SEMINAR REPORT

SPACE ELEVATOR SUBSTITUTING

SPACE VEHICLES

Submitted in partial fulfilment of

the requirements for the award of degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
By

A.ANANTH
Reg no.:14016122

SCMS SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to M.G. University)
VIDYA NAGAR, PALISSERY, KARUKUTTY
ERNAKULAM – 683 582
October, 2017
Space Elevator Substituting Launch Vehicles Seminar Report, 2017

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the seminar work entitled “SPACE ELEVATOR SUBSTITUTING SPACE
VEHICLES” was presented by Mr. A.ANANTH of 7th semester Mechanical Engineering in
partial fulfilment of the requirement for the bachelor of Technology Degree In Mechanical
Engineering under Mahatma Gandhi University during the year 2017 – 2018 under my guidance
at SCMS School Of Engineering And Technology, Karukutty.

Dr. SHEEJA HARIKUMAR Dr.E.M.S. NAIR

Seminar Coordinator Head Of Department
Associate Professor Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Department Of Mechanical Engineering SSET, Karukutty
SSET, Karukutty

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSET

Space Elevator Substituting Launch Vehicles Seminar Report, 2017

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am greatly indebted to Prof. M.Madhavan, Principal, SSET and Dr. E.M.S.Nair, Head of department

of Mechanical Engineering, SSET, who whole heartedly granted me the permission to conduct this

seminar.

I would like to thank my seminar coordinator, Dr. Sheeja Harikumar, Associate Professor,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSET who has given me valuable guidance and support.

Also, I would like to thank my seminar guide, Mr.Jithin Karunan, Assistant Professor, Department of

Mechanical Engineering, SSET who support and instruct me all the way.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all the teachers of Mechanical Engineering

Department who gave me moral and technical support. I would also like to thank my friends and

family members for providing me with necessary resources and support. Last but not the least, I

would like to thank God Almighty for helping me to conduct the seminar hassle free.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSET

Space Elevator Substituting Launch Vehicles Seminar Report, 2017

ABSTRACT

Experts agree that the biggest drain of energy takes place when a vehicle blasts off, pushing through

Earth's gravitational pull requires great amounts of fuel, but once they get out of our atmosphere,

the rest is easy. If you could cut out that "blast off" portion, space travel would be easier and much

more fuel-efficient. In a Space Elevator scenario, a Maglev vehicle would zoom up the side of an

exceedingly tall structure and end up at a transfer point where they'd then board a craft to the Moon,

Mars, or any other distant destination. A new material has been developed, however, called carbon

nanotubes, that is 100 times as strong as steel but with only a fraction of the weight. A carbon

nanotube is an idea that makes this all sound much more achievable. Basically, the space elevator is

a cable with one end attached to Earth and the other end roughly 60,000-mile long cable sticking up

into space. This makes the travelling to space less of cost compared to the current method. This

method simplifies the space transportation process. The design implements conventional technology

with little or no development wherever possible. The design is easy to grasp and analyze and may

present a reasonable first system though may not present the optimal final design for future

generations of elevators.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSET

 Space Elevator Substituting Launch Vehicles Seminar Report, 2017

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Introduction: What is a Space Elevator? .......................................................................................... 1

1.2 Key Findings from the Workshop .................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Future Directions .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Technology Demonstrations ............................................................................................................. 4

2. SPACE ELEVATOR CONCEPTS .......................................................................................................... 4

2.1 Brief History ..................................................................................................................................... 4

2.2 A Space Elevator Concept ................................................................................................................ 5
2.3 Space Elevator Basics ....................................................................................................................... 6

3. TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT PATHS ......................................................................................... 6

3.1 Materials ........................................................................................................................................... 7

3.2 Tension Structures ............................................................................................................................ 8
3.3 Compression Structures .................................................................................................................... 11
3.4 Electromagnetic Propulsion ............................................................................................................. 13
3.5 Supporting Infrastructure ................................................................................................................. 14

4. ISSUES ................................................................................................................................................... 14

4.1 Environmental Issues ........................................................................................................................ 15

4.2 Safety Issues ..................................................................................................................................... 18

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................. 19

5.1 Pros for Building Space Elevators .................................................................................................... 19

5.2 Cons Against Building Space Elevators ........................................................................................... 20
5.3 Concerns and Possible Solutions ...................................................................................................... 21

REFERENCE…………………………………………………………………………………. 22

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Space Elevator Substituting Launch Vehicles Seminar Report, 2017

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Technology demonstration roadmap. Critical technologies that need to be demonstrated

prior to space elevator development include tether systems in space, tall towers on Earth,
and electromagnetic propulsion systems. Developing the technologies and integrating
these systems together could lead toward Earth to GEO space elevator developments in
the latter part of the 21st century. ...................................................................................................

