HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHILIPPINE LITERATURE 2.

Proverbs (Salawikain)
- have been customarily used and served as laws or rules on
(According to Bienvenido Lumbera, National Artist)
good behavior by our ancestors
o Pre-colonial Period - like allegories or parables that impart lessons for the young
- The Two Essential Features:
o Spanish Colonization - Didactism – for the contents
o American Occupation - Conciseness – for the form (Krappe, 1964)
- ex. Ang liksi at sipag ay daig ng agap. (Tagalog)
o Japanese Occupation 3. Chants (Bulong)
o After EDSA Revolution - are used in witchcraft or enchantment
- ex: Dagang malaki, dagang maliit Ito ang ngipin kong sira
na’t pangit, Sana ay bigyan mo ng bagong kapalit.
4. Ambahan
PRE- COLONIAL PERIOD
- short lyric poems
- an oral tradition - metaphorical language
- spontaneous and instinctive - human situations = phenomena in nature
- expressed in its own dialect - has no prescribed length; number of lines depend on the
- crude in ideology and phraseology complexity of the situation
- Tanaga - Hispanized version; with four
monorhyming heptasyllabic lines
CONVENTIONS OF ORAL LITERARY FORMS 5. Lyric Poetry: Folk Songs
- are one of the oldest forms of Philippine literature
- formulaic repetitions - emerged in the pre-colonial period
- stereotyping of characters - mirrored the early forms of culture
- regular rhythmic - Kundiman – songs of love
- musical devices - Kumintang o Tagumpay – songs of war
- Ang Dalit o Imno – songs for Visayan gods
- Ang Oyayi o Hele – lullaby
COMMON LITERARY FORMS - Diona – songs for wedding
1. Riddles (Bugtong) - Soliranin – songs for laborers
- a traditional verbal expression containing one or two - Talindaw – songs for fishing
descriptive elements, a pair of which may be in opposition - Panambitan or Tagulaylay – song for the dead
to each other 6. Prose Narratives
- referent of the elements is to be guessed (Georges and - Myths
Dundes, 1963) - deal mainly with the creation of the universe, the
- ex: Kapag hiniwa mo, Nanghihilom nang walang pilat origin of man, the gods and supernatural beings,
Answer: Tubig and native culture heroes (Maramba, 2006)
 - ex: “Bathala” or “Abba” THE EPIC (ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE):
- Legends
- Aristotle turns his attention to epic poetry.
- are prose narratives like myths that are regarded
- The mimesis of epic poetry is in verse told in a narrative form.
true by the narrator and audience but are set in a
- Aristotle notes that there are a number of similarities between
period more remote, when the world was much as
tragedy and epic poetry.
it is today (Lopez, 2006)
1. Similarities:
- ex: “Daragang Magayon”
1. Epic poetry must maintain the unity of plot.
- Folktales
2. Epic poetry must share many of the elements of
- are made up of stories about life, adventure, love,
tragedy (peripeteia and anagnorisis).
horror and humor where one can derive lessons
2. Differences:
about life
1. Length
- useful to us because they help us appreciate our
2. Meter
environment, evaluate our personalities and
improve our perspectives in life
- ex: Juan Pusong or Juan Tamad
- Fables THE EPIC (ACCORDING TO THE GREEKS):
- are stories that use animals as characters and are 1. Characters are beings of national importance and historical or
meant to impart lessons legendary significance.
- ex: “The Tortoise and the Monkey” 2. The setting is grand in scope, covering nations, the world, or even
7. Rituals and Dance the universe.
- the earliest form of drama 3. Action consists of deeds of great valor and courage.
- based on daily activities 4. Style is sustained in tone and language.
- ex: Ch’along of the Ifugao, Pagdiwata from the Tagbanua 5. Supernatural forces interest themselves in human action and often
8. Epics intervene directly.
- narratives of sustained length
- based on oral tradition
- revolving around supernatural events or heroic deeds THE EPIC (ACCORDING TO FR. DEMETRIO, SJ)
- in the form of verse
- which is either chanted or sung - Francisco R. Demetrio, S.J. re-arranges the criteria and lists the
- with a certain seriousness of purpose, embodying or following as primary characteristics that a work should possess
validating the beliefs, customs, ideals or life-values of the to be worthy of being called an epic:
people 1. The story must contain a body of ancient traditions
- ex: Bidasari – Moro epic, Biag ni Lam-Ang – Ilokano epic, centering around supernatural or heroic persons or
Maragtas – Visayan epic, Parang Sabir – Moro epic, deeds.
Indarapatra at Sulayman – Mindanao 2. There must be a living faith in these traditions and their
contents.
 3. These traditions must be molded into a single person or THE ADVENTURES OF THE HERO
group of persons by especially gifted persons.
- The epic is essentially a narration of the adventures of a hero.
4. The poem must be invested with a certain sacred or
- Two Groups of Philippine Folk Epics:
venerable character, not only for their antiquity, but
1. Romance Epics – in which the main adventure consists
also for their cosmic, national, and social significance,
in the hero’s courting a specific woman of his choice, or
inasmuch as they validate the beliefs, ideals, and life
in just a search for beautiful ladies whom he can marry.
values of a people or race.
2. Adventure Epics – consist of epics in which the hero
- The Secondary Characteristics of an Epic:
undertakes adventures mainly in the service of his
1. The poem must be of a certain length.
family, his country, his people and of others who seeks
2. It must be composed in verse form.
his help. Another is, the hero sets out on adventure for
3. It must be either sung or chanted.
the sake to prove his valor and worth as a man.

