysis is a type of survey research in which research reports are questioned
rather than people. The authors give readers with a solution to this question in a user-friendly,
state-of-the-art explanation of meta-analysis by focusing on practical techniques and
considering options for implementing them. The authors outline each phase of the meta-
analysis process, from problem conceptualization to statistical analysis and conclusion
interpretation (Lipsey and Wilson, 2021).

9
 Meta-analysis is a set of processes for quantifying, integrating, and analyzing the results
of numerous research studies. It has the benefit of quantifying the impacts of specific studies as
well as describing the processes used by the authors while examining the literature. Despite the
fact that meta-analysis has been shown to be a valuable tool in exercise and sport research and
that new and more relevant statistical techniques for meta-analysis have been created, these
processes are not generally applied. (Thomas and French, 2013).

On the other hand, Protocols for systematic reviews and meta-analyses allow for the
planning and documentation of review methods, act as a safeguard against arbitrary decision-
making during review conduct, allow readers to assess for selective reporting against
completed reviews, and, when made publicly available, reduce duplication of effort and
potentially prompt collaboration. Evidence of selective reporting and excessive repetition of
reviews on the same or comparable themes is gathering, and many people have called for
review processes to be documented and made publicly available (Shamseer, et al., 2015).

According to Salameh, et al., (2020), in evidence-based medicine, systematic reviews of

diagnostic test accuracy (DTA) studies are critical to the decision-making process. Despite the
fact that these studies are considered high-level evidence, they are not always disclosed totally
and honestly. DTA systematic reviews' validity and generalizability, as well as their usefulness to
key stakeholders, are jeopardized by poor reporting. In the study of Khan, et al., (2003),
systematic reviews and meta-analyses are critical components of evidence-based medicine, yet
they remain mysterious in certain ways. A systematic review is one that begins with a clearly
stated issue, selects relevant research, assesses their quality, and summarizes the evidence
using specified methods. Methodical reviews are distinguished from typical reviews and
commentary by their explicit and systematic methodology.

Bergstrom, et al., (2006) explored the overall theory behind and practice of the rising
use of meta-analysis for benefits transfer in their research. The researchers feel that if correctly
conducted using systematic processes for model creation, data collecting, and data analysis and
interpretation, meta-analysis could show to be a beneficial tool for benefits transfer in specific
applications. However, more convergent validity studies are required before this strategy can
be widely used. The capacity to combine and synthesize huge volumes of information from
prior studies is one of the main advantages of employing meta-analysis for benefits transfer.
Shavers et al., (2004) claim that the "as low as reasonably attainable" (ALARA) principle
recommends that radioactive hazards should be avoided as much as possible by dose
optimization. ALARA's application for spaceflight is primarily reliant on the precise placement of
efficient shielding materials in locations where crewmembers sleep, rest, or operate. When it
comes to radiographic positioning and exposure technique, radiographers must be extremely
precise. They must know about radiation protection and safety and must be able to apply it. It
also states that technologies must use ALARA to reduce patient exposure (Schiska, 2021).

10
Working in an industry that uses radiation as a source to identify defects or flaws in test
subjects is extremely dangerous. Radiography is the most common type of nondestructive
testing (NDT). Unfortunately, radiography offers a safety risk because it uses radiation to ionize
biological substances. Because the radiation produced during non-destructive testing is
invisible, difficult to understand, and unpredictable in its consequences, it is hazardous (Pope
and Charles, 1994).