2. A space elevator concept ................................................................................................................ 5

3
3. Yielding of high-strength steel as compared to carbon nanotube rope (SWNT). Note that
the strength required for space elevator construction is thought to be ≈62.5 GPa, but the
actual strength of a carbon nanotube rope may be much higher than that. ....................................
6
4. LEO space elevator concept ........................................................................................................... 8

5. LEO space elevator for lunar transfers ........................................................................................... 9

6. Momentum exchange facility. This orbital transfer station uses a rotating momentum exchange
tether system to transfer payloads to higher orbits. An electrodynamic tether propulsion vehicle
is shown over the horizon. ...............................................................................
11
7. Earth orbiting and lunar space elevator concepts ........................................................................... 11

8. Mars space elevator transportation system .................................................................................... 11

9. Tall tower concept .......................................................................................................................... 13

10. High-altitude multipurpose tower concept ..................................................................................... 13

11. Launch arch concept ...................................................................................................................... 14

12. Concept for a high-speed electromagnetic propulsion vehicle for the space elevator ................... 15

13. A MagLev concept called Transit used for both trains and van-sized vehicles ............................. 16

14. MagLifter launch assist concept .................................................................................................... 17

15. Electromagnetic launch systems .................................................................................................... 17

16 Reusable space transfer vehicle and propellant servicing platform ............................................... 19

17. Electromagnetic gun launch system for delivery of raw materials to orbit ................................... 19

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Space Elevator Substituting Launch Vehicles Seminar Report, 2017

LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)

18. Space business park. A multiuse space station facility for compatible businesses
including tourism, sports, film production, and entertainment, as well as support to
satellite services, research and development facilities, and on-orbit processing and
manufacturing. ...............................................................................................................................

19
19. Space solar-powered satellite ......................................................................................................... 20

20. Modular robotic systems for space assembly, maintenance, and repair ........................................ 20

21. Asteroid attached to the space elevator beyond GEO to counterbalance the system ..................... 21

22. Asteroid materials mining .............................................................................................................. 21

23. “Blue Moon tours” is a concept for what space transportation out to the Moon and back
could be like as part of a future space development infrastructure ................................................ 22

24. Concept for an ocean platform city for the base of a space elevator ............................................. 23

25. Tracked space satellites and debris distribution ............................................................................. 25

26. Sizing tether strands based on repairs per day ............................................................................... 26

27. Orbital periods ............................................................................................................................... 27

28. Maneuvers required by a space station (using ISS as an example) to avoid a fixed space
elevator structure in LEO ............................................................................................................... 27

29. Bending the space elevator for collision avoidance ....................................................................... 28

30. Space elevator cross section. Conceptual cross section of a space elevator showing high-
speed passenger modules, cargo carrier, maintenance and repair robot, and a lateral
propulsion module for collision avoidance control at any point on the elevator structure.
Note also that the cross section of the entire structure is large enough that a direct hit from
a large upper stage would not break all of the structural cables. This kind of basic design
thinking will need to be put into the space elevator to ensure that catastrophic failure does
not occur. ........................................................................................................................................

28

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSET

Space Elevator Substituting Launch Vehicles Seminar Report, 2017

LIST OF ACRONYMS

AO atomic oxygen

g gravity

GEO geostationary Earth orbit

GPa Giga Pascal

GPS Global Positioning System

HRV highly reusable vehicle

ISS International Space Station

LEO low-Earth orbit

MagLev magnetic levitation

MagLifter magnetic lifter

MEO middle-Earth orbit

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

ProSEDS Propulsive Small Expendable Deployer System

SEDS Small Expendable Deployer System

SSTO single-stage-to-orbit

SWNT single-wall nanotubes

TSS Tethered Satellite System

UV ultraviolet

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSET

Space Elevator Substituting Launch Vehicles Seminar Report, 2017

1. Summary
A space elevator is a tall tower rising from a point on the Earth’s equator to a height well above a
geostationary orbit, where it terminates in a counterweight. Although the concept is more than a
century old, it was only with the discovery of carbon nanotubes that it began to receive serious
scientific attention. NASA commissioned a study of the space elevator in the late 1990s that
examined the feasibility of such a structure and explored many of its applications. I explain the
basic mechanical principles underlying the construction of a space elevator and discuss several of
its applications: the transport of payload into space and the launching of spacecraft on voyages to
other planets.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

