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Dr. Audia Junita, M.Si.

 A General Model of Job Design
 This model describe the important determinants of job performance and organizational effectiveness.
 The designing jobs is a complex process.
 The way people do their jobs depends in part on how they perceive and think of their jobs.
 Individuals react differently to jobs. While one person may derive positive satisfaction from a job,
another may not.
 It also recognizes the difficult trade-offs between organizational and individual needs.
 For example, the technology of manufacturing may dictate that management adopt assembly-line
mass production methods and low-skilled jobs to achieve optimal efficiency. Such jobs, however, may
result in boredom and worker discontent. Perhaps these costs could be avoided by carefully
balancing organizational and individual needs.
 Job Design
 Job design refers to the actual ‗content and method of jobs‘ that
employees perform in their jobs (Wall and Clegg, 1998, p. 337).
 Job design refers to the process by which managers decide what job
tasks and how much authority each employee will have (Ivancevich et
al., 2014, p. 141).
 Job design focuses directly on work-related tasks or activities that
employees undertake to design, produce and deliver a good or service
for the organization.
 Jobs can be sources of psychological stress and even mental and
physical impairment. On a more positive note, jobs can provide income,
meaningful life experiences, self-esteem, esteem from others, regulation
of our lives, and association with others.
 The well-being of organizations and people relates to how well
management designs jobs.
 In this topic, we need to clarify what job each individual should be doing
and understand the causes of effective and ineffective job performance.
 Core Dimension of Job Design
Job design decisions produce low or high levels of horizontal and vertical
job-related tasks or activities.

• The horizontal axis represents the functional or

technical tasks that are required to produce a
product or service. Job design choices can entail
only one simple task or a series of tasks combined
in one job (multiskilling and functional flexibility).
• The vertical axis, on the other hand, represents the
decision-making aspects of work activities, and
shows the extent of employees‘ autonomy in the
job. The extent to which the job allows employees to
exercise choice and discretion in their work runs
from low to high.

• The characteristics of job design A limit the content

or scope of the job, giving minimal, if any, discretion
over how work-related tasks are performed. The
focus is on a rapid completion of tasks and close
supervision.
• In contrast, job B is designed with more tasks and
offers the employee more autonomy over how those
tasks are performed. The focus is on improving job
satisfaction by allowing the worker to complete
several tasks with some self-supervision.
 Job Design and Quality of Work Life
 Quality of work life (QWL) is a management philosophy and practice
that enhance employee dignity, introduce cultural change, and provide
opportunities for growth and development.
 QWL programs are intended to increase employee trust, involvement,
and problem solving so as to increase both worker satisfaction and
organizational effectiveness.
 Indicators of quality of work life include accident rates, sick leave
usage, employee turnover, stress, and number of grievances filed.
 The concept and application of QWL are broad and involve more than
jobs, but the jobs that people do are important sources of satisfaction.
 Job design attempts :
(1) to identify the most important needs of employees and the
organization and
(2) to remove obstacles in the workplace that impede those needs.
 Job Design: Range, Depth, and Relationships
 Job range refers to the number of tasks a jobholder performs. The individual who
performs eight tasks to complete a job has a wider job range than a person performing
four tasks. In most instances, the greater the number of tasks performed, the longer it
takes to complete the job.
 Job depth , the amount of discretion an individual has to decide job activities and job
outcomes. In many instances, job depth relates to personal influence as well as
delegated authority.
 Job range and depth distinguish one job from another not only within the same
organization, but also among different organizations.
 Lanjutan….Job relationship
 Job relationships are determined by managers‘ decisions regarding
departmentalization bases and spans of control.
 The wider the span of control, the larger the group and consequently
the more difficult it is to establish friendship and interest relationships.
 The basis for departmentalization that management selects also has
important implications for job relationships. The functional basis
places jobs with similar depth and range in the same groups, while
product, territory, and customer bases place jobs with dissimilar
depth and range in different groups. Thus, in functional departments,
people will be doing much the same specialty. Thus, it‘s easier for
them to establish social relationships that are satisfying with less
stress, but also with less involvement in the department‘s activities.
 Job relationship also closely related to group performance which is
affected in part by group cohesiveness which depends upon the
quality and kind of interpersonal relationships of jobholders assigned
to a task or command group.
Individual Differences
 Individual differences ―provide filters such that different persons perceive
the same objective stimuli in different manners.
 Employees with relatively weak higher-order needs are less concerned
with performing a variety of tasks than are employees with relatively
strong growth needs.
 At some point, performance turns down as these individuals reach the
limits imposed by their abilities and time. The relationship between
performance and task variety (even for individuals with high growth
needs) is likely to be curvilinear.