Radiation shielding garments are commonly used in hospitals, clinics, and dental offices
to protect medical patients and workers from direct and secondary radiation exposure during
diagnostic imaging. Scanner curtains, which are used to protect employees working near airport
scanners or similar machinery, are another application for comparable fabrics. Radiation
shielding aprons and covers have been made using lead (Pb) powder-loaded polymer or
elastomer sheets. (McCaffrey et al., 2006). A gamma ray is a type of high-energy ionizing
radiation that can cause damage to live cells by slowing down and transferring energy to
surrounding cells. Lead and concrete have been used as radiation shielding materials. As a
result, a long-term radiation shielding material is urgently needed to safeguard individuals and
the environment from the detrimental effects of radiation. The most effective radiation
shielding materials are tungsten and concrete, which have a high atomic number and density.
(AbuAlRoos et al., 2019) The IR physicians had taught the PICC nurses about radiation safety
and encouraged them to buy and wear leaded eyewear, but none of them had done so as of
yet. Wearing lead made products reduce the chance of exposing the body part to radiation
technologists. (Sheyn, et al., 2008)
X-ray shielding applications were studied and developed with the goal of replacing
traditional lead and steel screens with innovative materials with similar shielding properties,
but lighter and more easily formed. Simulations using software based on Geant4 were used to
design new epoxy-based composites using barium sulfate and bismuth oxide. The samples were
then prepared and analyzed using a variety of procedures, beginning with digital radiography to
determine the composites' radiopacity in comparison to typical materials (Lopresti, et al.,
2020).
Lead is commonly used in medical radiology departments as a shielding material.
Nanomaterials have unique material properties that can be exploited to develop novel lead-
free radiation-protection materials. In this study, polydimethylsiloxane nanocomposites were
fabricated using different weight percentages of bismuth oxide (BO) nanopowder (Nambiar, et
al., 2012).
An 80-20 wt. percent mixture of paraffin and boric acid was proposed. Neutron and
gamma-ray transport calculations were used to assess its neutron shielding performance.
Therefore, when utilized in conjunction with a lead shield, borated paraffin was proven to be an
excellent and cost-efficient shielding material against fast neutrons (Igashira, et al., 2002).

11
 For the radiation protection environments where high ionizing radiation levels appear
should be shielded. Generally, different materials are used for the radiation shielding in
different areas and for different situations. A new shielding material prepared from
metallurgical waste containing lead could be preferred for buildings as shielding materials
against gamma radiation. The photon total mass attenuation coefficients (μ/ρ) were measured
and calculated using WinXCom computer code for the novel shielding material, concrete and
lead.
Polymer nanocomposites have been used in many applications such as a fabrication of
protective enclosures for humans and devices at nuclear power plants and hospitals. The aim of
the study is the preparation of novel polycarbonate nanomaterials with high linear attenuation
coefficients for nuclear radiation shielding. The tests of the nanocomposite for the gamma
radiation shielding showed that it has high attenuation coefficients for gamma radiation
(Hashim, A., & Hadi, A., 2018).
Lead shielding for synchrotron experiments must consider Compton scattering, even
though fluorescence can be considered isotropic. The angular dependence of Compton
scattering must be considered if the shielding is not to grow unnecessarily thick. Various
factors, ranging from source's spectral properties and shielding's attenuation coefficient to
scattered radiation's spectral and angular distribution, as well as geometry, influence the
thickness required to keep dose rate below the desired threshold (Wroblewski, 2014).
The Sydney Solar Neutrino Group's plans to expand these measurements with a much
larger Cherenkov apparatus are discussed in the future. Underground gamma ray fluxes in the
energy range 0.5–6.0 MeV have been observed at a depth of 1230 m for varied thicknesses of
lead shielding. The exterior and internal components of the response of the 10 cm cubical NaI
crystal may be isolated and examined using the results (L.S. Peak; A.M. Bakich, 1985).

IV. Results

Thickness for Scattered Radiation

The thickness required to guard against secondary radiation emitted by synchrotron
radiation experiments has been calculated using a broad technique. There have been no
assumptions made regarding the target's location, geometry, or composition. Furthermore, in
accordance with the tunability of most beam lines, the whole energy spectrum of primary
radiation has been addressed. A step-by-step approach elucidates the impact of source
attributes and bandwidth, as well as the relationship between the two. Depending on the
target's angle and energy, as well as the enclosure's. The calculations reveal not just the
required thickness, but also the parameters to consider in the worst-case scenario. This not
only allows for a more economical enclosure design, but it may also be utilized to establish
survey conditions (energy, target position). (Alpha, 2014)