A space elevator is a physical connection from the surface of the Earth to a geostationary Earth orbit
(GEO) above the Earth ≈35,786 km in altitude. Its center of mass is at the geostationary point such
that it has a 24-hr orbit and stays over the same point above the equator as the Earth rotates on its
axis. The vision is that a space elevator would be utilized as a transportation and utility system for
moving people, payloads, power, and gases between the surface of the Earth and space. It makes the
physical connection from Earth to space in the same way a bridge connects two cities across a body
of water.

The Earth to GEO space elevator is not feasible today, but could be an important concept for the
future development of space in the latter part of the 21st century. It has the potential to provide mass
transportation to space in the same way highways, railroads, power lines, and pipelines provide
mass transportation across the Earth’s surface. The low energy requirements for moving payloads
up and down the elevator could make it possible to achieve cost to orbit <$10/kg. The potential for
low-cost mass transportation to space makes consideration of the technology paths required for
space elevator construction very important today. The technology paths are beneficial to many other
developments and can yield incremental benefits as progress is made toward making space elevator
construction feasible.

The space elevator concept is incredibly large and complex, but no issues were found to be without
some obvious course for resolution. Given proper planning for the development of critical
technologies, it appears that space elevator construction could become feasible.

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Space Elevator Substituting Launch Vehicles Seminar Report, 2017

1.2 KEY FINDINGS FROM THE WORKSHOP

A number of issues were raised and resolved during the workshop that has helped to bring the space
elevator concept out of the realm of science fiction and into the realm of possibility. These key
findings included the following:

1. Materials technology needed for space elevator construction is in the development

process in laboratories today. Continued research will likely produce the high-strength
carbon nanotube materials needed for efficient space elevator construction and for a wide
variety of new and improved products.

2. The tallest structure today is 629 m in height. Buildings and towers can be constructed many
kilometers in height today using conventional construction materials and methods. These
heights have not been attempted because there has not been a demonstrated need. Advanced
materials and new construction methods could make it possible to construct towers tens,
hundreds, and perhaps thousands of kilometers in height.

3. A tether structure hanging down from GEO connected to a tall tower constructed up from the
Earth appears to be the most efficient and technically feasible method for space elevator
construction.

4. Climatic conditions at the equatorial zone are very mild in comparison to more northern and
southern latitudes, making construction along the equator ideal from a weather hazard
standpoint. It is not physically possible for hurricanes and tornados to form at the equator.

5. The space elevator structure is inherently flexible over its great length and can be designed to
avoid major hazards. Minor hits from asteroid debris are inevitable and will require standard
repair procedures. A simple analogy is to think of the space elevator structure as a 36,000-km-
long highway that will require ongoing maintenance and repair.

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Space Elevator Substituting Launch Vehicles Seminar Report, 2017

1.3 FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Five primary technology thrusts were identified as critical to the development of space elevators in the
21st century. All have many other near-term applications for new products and services on Earth and
in space. They are as follows:

1. Develop advanced high-strength materials like the graphite, alumina, and quartz whiskers that
exhibit laboratory strengths >20 GPa. Continue development of the carbon nanotube materials that
exhibit strengths 100 times stronger than steel. Introduce these new lightweight, high-strength
materials to the commercial, space, and military markets for new and improved product developments
(see 3.1 Materials).

2. Continue development of space tether technologies for space transportation systems to gain
experience in the deployment and control of long structures. Utilize higher strength materials as they
become available. Continue analysis and plan for demonstration of momentum exchange and low-
Earth orbit (LEO) space elevator facilities for low-cost, in-space transfer to GEO (see 3.2 Tension
Structures).

3. Introduce lightweight composite structural materials to the general construction industry for
the development of tall tower and building construction systems. Foster the development of
multikilometer- height towers for commercial applications; i.e., communications, science
observatories, and launch platforms (see 3.3 Compression Structures).

4. Develop high-speed electromagnetic propulsion for mass transportation systems, launch assist
systems, and high-velocity launch rails. Integrate electromagnetic propulsion devices into
conventional construction industry systems; i.e., doors, elevators, conveyors, etc. (see 3.4
Electromagnetic Propulsion).