THE EPIC HERO

THE EPIC
- “They live for action, and moved by an important element in
- By contrast, Philippine folk epics may or may not have formal
human soul, the self-assertive principle, which is to be
openings, and those that do, do so in a different way; none of
distinguished equally from the appetites and from the reason
them begins in medias res and so on.
and realizes itself in brave doings.” (Bowra, 1952:1).
- They do observe other epic conventions also found in classical
- In addition to these human qualities, Philippine epic heroes are
folk epics, such as the extensive use of repetition; epithets;
endowed with supernatural or magic powers and possess magic
boastful speeches; a very pronounced element of magic and the
objects and/or animals and even guardians or friendly spirits
supernatural; outrageous exaggeration in describing the
that advise them in moments of need.
prowess of the hero and in the amount and kinds of dowry
- The Life of the Philippine Epic Hero:
demanded for the heroines, etc.
1. He is born under unusual circumstance.
- Philippine epics narrate the adventures of the hero in strictly
2. He undergoes miraculous growth into manhood and is
chronological order, many of them (Lam-ang, Ullalim, Labaw
possessed of a restlessness to set out on adventures.
Donggon, Keboklagan, Sandayo) beginning with the birth of the
3. He lives a life of action and adventure, in the course of
hero. None of them begins in medias res like the Iliad.
which he displays his heroic qualities.
- The epics narrate the main adventures in the life of the hero
4. He is victorious in all his adventures warlike or amorous
and always have a happy ending. The hero wins his lady (wives)
5. If he dies, he is brought back to life and lives happily
and conquers all his opponents. If he dies, he is brought back to
ever after.
life.
HINILAWOD QUESTIONS: 5. Compare Hinilawod with other epics like The Odyssey and Epic of
Gilgamesh. Find out their similarities.
1. Why did the council of the gods called by Maklium-sa-t’wan decide
o Hinilawod is similar to other epics because it contains fight
to destroy Halawod by flood?
scenes or duels either to defeat a monster or to win a girl’s
o The council of the gods called Maklium-sa-t’wan to destroy
heart. There would always be characters who are strong
Halawod by flood because Alunsina chose to marry a mortal
and would be able to do any challenges that would block
which was the mighty ruler of Halawod than to marry the
their way. Like other epics, Hinilawod also has gods and
other unmarried gods.
goddesses that would help guide or make things worse for
2. Who are the three sons of Alunsina and Datu Paubari?
the protagonists of the epic.
o The three sons of Alunsina and Datu Paubari are Labaw
Donggon, the eldest of the three, Humadapnon and
Dumalapdap.
SPANISH PERIOD
3. What did Humadapnon do to win the hand of the daughter of Datu
Umbaw Pinaumbaw in marriage? o Spanish Colonization
o To win the hand of Datu Pinaumbaw's daughter, - Due to the long period of colonization of the Philippines by
Humadapnon had to remove the huge boulder from a the Spaniards, they have exerted a strong influence on our
mountain into the center of the village; he took off his literature:
magic cape so he could use it to lift the stone and throw it 1. The first Filipino alphabet called baybayin was
back into the mountain. replaced by the Roman alphabet
4. What are the beliefs or practices reflected in the epic? 2. The teaching of the Christian Doctrine became the
o Reflected in the epic were the beliefs of the Filipinos on basis of religious practices.
animism and Philippine Mythology during the pre-colonial 3. The Spanish language which became the literary
period. Their practices in terms of marriage and childbirth language during this time lent many of its words to
were shown in the case of Alunsina and Datu Paubari, as our language.
well as with the other characters in the story. Before 4. European legends and traditions brought here