12
 Gamma Radiation Scatter Underground Laboratory
Peak and Bakich (1985) claim to have obtained gamma spectra in an underground
laboratory at a depth of 1230 m with a sodium iodide crystal protected by changing quantities
of lead. The count rate is clearly impacted by the lead at low energy and low lead thicknesses,
with an effective attenuation coefficient of 0.04 cm2 g-1. The integral counts achieve a stable
value when the lead thickness is raised, illustrating the internal component of our measuring
system. The initial decrease generated by the lead becomes less noticeable when the energy is
raised, implying that this internal component has a flatter energy spectrum than the exterior.
The internal contribution appears to be a result of the crystal assembly itself, rather
than the lead shield that surrounds it.
Before the lead contribution could be measured, the internal contribution would have
to be lowered by a factor of around 103-104. Internal alpha and beta activity from within the
crystal and tube assembly is the most plausible reason for this internal contribution. Traces of
uranium and thorium could be the source of this action.
The measurement of any rate lower than roughly 50 counts per day in the range about 5
MeV, for our detector, is severely limited by this intrinsic activity. Measurements made at
higher energies (more than 7 MeV) or with a Cherenkov system (blind to any internal alpha
activity) would be unrestricted. (Peak and Bakich, 1985)
Radiation Attenuation by Lead and Nonlead Materials in Radiation Shielding Garments
The position of the attenuating element's K absorption edge affects radiation shielding
for diagnostic imaging energies of 60 – 120 kVp. Lower-atomic-number elements gave better
protection per unit mass in materials. In most situations, the W–rubber composite evaluated
here offered attenuation nearly as effective as Pb-containing materials. Many non-Pb materials
outperform Pb in terms of air kerma and ambient dose equivalent radiation protection,
however no one element gave the best protection for all attributes. The materials content of
radiation shielding materials in a uniformly distributed, homogeneous material can be
optimized using Monte Carlo computations. (McCaffrey, 2007)
Nano Composites as Radioprotective Materials
Nambiar et al. (2012) shown that innovative PDMS nanocomposites containing varying
amounts of BO have the ability to effectively attenuate X-rays (both primary and phantom-
scattered) generated during IVR operations, and hence can be used as a protective material
during the treatment. The polymer nanocomposite's attenuation characteristics were highly
repeatable. However, a thorough investigation of the radiation-induced damage is required. for
long-term use of radiation shields made of PDMS/BO PDMS nanocomposites are nontoxic, cost-
effective, and easy to construct as compared to typical X-ray shielding materials (heavy,
industrial-type metal extruders/compressors are not required, as is the case with most
commercially available shields). To attain a percentage-attenuation similar to those of
13
commercially available lead/vinyl-based shields (97.5 and 98.7% at 102 kV and 80 mAs,21 either
the wt% of BO or the thickness of the nanocomposites must be raised. A 0.25-mm pure lead
sheet weighed twice as much as a 0.25-mm lead-equivalent "BO 44.44' (3.73-mm thick)
nanocomposite. It's worth noting that these nanocomposites can be coated or painted, and
they can take on virtually any shape. This property allows PDMS/BO nanocomposites to be used
in a variety of applications, particularly those that are not weight-dependent. Patients' lead-
based gonad protection, for example, can be changed, and PDMS/BO nanocomposites can
provide conformable thyroid shielding during mammography. Furthermore, because PDMS
composites dry (polymerize) at ambient temperature, the added cost and effort of employing
additional equipment to dry/shape the material can be eliminated. The PDMS/BO
radioprotective nanocomposite's material properties enable it to be used as a filler material in
the walls (bunkers) of radiation treatment facilities, as a protective coating on electronic
devices, and as protective shields conformable to specific anatomies of patients undergoing
radiological procedures.
Flexible, Light Hard X-Ray Shield
Low-toxicity composite material mixes for X-ray shielding for human health, low
environmental impact as determined by a life cycle assessment, low production processing, as
well as a high level of mechanical resistance. Various formulations for easily formable
composites and lightweight shielding materials were proposed in this work. Using a simplex-
lattice experimental design for mixes, the researchers investigated the highest performing
blends of bismuth oxide, barium sulfate, and epoxy resin. Due to their lightweight and strong
shielding and mechanical resistance, 20:20:60, 20:40:40, and 40:20:40 BaSO4/Bi3O3/epoxy
resin w/w combinations are the best for low photon-energy applications, such as the medical
area. The best performing combinations for hard X-ray industrial applications, such as
radiography and computed tomography, with energy in the 20-220keV range, are 60:20:20,
40:40:20, and 20:60:20 w/w BaSO4/Bi3O3/epoxy resin In particular, three mixtures (labeled a–
c) outperform steel (mixture a has 4.5 percent more shielding capability, mixture b has 23.4
percent, and mixture c has 33.1 percent, with a weight reduction ranging from 55 to 62 percent
depending on which mixture is chosen), making them good candidates for traditional screen
replacement. An LCA research was done to compare screens manufactured of lead and steel
with the created mixes, in addition to physical, chemical, morphological, and mechanical
evaluation to verify their appropriateness for real-world use. The results show that the
produced samples have a lower overall environmental impact than lead-based samples (global
warming 32 percent less, fine particular matter formation 82.8 percent less, human non-
carcinogenic toxicity 94.71 percent less, etc.) and a lower human carcinogenic impact (96.64
percent less) than steel-based samples (global warming 32 percent less, fine particular matter
formation 82.8 percent less, human non-carcinogenic toxicity 94.71 percent less, etc.) (Lopresti
et. Al, 2020).
1. To provide safety to the NDT practitioner performing radiography.