5. Develop transportation, utility, and facility infrastructures to support space construction

and industrial development. Key components include highly reusable space launch systems,
reusable in- space transportation, and space facility support from LEO to GEO (see 3.5 Supporting
Infrastructures).

Advances in these five areas over the next 10 to 20 years will lay the foundation for future space
elevator developments. Other benefits to space transportation: Earth-based infrastructures,
products, and services are evident and are discussed in the details of this publication.

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1.4 TECHNOLOGY DEMONSTRATIONS

Technology demonstrations were identified for tethers, towers, and electromagnetic systems as being
critical to a technology progression toward space elevator construction capabilities during the 21st
century.

More details on many of these technology demonstrations as well as other related potential
developments and benefits are discussed in this publication. The intent is to show that these
technology demonstrations and developments can provide incremental benefits and are logical to
pursue for their own merit in addition to their obvious relationship to future space elevator
developments.

2. SPACE ELEVATOR CONCEPTS

The following sections provide an overview of the basic Earth to GEO space elevator
concept as well as a number of other related space elevator concepts that have been
envisioned over the years. This basic concept for building a structure from the surface of
the Earth into space has been around for a long time, but was not well known or even
seriously considered from an engineering standpoint until the latter part of the 20th century.

2.1 BRIEF HISTORY

The first published account describing a space elevator that recognized the utility of
geosynchronous orbit did not occur until 1960. Yuri Artsutanov, a Leningrad engineer, published a
nontechnical story in a Sunday supplement to Pravda, which did not become known in the West.
Finally, in 1975, Jerome Pearson, working at the Air Force Research Laboratory, also independently
invented the space elevator and published a technical paper in Acta Astronautica. This publication
brought the concept to the attention of the space flight community and later inspired Sir Arthur
Clarke to write his novel, The Fountains of Paradise, about a space elevator based on a fictionalized
Sri Lanka, which brought the concept to the attention of the entire world. Pearson later participated
in the NASA Marshall tether workshops beginning in 1983, and brought the space elevator concept
into the space tether technical community.

The height of existing towers and buildings today are not limited by construction technology or
by materials strength. Even as far back as the 1930’s, architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright were
making designs for mile-tall skyscrapers. Conventional materials and methods make it possible
even today to construct towers many kilometers in height. There simply has not been a compelling
need to build structures any taller. In the following sections the space elevator and related concepts
will be examined in some detail to show its potential feasibility, and some approaches for developing
the technology required for its construction.

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2.2 A SPACE ELEVATOR CONCEPT

A baseline concept for a space elevator was created during the workshop to illustrate its purpose,
scale, and complexity. As described in the introduction, a space elevator is a physical connection from
the surface of the Earth to GEO above the Earth. It has a 24-hr orbit above the equator in sync with
the Earth’s rotation. The intended use is for transportation of payloads (including people), power, and
gases between the surface of the Earth and space. It is literally a mass transportation system
equivalent to a highway, railway, pipeline, and power line that connects our planet to the space
frontier.

The space elevator is envisioned to emerge from a platform at sea. The platform works like a seaport
where cargo and passengers make their transfers from terrestrial transportation systems to the space
elevator vehicles. It would likely include all the facilities of a small tourist town, including a marina,
airport, hotels, restaurants, shops, and medical facilities. A sea platform was selected because it
illustrates a remote location in international waters. The remote location is desirable from a safety
standpoint, at least for the first attempt when the risk of failure is the highest. Also, its location in
international waters would be appropriate for a project of this scope that will probably require
international cooperation and consensus to succeed. There was some discussion over whether the base
would be fixed to the ocean floor or could actually float and move if needed.

Moving up the elevator, illustrates a concept for high-altitude support and control of the elevator
tower through the use of inflatable platforms. This concept may be useful during early construction
phases; however, it was determined that tall tower construction through the atmosphere is possible
today using near conventional construction materials and methods.

From the top of the tower to the station at GEO is a long 36,000-km ride. It is an electromagnetic-
propelled vehicle that can travel thousands of kilometers per hour, suspended in a track, with no
moving parts (wheels) in contact with the elevator rails. Acceleration and braking are envisioned
by electromagnetic means such that energy is used to accelerate the vehicle to great speeds, and
energy is recovered through the braking process, requiring advanced energy management systems
that will make the total system very energy efficient. The vehicle is completely reusable, and returns
to the base port on Earth, transferring passengers and cargo back down.