marriage, men were expected to win the hand of the bride became assimilated in our songs, corridos, and
by completing duels or challenges presented to them. One moro-moros.
can only take her hand in marriage and take her to his home 5. Ancient literature was collected and translated to
once he has successfully defeated the rival. In childbirth, the Tagalog and other dialects.
siklot which are necessary things used here are prepared. A 6. Many grammar books were printed in Filipino, like
high priest is summoned in order to perform the rites of the Tagalog, Ilocano and Visayan languages.
Gods to ensure the good health of the children. The high 7. Our periodicals during these times gained a
priest also makes an altar, burns alanghiran fronds, and a religious tone.
pinch of kamangyan. Once the ceremony is over, he opens - Hence, Philippine literature during this period can be
the north side windows of the room. described as:
1. centered on Christian faith
2. imitative of Spanish themes, forms and traditions
 3. repetitious in plots AMERICAN PERIOD
4. rise of the printing press (during the 19th century)
- Important Historical Notes about the Philippines during this
Period:
o Americans arrived in 1898.
COMMON LITERARY FORMS:
o Spanish continued to dominate the elite.
1. Pasyon o English became the official language of
- tells the passion and death of Christ communication.
- replaced the epic poems of the pagan past o Thomasites – the Filipinos’ first teachers
- later referred to as the senakulo - Three Groups of Writers Contributed to Philippine
- Secular Literature such as the following: Literature during this Period:
o Komedya o Writers in Spanish
- native poetic theater - The inspiration of our Filipino writers in
- their plots were drawn from medieval Spanish was Rizal not only because of his
Spanish ballads being a national leader but also because of
- they are later known as moro-moro or his novels Noli and Fili. These two novels
poetic theater about Christian and Moorish contained the best qualities of a novel ever
warriors written, in English or in Filipino.
o Awit and Korido o Writers in Tagalog and Vernacular Languages
- Philippine metrical romances - These writers continued in their
- always chanted and not simply read lamentations on the conditions of the
- difference between the two lies in its country and their attempts to arouse love
structure for one’s native tongue. Francisco Balagtas’
2. Prose Florante at Laura and Fr. Modesto de
- ex: Modesto de Castro’s book of manners, Pagsusulatan ng Castro’s Urbana at Felisa became the
Dalawang Binibini na si Urbana at si Feliza (1864) inspiration of the Tagalog writers.
- The Propaganda Movement and the Revolution are very o Writers in English
important in relation to the following works, among others: - For this purpose, we can divide this period
o Jose P. Rizal’s Noli Me Tangere, El Filibusterismo, Mi into three-time frames:
Ultimo Adios a. The Period of Re-orientation (1898-
o Emilio Jacinto’s Liwanag at Dilim 1910)
o Poems of Andres Bonifacio such as Katapusang b. The Period of Imitation (1910-1925)
Hibik ng Filipinas c. The Period of Self-Discovery (1925-
1941)
COMMON LITERARY FORMS - Except for the Tribune and the Philippine Review, almost all
newspapers in English were stopped by the Japanese.
o Lope K. Santos, Ang Pangginggera (1912)
- Advantageous effect on Filipino Literature, which experienced
- a novel in verse renewed attention because writers in English turned to writing
in Filipino.
- about a young married woman drawn to panggingge in - The weekly Liwayway was placed under strict surveillance until
order to overcome her grief caused by her son’s death it was managed by Japanese named Ishiwara.
o Jose Corazon de Jesus (Huseng Batute) - In other words, Filipino literature was given a break during this
period.
- wrote lyric poems in Filipino - Many wrote plays, poems, short stories, etc. topics and themes
o Jose Garcia Villa were often about life in the provinces.