14
2. To

15
V. Discussions

A. Level of penetration of radiation (gamma ray)

Poe and Charles (1994) cited that Radiography is the most traditional kind of NDT. However,
due to radiation that ionizes biological substance, radiography proved to be unsafe and risky.
Radiation during non-destructive testing is dangerous because it cannot be seen by the naked eye; it
is difficult to understand, and its effects are unexpected. In this regard, both workers and the general
public are subjected to tight limits regarding its exposure
Meanwhile, Wroblewski (2014) indicated that radiation cannot be controlled by using a
shielding and. lead shielding as an apron of the practitioner. He claimed that secondary radiation
occurs in the enclosure of synchrotron radiation experiments using a monochromatic beam due to
two phenomena: fluorescence and scattering. Scattered radiation using portable x-ray machines
cannot be shielded by the thickness of the shielding, it also concerns the geometry of the shielding
and depending on the angle and energy of the target, as well as the container. Not only does the
computation show the required thickness, but it also reveals the parameters to be considered in a
worst-case situation. This enables for a more cost-effective enclosure design, as well as the
establishment of survey conditions (Alpha, 2014).

The study of Zuguchi et al (2008) indicated that properly designed non lead apron is also
useful in practitioners working on radiation; likewise, the performance of these non-lead and lead
aprons was similar for scattered X rays at tube voltages of 60–120 kV. Also, properly designed non-
lead aprons are more suitable for physicians because they weigh ∼20% less than the lead aprons,
and are non-toxic.

According to McCaffrey et al (2006), in hospitals, clinics, and dentistry offices, radiation

shielding garments are routinely used to protect medical patients and personnel from direct and
secondary radiation exposure during diagnostic imaging. Thus, it is good to wear lead apron and it
will lessen the penetration of radiation.

Wearing lead made products reduce the chance of exposing the body part to radiation
technologists are strongly encourage to wear leaded eyewear at all times, even if they are far away
from the radiation source (Sheyn, et al., 2008). Natural rubber (NR) composite-based flexible
shielding materials have been effectively manufactured and developed. Barium carbonate (BaCO3),
bismuth oxides (Bi2O3), and barium sulfates (BaSO4) were all utilized as radiation shielding fillers.
The density of crosslinks as well as mechanical parameters (modulus at 100% elongation, tensile
strength, hardness, and specific gravity) were studied (Kalkornsuraprranee, et al., 2020).