Beyond the GEO transfer station, other outbound vehicles can continue on the elevator track through
the asteroid counterbalance to the end of the structure at 47,000 km where the end is traveling at near
escape velocity. Minimal energy is required for launch to the Moon or other deep space destinations
because the rotation of the elevator in its 24-hr orbit with the Earth acts like a sling beyond GEO to
throw its payloads out of orbit. Without the counterbalance mass, the space elevator structure would
be ≈144,000 km in length.

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Space Elevator Substituting Launch Vehicles Seminar Report, 2017

2.3 SPACE ELEVATOR BASICS

The most complex and demanding concept for a space elevator is the Earth to GEO space elevator,
the primary topic of this publication. In this system, the elevator center-of-mass station is at GEO;
the tether structure “hangs” down over 35,000 km to the Earth with no relative horizontal velocity
and connects to a tall tower constructed from an ocean-based platform. The structure is designed
integrally with six tracks for electromagnetic vehicles to travel continuously up and down the
elevator structure. If a payload is released in LEO, it would need a propulsion system to increase its
orbital velocity from that of GEO (3.1 km/sec) to that of LEO (7.7 km/sec).3 Payloads released
above GEO would be released into a transfer ellipse to a higher altitude. Release along the upper
section of the tether at an altitude of 47,000 km would provide for Earth escape. At the base, the
tether structure in tension connects to a tall tower in compression. The taller the tower the better,
since it is the lower section, as the structure approaches the Earth, that has the greatest impact on the
systems’ structural strength requirements and diameter at GEO.
One of the most common misconceptions about the space elevator concept is the assertion that
materials strong enough to span the 36,000-km height from the surface of the Earth to GEO are
unavailable. But, it is theoretically possible to build a structure of this size out of any common
structural material by simply increasing its thickness to compensate for the high tensile or
compressive loads. The problem is that for most readily available construction materials, it simply
is not practical, due to the massive quantity and associated cost that would be involved. So, finding
the right material in combination with the right construction method is the key to success.

Comparisons have been made between the mass of materials required for a tension structure versus
a compression structure from Earth to GEO. Interestingly, it was found that when using materials of
the same strength-to-density ratio, the compression structure was actually less massive. The
problem with compression structures or tall towers is that failure is usually through buckling, and
most materials are actually stronger in tension than in compression. So, the ideal structure will
likely be a combination of a tall tower in compression connected to a tension structure.

3. TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT PATHS

Five primary technology paths, or thrusts, were identified as critical for the development of space
elevators: materials, tension structures, compression structures, electromagnetic propulsion, and
supporting infrastructures. As stated in the summary, advances in these five areas over the next 10
to 20 years will lay the foundation for future space elevator developments in the latter part of the
21st century.

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3.1 MATERIALS
The lightest and strongest materials readily available today are the graphite epoxy composite
materials that are commonly used in aerospace applications; but, the material strengths required for
space elevator development appear to be far more demanding. Further development of advanced,
lightweight, high-strength materials will be important; in particular, the continued development of a
new material known as carbon nanotubes that has exhibited laboratory strengths 100 times stronger
than steel with only a fraction of the weight.

To demonstrate the difference between current technology and the potential carbon nanotubes offer, a
comparison of the two are made. If the space elevator was assumed to be a tapered, solid uniform structure
using the strongest composite materials available today (Spectra or PBO graphite epoxy), the diameter
at GEO would be 2 km and would taper down to 1 mm at the Earth’s surface. The mass of the tethered
structure would total approximately 60×1012 tons. If carbon nanotubes can be made into continuous
structural members, then the diameter at GEO would potentially be as small as 0.26 mm, 0.15 mm at
the Earth’s surface; and the total tether mass would be only 9.2 tons. This is the type of material that
is needed because it would then be possible to increase the thickness of the carbon nanotube structure
as needed to carry the electromagnetic systems required for space elevator operations.

At present, production of carbon nanotubes is very expensive and limited in quantity. Current
laboratory production is accomplished by using a laser to vaporize a plug of graphite and then
condensing the resulting matter to grow the nanotubes. This process coverts 90 percent of carbon to
nanotube materials. However, the longest nanotubes produced to date are no more than a few
microns in length.