Social Setting Differences

 Differences in social settings of work also affect perceptions of job
content.
 Examples of social setting differences include leadership style and
what other people say about the job.
 Strategy to Increase Range in Jobs:
Job Rotation and Job Enlargement
1. Job Rotation
 This practice involves rotating managers and non-managers alike from one job to
another, or to one or more international postings.
 In so doing, the individual is expected to complete more job activities since each
job includes different tasks (task variety).
 According to recent studies, increase employee satisfaction, reduce mental
overload, decrease the number of errors due to fatigue, improve production and
efficiency, and reduce on-the-job injuries.
2. Job Enlargement
 Job enlargement strategies focus upon the opposite of dividing work—they‘re a
form of despecialization or increasing the number of tasks that an employee
performs.
 For example, a job is designed such that the individual performs six tasks instead
of three.
 Contemporary applications of job enlargement involve training individuals to
perform several different jobs, each requiring considerable skill, whether in
manufacturing or service organizations.
 If employees are amenable to job enlargement and have the requisite ability, then
job enlargement should increase satisfaction and product quality and decrease
absenteeism and turnover.
 Strategy to Increase Depth in Jobs:
Job Enrichment
 Job enrichment means giving workers greater authority to participate
in decisions, to set their own goals, and to evaluate their (and their
work groups‘) performance.
 Job enrichment also involves changing the nature and style of
managers‘ behavior.
 Given employees‘ ability to carry out enriched jobs can bring up
positive outcomes lead to performance, that performance leads to
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, and that these rewards have power to
satisfy needs.
 Yet job enrichment, when appropriate, necessarily involves job
enlargement.
The Job Characteristic Model
(Hackman and Oldham)
 Self-Managed Teams
 Self-managed teams (SMTs) represent a job enrichment approach to
redesign at the group level.
 An SMT is a relatively small group of individuals who are empowered to
perform certain activities based on procedures established and
decisions made within the group, with minimum or no outside direction.
 Typically, SMTs determine their own work assignments within the team
and are responsible for an entire process from inception to completion.
 SMTs can take many forms, including task forces, project teams, quality
circles, virtual teams, and new venture teams.
 SMTs require not only a new workflow and set of processes, but also
new attitudes and behaviors.
 Two notable barriers to SMTs are resistance and misunderstanding.
 Team members may not like being responsible for goals that others on
the team have not helped to achieve.
 Also, managers are often not clear about what employees should be
doing under an SMT arrangement.
Alternative Work Arrangements
 One aspect of job context relates to when the job is performed, or the
work schedule.
 Alternative work arrangements is implemented by giving employees
decision-making control over when they perform their work is an
increasingly popular approach to job redesign (work flexibility).
 Alternative work arrangement give employee the flexibility to balance
their work–life demands and as a way to reduce organizational costs
and avoid layoffs that may lessen productivity and motivation.
 It has led to a variety of innovations :
1. The compressed workweek, employees are given an opportunity
to work four 10-hour days rather than the more standard five 8-
hour days.
2. The flextime, employees are given greater individual control over
work scheduling, when they work at the office and when they work
from home or a cafe.
3. Job sharing (shift-work), two or more individuals share one job.
4. Telecommuting, involves working at home while being linked to the
office via a computer and/or fax machine.
 Virtual Teams
 It is a geographically distributed, functionally and/or culturally diverse group of individuals who
rely on interactive technology such as e-mail, Webcasts, and videoconferencing to work
together.
 The benefits include decrease product cycle times, increase customer responsiveness, and
integrate more fully with suppliers, ability to offer employees more flexible work arrangements
(e.g., telecommuting), provide 24-hour-a-day, seven-day-a-week customer service for