- wrote poems in English

- advocated “art for art’s sake” COMMON LITERARY FORMS

o Severino Reyes wrote the sarsuela Walang Sugat - Famous writers who started their careers during the WWII
include Macario Pineda, Liwayway Arceo, NVM Gonzales.
- sarsuela – a popular form of entertainment which later led
to the rise of vaudeville and movies
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

JAPANESE PERIOD - entry of New Criticism;

- resurgence of nationalist movement with students as core
- between 1941-1945 during the Martial Law years
- considered as the darkest days in the history and literary - Philippine literature flourished; it continues to grow in the
tradition of the Philippines various languages (including the vernacular) especially with the
appearance of new publications after the Martial Law years.
- Filipino writers continue to write poetry and short fiction with
JAPANESE OCCUPATION the varied themes (social commitment, gender/ethnic related,
personal or impersonal, among others).
- Philippine Literature was interrupted in its development
- emergence of creative nonfiction has widened the span of prose
- It came to a halt and experienced a dark period
thereby is a positive sign to encourage more writers to publish.
- The few who dared to write did so for their bread and butter or
for propaganda.
- Writings were journalistic in nature.
AFTER EDSA REVOLUTION
- The spirit of nationalism started to seep into their
consciousness. - 1986 – demarcates the beginning of a new scene in the
- Majority waited for a better climate to publish their works unfolding contemporary Philippine Literature narrative.
- When the fall of president Marcos’ dictatorship happened; COMMON LITERARY FORMS:
which was a prolific event for some Filipino writers.
1. Poetry
- Spates of literary enthusiasm continue unabated, unhampered
- Contemporary poetry manifests a skillful manipulation of
by compelling “handicaps”, hard times and the transient
symbolic representations and is more insightful and
problems of the period.
abstract.
- Some of the credible works of writers during these periods
- Different organizations such as UMPIL (Unyong ng mga
which had been judged as “contest winner” and may therefore,
Manunulat sa Pilipinas), LIRA (Linangan sa Imahen, Retorika
in the words of Edith Tiempo, be acknowledged as “pre-tested
at Anyo), The Creative Writing Foundation, and the
literature.”
Philippine Literary Arts Council conduct sessions in different
- The learners are free to give their own particular definition of
parts of the country and even invite guest poets and
literary trends and qualities based on the social attitudes and
writers.
the moral commitments of a nation as revealed through the
2. Essay
works of its writers.
- address societal issues, are more free and daring,
- The Cultural Center of the Philippines, with the Philippine
manifesting a more liberated atmosphere
Centennial Commission, has chosen 100 outstanding awardees
- pointing out moral degradation, indicating injustice,
that have “helped build the nation through their achievements
suggesting alternatives, and directing thought
in arts and culture from 1898 to 1998.” The list excludes those
- popular topics were on personal (happy or tragic)
in film, broadcast arts and theater.
experiences – abortion, separation, alternative routes in life
1. Teodoro Agoncillo
and new-found happiness
2. Virgilio Almario
- The Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature have
3. Manuel Aguilla
started a new category in 1998:
4. Carlos Bulosan
o “Kabataang Essay” – high school students both in
5. Jose Corazon de Jesus
Filipino and in English
6. Isabelo de los Reyes
3. Short Stories
7. Damiana Eugenio
- still the more popular venue of writers up to this period
8. Gilda Cordero-Fernando
- The new breed of writers seem to excel in the skillful
9. Lucila Hosillos
handling of techniques and in coming out with original
10. Emmanuel Lacaba
forms.
11. Jose Lacaba
- Short romantic fiction in the vernacular has caught the
12. Salvador Lopez
fancy of many readers who perhaps find these less time-
13. Bienvenido Lumbera
consuming, as well as less expensive, giving more time for
14. Resil Mojares
remunerative work and earning a living.
15. Claro M. Recto
4. Plays
16. Epifanio San Juan, Jr.
- Scriptwriting became a popular and developing literature
form probably due to the growing interest in TV and the
visual arts:
 o TV and stage patronage o Sublime – the quality of greatness, a personal moment
o Theater groups like Dramatis Personae, PETA, of literary and artistic importance
Dulaang UP, CCP Dramatic Arts Division Teatro
Telesine, Gantimpala Theater Foundation, Mobile or
Touring Children’s theater groups TYPES OF POETRY
o Substantial awards in film-making
o Expansion to cater to children’s needs (Batibot and 1. Lyric Poetry
Tanghalang Pambata) - private expression of emotion by an individual speaker
o The popularity of Taglish which pepper today’s - highly musical and can feature poetic devices like rhyme
yuppy lingo and which reach out to the masses and meter