Also, Li, et al., (2020) added that it has been successfully manufactured a co-doped Bi/Ce-NL
composite with excellent X-ray attenuation in the energy range of 20–120 keV. The homogeneous
distribution of Bi2O3 and CeO2 nanoparticles in natural leather's hierarchical structure enhances X-
ray attenuation substantially. Low bulk density, high water vapor permeability, remarkable
mechanical characteristics, and great bending resistance characterize the materials. Wearing lead
made products like gloves, eyewear, and apron can reduce the chance of exposing the body part to
16
the source of radiation. It is also highly recommended to the practitioners. The purpose of these
personal protective equipment is to optimize the hazard in the field and specially to lessen the
penetration of radiation to the workers (Damilakis, 2000).

Wearable radiation shielding can be possible by the use of different shielding fillers like
BaCO3, Bi2O3, BaSO4). With this, composite NR/Bi2O3 gave highest crosslink density, tensile
strength, % Elongation at break. The cross-link density is defined by the density of chains or
segments that connect two infinite parts of the polymer network, rather than the density of cross-
link junctures. This NR/Bi203 is the most suitable material for the flexible radiation shielding.
(Kalkornsuraprranee, et al., 2020).

According to McCaffrey et al (2006), in hospitals, clinics, and dentistry offices, radiation

shielding garments are routinely used to protect medical patients and personnel from direct and
secondary radiation exposure during diagnostic imaging. Thus, it is good to wear lead apron and it
will lessen the penetration of radiation. Wearing lead made products reduce the chance of exposing
the body part to radiation technologists are strongly encourage to wear leaded eyewear at all times,
even if they are far away from the radiation source (Sheyn, et al., 2008). Natural rubber (NR)
composite-based flexible shielding materials have been effectively manufactured and developed.
Barium carbonate (BaCO3), bismuth oxides (Bi2O3), and barium sulfates (BaSO4) were all utilized as
radiation shielding fillers.

The density of crosslinks as well as mechanical parameters (modulus at 100% elongation,

tensile strength, hardness, and specific gravity) were studied (Kalkornsuraprranee, et al., 2020). Also,
Li, et al., (2020) added that it has been successfully manufactured a co-doped Bi/Ce-NL composite
with excellent X-ray attenuation in the energy range of 20–120 keV. The homogeneous distribution
of Bi2O3 and CeO2 nanoparticles in natural leather's hierarchical structure enhances X-ray
attenuation substantially. Low bulk density, high water vapor permeability, remarkable mechanical
characteristics, and great bending resistance characterize the materials.

B. Provision of safety to the NDT practitioner performing radiography

To protect radiographers and patients from dangerous radiation, lead aprons are
commonly employed in medical imaging. Due to its excessive weight, inflexibility, poor
durability, and toxicity, Maghrabi et al., (2015) revealed that lead is not a desirable material for
radiation protection and instead suggested the suitability of bismuth oxide (Bi2O3) coating for
textiles as a replacement for lead was investigated to be able show how concept and
technology may be used to create a lead-equivalent lightweight X-ray protective textile with
increased wearability. Coated polyester fabrics with over 50% Bi2O3 showed enhanced
shielding ability for transmitted X-rays; therefore, microparticle size Bi2O3 can be effective for
X-ray attenuation.
Further, Sheyn et al (2008) indicated that wearing lead made products reduces the
chance of exposing the body part to radiation. Technologists are strongly encouraged to wear

17
leaded eyewear at all times, even if they are far away from the radiation source. The IR
physicians taught PICC nurses about radiation safety and encouraged them to buy and wear
leaded eyewear. The study anticipated that continuing to raise radiation safety awareness will
inspire PICC nurses to adopt the habit of wearing leaded eyewear on a regular basis.
In hospitals, clinics, and dentistry offices, radiation shielding garments are routinely used
to protect medical patients and personnel from direct and secondary radiation exposure during
diagnostic imaging. Other applications for similar materials include scanner curtains, which are
used to shield employees working near airport scanners or similar machines. Lead (Pb) powder-
loaded polymer or elastomer sheets have been used to make radiation shielding aprons and
covers. The average garment lifetime for these materials is about ten years, though abuse can
substantially reduce this duration (McCaffrey et.al, 2006).