geographically dispersed customers in different time zones, and decrease the amount of travel
time and expenses that team members have to incur many.
 To successfully manage virtual teams, organizations may want to consider several factors :
1. The technology should fit the purpose of the collaboration, include a bulletin board or
group e-mail is appropriate (receive the same information quickly), a Web conference with
real-time white board and data sharing may be more suitable (training needs).
2. Virtual team members must be carefully selected who have the necessary skills,
experience, work ethic, and interpersonal skills is critical to effective team functioning.
3. Trust between team members should be cultivated early in the process. Face-to-face
meetings and/or teambuilding training exercises should be used during the initial periods of
team formation to facilitate the development of trust.
4. Teams need to develop a sense of purpose and shared goals.
5. Leaders must be able to set a vision for the team and help resolve conflicts between
members as well as assist members in overcoming obstacles.
 Total Quality Management
 Total quality management (TQM) refers to an organizational culture that is
dedicated to continuous improvement and the production of high-quality
products and services, ultimately resulting in higher levels of customer
satisfaction.
 TQM combines technical knowledge and human knowledge.
 To deal with the inherent complexity and variability of production and
service delivery technology, people must be empowered with authority to
make necessary decisions and must be enabled with knowledge to know
when to exercise that authority.
 Two common techniques used in the implementation of TQM include
benchmarking and Six Sigma.
 Benchmarking is the process in which organizations monitor and adapt the
best practices of their competitors in order to make continuous
improvements.
 Six Sigma , is a quality standard and management process that specifies a
goal of no defects so that a product or process has reached a high level of
quality. Six Sigma can be used to analyze any product or service defects—
errors on billing statements, poor customer service, or faulty brake systems
on automobiles—that result in customer dissatisfaction.
 Job Performance Outcomes
1. Objective Outcomes
 Quantity and quality of output, absenteeism, tardiness, and turnover are objective outcomes
that can be measured in quantitative terms. For each job, implicit or explicit standards exist
for each of these objective outcomes.
2. Behavioral Outcomes
 The jobholder reacts to the work itself. She reacts by either engaging fully in the job or by
―going through the motions.‖ Moreover, physiological and health-related problems, work
stress, physical and mental impairment, accidents and occupation-related disease can ensue
as a consequence of job performance.
3. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Outcomes
 In a general sense, an intrinsic outcome is an object or event that follows from the worker‘s
own efforts and doesn‘t require the involvement of any other person.
 Extrinsic outcomes, however, are objects or events that follow from the workers‘ own efforts in
conjunction with other factors or persons not directly involved in the job itself. Pay, working
conditions, co-workers, and even supervision are objects in the workplace that are potentially
job outcomes, but that aren‘t a fundamental part of the work. Dealing with others and
friendship interactions are sources of extrinsic outcomes.
 It‘s generally held that extrinsic rewards reinforce intrinsic rewards in a positive direction
when the individual can attribute the source of the extrinsic reward to her own efforts.
4. Job Satisfaction Outcomes
 Job satisfaction depends on the levels of intrinsic and extrinsic outcomes and how the
jobholder views those outcomes. These outcomes have different values for different people.
Individual differences (include job involvement and commitment to the organization), the
perceived equity of the organizational reward etc. play an important role to bring up
employee‘s job satisfaction.
 Literatur

 Bratton, John; Gold, Jeff. (2012). Human Resource

Management : Theory & Practice. Fifth Edition. Palgrave
MacMillan.
 Ivancevich,J. M.; Konopaske,R.; Matteson, M.T. (2014).
Organizational Behavior and Mangement. Tenth Edition. New
York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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