o The notion of seeking popularity and ratings o Ode – written to praise a person, event, or object
through exposure o Elegy – poem of serious reflection, usually a lament
o Creative writing workshops for the dead
5. Novels o Sonnet – a poem of fourteen lines using any of a
- Many of our writers have turned to the more remunerative number of formal rhyme schemes, in English
and shorter literary forms than the longer novels which are typically having ten syllables per line
indicative of more practical considerations. o Simple Lyric – put words in structured and stylized
- Our better novel writers have settled in their twilight years, manners
some to foreign lands or may have perhaps lost the feel of 2. Narrative Poetry
the Filipino psyche. - tells stories through verse
o Ballad – tells a story in four-line stanzas called
______________________________________________________________ quatrains
o Epic – long narrative poem about heroic deeds
o Metrical Romance – depicts the adventures
POETRY of romantic poetry
o Metrical Tale – relates to real or imaginary events
- “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its
o Idyll – poem of a pastoral or rural character in
origin from emotion recollected in tranquility.” – William
which something of the element of landscape is
Wordsworth
depicted or suggested
- According to Ophelia Dimalanta (2003)
3. Contemporary Poetry
1. A poem is produced by a poet, takes its subject matter
- Five Characteristics of Contemporary Poetry:
from the universe of men, things and events, and is
o Contemporary poetry is often written in free verse.
addressed to or made available to an audience of
o Readers know and can associate with the language.
hearers or readers.
o It is brief.
2. A made thing, a verbal construct, an event in language.
o The poet laces the poem with images using all the
3. poiesis – “making”
reader’s senses.
4. oldest of the poet – “maker”
- created due to a sublime experience
 o It invites the reader to interpret the poem without o Dactylic: stressed/unstressed/unstressed
yelling from the rooftops the true meaning of the 2. Sound Elements
poem. o Sound Devices
- use to create certain effects in the poem to convey
and reinforce meaning through sound
ELEMENTS OF POETRY o Alliteration – repetition of the consonant
sounds at the beginning of words
1. Formal Elements o Assonance – repetition of vowel sounds
o Line within words
- basic unit of a poem which forms a stanza/verse o Rhyme – matching vowel sounds at the end
o Stanza/Verse of words or lines
- a series of lines grouped together and separated by o Onomatopoeia – words that mimic the
an empty line from another stanza sound we hear
- a writing arranged with a metrical rhythm o Rhyme/Rhyme Scheme
o Refrain – a verse that is repeated at - use of matching sounds in two or more words
intervals throughout a song or poem o Perfect Rhyme – happens when final vowel
- Often the lines in a stanza will have a specific rhyme and consonant sounds are the same
scheme. Some of the more common stanzas are: o Imperfect Rhyme – happens when the final
o Couplet – a two-line stanza consonant sounds in two words are the
o Tercet – a three-line stanza same but the preceding vowels are different
o Quatrain – a four-line stanza such as learn and barn, pads and lids
o Cinquain – a five-line stanza o Eye Rhyme – appear to be perfect, but is
o Rhythm/Prosody either half rhyme such as move and love or
- the beat and pace of a poem and is created by the no rhyme such as bough and trough
pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables - depends on the position in a verse
- helps in strengthening the meaning and ideas of the o End Rhyme
poem. o Internal Rhyme
o Meter o Beginning Rhyme
- recurrence of regular units of stressed and 3. Other Elements
unstressed syllables. o Figures of Speech
o Stress – occurs when one syllable is - use words to achieve effects beyond the ordinary
emphasized more than the other language
- Basic Meter in Poetry: o Simile – uses “as” and “like”
o Iambic: unstressed/stressed o Metaphor – direct comparison
o Trochaic: stressed/unstressed o Personification – objects or animals with
o Spondaic: stressed/stressed human abilities or personality
o Anapestic: unstressed/unstressed/stressed
o Irony – opposite of the literal meaning
 o Litotes – ironic o Subject
o Metonymy – describe something indirectly - the explicit image used in the poem
o Synecdoche – a part represents a whole - deals with particular things in concrete language,
o Paradox – statement contradicts itself since our emotions most readily respond to these
o Oxymoron – contradictory terms things
o Allusion – call something without - From the poem's particular situation, the reader
mentioning it may then generalize; the generalities arise by
o Apostrophe – directly addressing a implication from the particular
nonexistent person/object
o Imagery
- relies on the words and phrases that describe the THE HAIYAN DEAD
concrete experiences of the five senses
o Persona - In 2013, much of the country was devastated by Super Typhoon
- refers to the speaker of the poem Haiyan, known locally as Yolanda.