C. Contribution innovation of the safety awareness of radiographic testing

Wearing lead made products like gloves, eyewear, and apron can reduce the chance of
exposing the body part to the source of radiation. It is also highly recommended to the practitioners.
The purpose of these personal protective equipment is to optimize the hazard in the field and
specially to lessen the penetration of radiation to the workers (Damilakis, 2000). Wearable radiation
shielding can be possible by the use of different shielding fillers like BaCO3, Bi2O3, BaSO4). With this,
composite NR/Bi2O3 gave highest crosslink density, tensile strength, % Elongation at break. The
cross-link density is defined by the density of chains or segments that connect two infinite parts of
the polymer network, rather than the density of cross-link junctures. This NR/Bi203 is the most
suitable material for the flexible radiation shielding (Kalkornsuraprranee, et al., 2020).

A gamma ray is a high-energy ionizing radiation that can harm living cells by slowing
down and transferring its energy to nearby cells. Radiation shielding materials have included
lead and concrete. However, it demonstrates that lead toxicity is a serious environmental illness
with fatal consequences for humans. As a result, there is a pressing need to develop a long-
term radiation shielding material to protect humans and the environment from the harmful
effects of radiation. Materials with a high atomic number and density, such as tungsten and
concrete, are the most effective radiation shielding materials (AbuAlRoos, et al., 2019).
To protect radiographers and patients from dangerous radiation, lead aprons are
commonly employed in medical imaging. Due to its excessive weight, inflexibility, poor
durability, and toxicity, Maghrabi et al., (2015) revealed that lead is not a desirable material for
radiation protection. In this regard, the suitability of bismuth oxide (Bi2O3) coating for textiles
as a replacement for lead was investigated to be able show how concept and technology may
be used to create a lead-equivalent lightweight X-ray protective textile with increased
wearability. The main goal was to determine how effective are the two textile materials coated
with Bi2O3 were at shielding X-rays. To achieve this, X-ray exposures were taken at 80 kVp, 12
mAs, and 80 SID on the system (the distance from the X-ray beam source to the specimen). It is

18
evident from the study that Bi2O3 in a suitable resin matrix can be coated on fabrics and is an
effective method to produce flexible, wearable, and lead-free aprons. Coated polyester fabrics
with over 50% Bi2O3 showed enhanced shielding ability for transmitted X-rays. This research
has shown that microparticle size Bi2O3 can be effective for X-ray attenuation.
The study of Sheyn et.al (2008) indicated that wearing lead made products reduces the
chance of exposing the body part to radiation. Technologists are strongly encouraged to wear
leaded eyewear at all times, even if they are far away from the radiation source. The IR
physicians taught the PICC nurses about radiation safety and encouraged them to buy and wear
leaded eyewear, but none of them had done so as of yet. Because the PICC nurses did not
report to Radiology, they can only recommend, but not require, their usage. The study
anticipated that continuing to raise radiation safety awareness will inspire PICC nurses to adopt
the habit of wearing leaded eyewear on a regular basis.
To protect radiographers and patients from dangerous radiation, lead aprons are
commonly employed in medical imaging. Due to its excessive weight, inflexibility, poor
durability, and toxicity, Maghrabi et al., (2015) revealed that lead is not a desirable material for
radiation protection. In this regard, the suitability of bismuth oxide (Bi2O3) coating for textiles
as a replacement for lead was investigated to be able show how concept and technology may
be used to create a lead-equivalent lightweight X-ray protective textile with increased
wearability. The main goal was to determine how effective are the two textile materials coated
with Bi2O3 were at shielding X-rays. To achieve this, X-ray exposures were taken at 80 kVp, 12
mAs, and 80 SID on the system (the distance from the X-ray beam source to the specimen). It is
evident from the study that Bi2O3 in a suitable resin matrix can be coated on fabrics and is an
effective method to produce flexible, wearable, and lead-free aprons. Coated polyester fabrics
with over 50% Bi2O3 showed enhanced shielding ability for transmitted X-rays. This research
has shown that microparticle size Bi2O3 can be effective for X-ray attenuation.
Highly cost-effective shielding composite made from vanadium slag and boron-rich slag
and its properties- In this research, vanadium slag, boron-rich slag, and epoxy resin were used
to create a highly cost-effective shielding composite. The gamma ray shielding properties were
investigated using the WinXCOM application and a 60Co gamma ray source. A 60Co gamma ray
irradiation field was used to test gamma ray irradiation for composites. The material properties
of composites were investigated using a combination of DSC-TGA, electronic universal testing
equipment, and scanning electron microscopy. For the 60Co gamma ray, the HVL of all
composites is essentially identical, around 3.90 cm at 1173 keV and 4.15 cm at 1332 keV.
Composites have a maximum resistance temperature of around 230°C. All composites have
almost the same bending strength, which is greater than 10 MPa. Under 93.5 kGy dosage
gamma irradiation, composites offer good resistance to gamma ray irradiation. (Dong, et al.,
2017)
As cited by Vaulo et al (2017), Protecting astronauts from space radiation is one of the
main critical challenges in space exploration. This concern has been addressed by all space
19
agencies, since the early days of human space flight; nowadays radiation shielding in space is of
renewed importance, in view of future deep-space long-duration human missions, projecting
man to the Moon and beyond, in particular towards Mars.
Azreen, et al., (2018) selected steel fibre-reinforced ultra-high-performance concrete
(UHPC) samples with different inert materials, namely, silica sand, amang and lead glass as the
study object and tested them experimentally for their mechanical properties and radiation
absorption capabilities. At 28 days, the compressive strength of the UHPC samples exceeded
155 MPa. Meanwhile, UHPC with lead glass lost compression strength with time, while UHPC
with amang posed a problem with radiological safety, despite the fact that it was an effective -
ray shield. Because of the quantity and cost-effectiveness of the materials involved, the usage
of UHPC with silica sand is practicable for constructing nuclear plants.
Light weight, easy formable and non-Toxic Polymer-Based Composites for Hard X-ray
Shielding: A Theoretical and Experimental Study For X-ray shielding applications, composite
lightweight materials were studied and developed with the goal of replacing traditional lead
and steel screens with innovative materials with similar shielding properties, but lighter, more
easily formed, and workable, with lower environmental impact and lower toxicity for human
health. Simulations using software based on Geant4 were used to design new epoxy-based
composites using barium sulfate and bismuth oxide. The samples were then prepared and
analyzed using a variety of procedures, beginning with digital radiography to determine the
composites' radiopacity in comparison to typical materials. Within the open LCA framework,
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) calculations based on the ecoinvent database were used to
quantify the lower environmental impact and toxicity of these revolutionary screens (Lopresti,
et al., 2020).

D. Introduction of the ALARA concept (as low as reasonably achievable) in radiation

exposure by means of shielding

ALARA is the guiding principle of radiation safety which stands for “as low as reasonably
achievable”. It means avoiding exposure to radiation that is harmful to humans no matter how small
the dose is. Its purpose is to give knowledge to the workers on how they will handle every situation
dealing with the radiation source. ALARA principle recommends that radioactive hazards should be
avoided as much as possible by dose optimization. Also, radiation safety is very important in working
in an industry that uses radiation as the source to identify the defects or the flaws that tested
subject. ALARA uses three basic protective measures in radiation safety: time, distance,
and shielding.