o Tone - Strong winds and unforgiving storm surges battered significant
- conveys the speaker’s attitude toward his or her areas of Leyte, Cebu, the Panay Islands, and Palawan.
reader or audience - It was described by CNN as one of the strongest storms recorded
o Diction on the planet.
- the word choice that determines the level of
language, as well as word order
o Denotation – what the literal meaning is MERLIE ALUNAN
o Connotation – what the meaning is - one of the most influential and respected writers in the Visayas
according to a particular cultural, region
emotional, psychological, sociological - authored numerous poetry collections like Hearthstone, Sacred
context Tree, Amina Among the Angels, Spiderwoman, Running with
o Abstract Language – refers to intangible Ghosts and Pagdakop sa Bulalakaw
qualities, idea, and concepts we know
through our intellect
o Concrete Language – uses tangible qualities
LITERARY TERMS TO REMEMBER:
or characteristics we know through our
senses o Dramatic Situation
o Theme - the combination of setting, character, and action in a
- implicit idea expressed in the poem poem which is supposed to engage the reader
- the lesson about life or statement about human o Image
nature that the poem expresses - a picture of words which must serve purpose in a poem
o Mood
- the atmosphere of the poem
 o The Poem’s Level - Formalism (aka New Criticism) – ignores the author’s biography
- Literal Level – is something that relates to the dramatic and focuses only on the interaction of literary elements within
situation or what is happening in the poem the text
- Metaphorical Level – is where we see the literal
dramatic situation unfolding into a figurative
articulation of what is taking place HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
o Simile
- a comparison between two distinctly different things o New Criticism
- explicitly indicated by the word “like” or “as” - arose in opposition to biographical or vaguely
o Metaphor impressionistic approaches
- use of word or phrase denoting one kind of idea or - sought to establish literary studies as an objective
object in place of another word or phrase for the discipline
purpose of: - desire is to reveal organic unity in complex texts may be
o suggesting a likeness between the two historically determined, reflective of early 20th century
o give added meaning to one of the things being critics seeking a lost order or in conflict with an
compared increasingly fragmented society
- Parts of Metaphor:
o Tenor – the subject of the comparison, to which
the characteristics are attributed KEY TERMS:
o Vehicle – the object which owns the o Intentional Fallacy – equating the meaning of a poem with the
characteristic author's intentions (Wimsatt and Beardsley)
o Synechdoche o Affective Fallacy – confusing the meaning of a text with how it
- a literary device in which a part of something represents makes the reader feel. A reader's emotional response to a text
the whole, or it may use a whole to represent a part generally does not produce a reliable interpretation.
o Personification o Heresy of Paraphrase – assuming that an interpretation of a literary
- a literary device in which a thing – an idea or an animal– work (esp. poetry) could consist of a detailed summary or
is given human attributes paraphrase. (Cleanth Brooks)
______________________________________________________________ o Close reading – a close and detailed analysis of the text itself to
arrive at an interpretation without referring to historical, authorial,
or cultural concerns (Bressler)
FORMALISM AND NEW CRITICISM o Defamiliarization – literary language, partly by calling attention to
itself as language, estranged the reader from the familiar and made
- A literary text exists independent of any particular reader and, fresh the experience of daily life
in a sense, has a fixed meaning.
- An interpretative approach that emphasizes literary form and
the study of the literary devices within the text
ASSUMPTIONS the work, New Critics have contradicted their own claims that
meaning is context bound.
- texts possess meaning in and of themselves; therefore, analyses
should emphasize intrinsic meaning over extrinsic meaning
(verbal sense over significance in E.D. Hirsch's view)
WHAT WE CAN GAIN FROM APPLYING A FORMALISM/NEW CRITICAL
- The best readers are those who look most closely at the text
APPROACH
and are familiar with literary conventions and have an ample
command of the language. - Close reading skills, leading to a deeper appreciation of the
- Meaning within the text is context-bound. This means that multiple uses of language that a text use
readers must be ready to show how the parts of the text relate
to form a whole.
- The test of excellence in literature: the extent to which the work GUIDE QUESTIONS:
manifests organic unity
- The best interpretations are those which seek out ambiguities in 1. Does this work follow a traditional form or chart its own
the text and then resolve these ambiguities as a part of development?
demonstrating the organic unity of the text. 2. How are the events of the plot recounted i.e. in sequential fashion
or flashback?

METHODS 3. How does the work’s organization affect its meaning?

- close reading of texts 4. What is the effect of using the literary device?
- includes paying attention to semantic tensions that complicate 5. What recurrences of words, images or sounds do you notice?
meaning. At the end, though, these ambiguities must be
resolved. 6. How does the narrator’s point of view shape the meaning?
- Learn and apply the appropriate literary conventions that apply
7. What visual patterns do you find in this text?
in any discourse (e.g. imagery, motifs, metaphor, symbols, irony,
paradox, structural patterns, choice of narrative perspective, 8. What progressions in nature are used to suggest meaning?
oppositions, prosody, etc.)
______________________________________________________________

CRITICISMS OF THIS NEW APPROACH

FICTION
- Some critics of this approach have argued that a New Critic's
- created in the imagination of its author
commitment to revealing organic unity of a work blinds him or
- the author invents the story and makes up the characters, the
her to elements in the text that do not contribute to this unity.
plot or storyline, the dialogue and sometimes even the setting
- Others have argued that in dismissing the importance of history,
- a literary genre in the form of prose, especially short stories and
or the response of readers as irrelevant to an understanding of
novels, that describes imaginary events and people
 - According to Leo Tolstoy “Art (in our case fiction) is a lie told to character, usually the main
tell the truth.” character
o Omniscient Third Person – the
narrator knows and at least partially
ELEMENTS OF FICTION: reveals the internal thoughts,
feelings, and motivations of all the
1. Characterization characters
- the ways individual characters are represented by the 3. Classifying Characters
narrator or author of a text - Major Characters – central to a story
- includes descriptions of the characters’ physical - Minor Characters – support the major characters
appearances, personalities, actions, interactions, and throughout the story's action, but they are not as highly
dialogue developed
2. Point-of-View - Terms for Interpreting Characters:
- the perspective (visual, interpretive, bias, etc.) a text takes o Protagonist
when presenting its plot and narrative - story's central character who faces a major
o First Person POV conflict that must be solved before the
- a story told from the perspective of one or story's end
several characters, each of whom typically - often positioned as “good” or the character
uses the word “I” with whom readers are expected to identify
- readers “see” or experience events in the o Antagonist
story through the narrator’s eyes - opposes the protagonist and serves as an
o Second Person POV obstacle that the protagonist must
- a narrative perspective that typically overcome to resolve the conflict
addresses that audience using “you” o Anti-Hero
- help authors address readers and invest - protagonist of a story who embodies none
them in the story of the qualities typically assigned to
o Third Person POV traditional heroes and heroines
- a narrative told from the perspective of an - failings are typically used to humanize him
outside figure who does not participate or her and convey a message about the
directly in the events of a story reality of human existence
- uses “he,” “she,” and “it,” to describe o Archetype
events and characters. - a resonant figure or mythic importance,