Regarding time, it simply indicates the amount of time spent near a radioactive source. As
practicable, practitioners have to minimize time near a radioactive source to only to get the job
done. If practitioners are in an area where radiation levels are elevated, complete the work as quickly
as possible, and then leave the area.

20
 Distance means the closeness of the practitioners to the radioactive source.  As much as
possible, practitioners must minimize hi distance from a radioactive source. An increased distance
means decreasing the dose of radiation. as much as you can.  If they increase the distance away from
the source, it means they decrease the radiation dose.

The shielding concept on the other hand means to shield oneself from a radiation source,
hence, they have to put something between them and the radiation source. The most effective
shielding will depend on what kind of radiation the source is emitting. Some radionuclides emit more
than one kind of radiation.

According to Shavers et all (2004), the ALARA principle dictates that, if practicable,
radiological dangers be reduced through a dose optimization approach. ALARA for spaceflight
implementation relies heavily on the careful arrangement of efficient shielding materials in
areas where crewmembers sleep, rest, or operate. Radiographers must maintain a high degree
of radiographic positioning and exposure technique. They must possess, apply, and maintain
knowledge of radiation protection and safety, it specifically mentions that technologies must
apply ALARA to minimize exposure to patients (Schiska, 2021).
The ALARA principle of radiation safety is important since it can help prevent both
unnecessary exposure and overexposure to ionizing radiation. The above-cited principles are intended
for that anyone who works with radiation sources that must be followed to help keep radiation doses
“as low as reasonably achievable”.

VI. Conclusions

Wearable radiation shielding using lead apron can still be feasible with slight adjustments and
improvements. Based on the researchers’ findings between different scientific articles and journals,
using the empirical data of the results from cited authors, it is found that lead (Pb) is indeed a
commonly used material for radiation shielding, whether it used in industrial or medical field.

Since lead is common when it comes to radiation shielding, there are other studies that
manipulates lead, others integrated nano-composite combinations to lead to increase its flexibility.
Somehow, even it is found out that lead is common and effective, there are scientific articles that
compares lead element to other elements such as barium (Ba) and bismuth (Bi) compounds that are
possible alternative to lead. It is also found that in creating an efficient and effective shielding, the
radiation scatter should be considered importantly since the geometry of the shielding material and
the angle of the radiation beam determines if a radiation beam is being shielded.

The researchers came to a conclusion that wearable radiation shielding is feasible and can be
used in industrial radiation testing field. Using advanced material engineering of personal protective
equipment woven with dense material, such as lead, bismuth, or barium molecules, for the radiation
shielding attenuation, and with a shielding made with good geometry that lessen the dangers and
the likeliness of radiation scatter around the exposure area.

21
 Finally, it is also concluded that the principle of ALARA and its concepts of time, distance, and
shielding, could effectively reduce the danger of exposure and limit the doses of irradiation. Potential
exposures are minimized by combining the best design and installation of radiation delivery equipment with
well-defined standard operating procedures. All prevention and control measures are based on preventing
any such exposure to the virus, that can be achieved through limiting space for movement of the virus, using
barriers and increasing distance to vulnerable surfaces, and limiting the duration of exposure

VII. Recommendations

In lieu of the above conclusions, the researchers recommended the following:

1. The use of wearable lead apron shielding for radiographic testing practitioners. Lead
as noted in the study the industry’s standard for designing radiation protection systems. It can
be used to protect against high-energy radiation such as gamma rays, x-rays, and other types of
nuclear radiation with a thickness of 0.5 mm can reduce 90% or more of the scattered
radiation.

2. The adoption of ALARA as the most practical solution to avoiding contamination from
radiation considering its three basic concepts of time, distance and shielding.

3. For other researchers to conduct similar study in the future considering the advancement
of science and technology that will provide more suitable solution against radiation contamination in
the field.

4. Similar study must also be conducted on the properties of lead that can make it more
effective, and less toxic to fabricate and manufacture as an effective radiation shielding.

22
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