- Has Two Often-Used Types: whether a personality, place, or situation
o Limited Third Person – the narrator - found in diverse cultures and different
describes the internal thoughts, historical periods
feelings, and motivations of one
 - tend to reference broader or commonplace - the universal truth about life expressed in a
(often termed “stock”) character types, plot story
points, and literary conventions o Deus Ex Machina
- can help readers identify what an author - Literally, in Latin, the ‘god from the
may posit as “universal truths” about life, machine’; a deity in Greek and Roman
society, human interaction, etc. based on drama who was brought in by stage
what other authors or participants in a machinery to intervene in the action
culture may have said about them - any character, event, or device suddenly
o Epithet introduce to resolve the conflict
- an adjective, noun, or phase expressing o In Medias Res
some characteristic quality of a thing or - beginning in “the middle of things,” or
person or a descriptive name applied to a when an author begins a text in the midst of
person action
- usually indicates some notable quality - often functions as a way to both
about the individual with whom it incorporate the reader directly into the
addresses, but it can also be used ironically narrative and secure his or her interest in
to emphasize qualities that individual might the narrative that follows
actually lack o Frame Narrative
4. Plot - a story that an author encloses around the
- the sequence of events that occur through a work to central narrative in order to provide
produce a coherent narrative or story. background information and context
- Terms for Interpreting Plot: - typically referred to as a “story within a
o Setting story” or a “tale within a tale”
- the physical location (real or - are usually located in a distinct place and
invented) and the social environment of the time from the narratives they surround.
story (including chronology, culture, o Stream-Of-Consciousness
institutions, etc.) - a mode of writing in which the author
- time, place and atmosphere create the traces his or her thoughts verbatim into the
mood for a fictional story and situates it text
into a context - offers a representation of the author’s exact
o Theme thoughts throughout the writing process
- defined as “a salient abstract idea that and can be used to convey a variety of
emerges from a literary work’s treatment of different emotions or as a form of pre-
its subject-matter; or a topic recurring in a writing
number or literary works”
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- tend to differ depending on author, time
period, genre, style, purpose, etc.
MERLINDA BOBIS: AUTHOR OF THE SADNESS COLLECTOR

- earned her degrees in University of Santo Tomas and

University of Wollonggong in Australia
- writes in English, Filipino and Bicolano

LITERARY THEORY IN FOCUS: POSTCOLONIALISM:

- studies the histories, conditions and world views of the

formerly colonized states
- ex: Philippines and compares these with those of the
oppressors or the colonizers such as Spain or America
- Important Concepts:
o Idea of Othering
- involves treating groups of people as
different and subordinate
- used as justification by colonizers to build
their colons
- Two Types:
o Demonic Othering – involves
representation of race as savage
and evil
o Exotic Othering – involves
representation of race as primitive
and undeveloped

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