Carbon nanotubes are the first high-tensile strength, electrically and thermally conductive
molecules. There are numerous commercial applications for carbon nanotube materials in
existing markets, and potentially many new applications that cannot be envisioned today.
Introduction into these markets could yield a demand for thousands of tons per year.
The basic applications of carbon nanotubes include:-
• Structural applications for all types of existing aircraft, ships, automobiles, trains, etc.
• Future integrated structures and engine components for hypersonic flight vehicles
• Pressure vessels for flight vehicles
• Supersonic parachutes for commercial aircraft and reentry vehicles
• Lightweight armor for vehicles and personnel
• Structural members for buildings and towers many kilometers in height
• Earthquake-resistant structures
• Electronic circuit devices with densities four orders of magnitude greater than present

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• Power transmission lines and towers

• Super flywheel energy storage devices
• Antennas at optical wavelengths
• Electrodes for high-energy density batteries
• Integration of structures with thermal management systems for flight vehicles
• Fabrics for better spacesuits and other thermal protection applications
Although the carbon nanotube is shown here to have the potential to be the ideal material for space
elevator construction, there are other alternatives; some will be discussed in the following sections.
The important point is that lightweight, high-strength materials that are many times better than
currently available are theoretically possible and should be pursued for the space elevator concept as
well as for the many other applications that could benefit along the way.

3.2 TENSION STRUCTURES

The second technology area is in the continued development of tension structures for space
applications. This includes LEO space elevator facilities and momentum exchange facilities
for permanent reusable in-space transportation from LEO to GEO altitudes and beyond. Similar
applications for space transfer systems at the Moon and Mars could be pursued to develop
permanent space transportation infrastructure for ongoing exploration and development at those
locations. It is envisioned that these new systems would utilize higher strength materials as they
become available and would build on the experience gained in the deployment and control of longer
and longer structures.

Several concepts for the development of space elevators are examined in this section to provide an
overview of what is possible in the near term and to begin examining in more detail the complexities
of the Earth-based space elevator for the far term. This includes an overview of LEO space
elevators, momentum exchange concepts, a lunar space elevator concept, and then concepts for space
elevators in the Mars system.

3.2.1 Low-Earth Orbit Space Elevator Concepts

The LEO space elevator is an intermediate version of the Earth surface to GEO space elevator
concept, and appears to be feasible today using existing high-strength materials and space
technology. It works by placing the system’s midpoint station, and center of gravity, in a relatively
low- Earth orbit and extending one cable down so that it points toward the center of the Earth and
a second cable up so that it points away from the Earth. The bottom end of the lower cable hangs
down to just above the Earth’s atmosphere such that a future space plane flying up from the Earth’s
surface would require ≈2.5 km/sec less change in velocity than a single- stage-to-orbit (SSTO)

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vehicle launched directly to LEO. The space plane and LEO space elevator combination would likely
be able to carry 10 to 12 times the payload as an equivalent- sized SSTO launch vehicle without the
LEO space elevator. The length of the upper cable is chosen so that its endpoint is traveling at
slightly less than Earth escape velocity for its altitude. This is done so that a spacecraft headed for
higher orbit, the Moon, or beyond, can be placed in the proper orbit with only minimal use of its
onboard propellant.

The overall length of a LEO space elevator from the bottom end of its lower cable to the top end of
its upper cable is anywhere from 2,000 to 4,000 km, depending on the amount of launch vehicle ∆V
reduction desired. It should be possible to launch a LEO space elevator in segments using existing
launch systems. Once on orbit the LEO space elevator would then use its own onboard propulsion
system to raise itself to the necessary orbital altitude while reeling out the upward and downward
pointing cables as it went

There are three major issues associated with LEO space elevator operations that will require some
type of propulsion system included in the design. These are atmospheric drag caused by the lower
end of the cable, movement of payloads up and down the cable, and changes to the system’s center
of gravity and orbital altitude that are the result of arriving and departing spacecraft.

Movement of people and cargo to various locations on the LEO space elevator will be via elevator.
These mass movements will cause the LEO space elevator’s center of gravity to move, and as a
result, change the system’s orbital altitude. The arrival and departure of spacecraft will cause even
greater changes in the center of gravity. The smaller of these center of gravity movements may be
dealt with by raising and lowering the upper and lower endpoint terminals and with local adjustments
of the midpoint station. Sizing of the propulsion system will be determined by the amount of center
of gravity travel and the flight rate. Lower flight rates will allow more time between arrivals and
departures, thereby allowing for a smaller, lower thrust propulsion system, while higher flight rates
will require a larger, more powerful system. As the system matures and the mass flow moving down
the cable matches the mass flow moving up the cable, the propulsion system will only be needed for
drag makeup.

3.2.2 Momentum Exchange Tethers

Another near-term concept for space transportation that is related to space elevator technology is
the momentum exchange tether. Rotating tether transportation stations located in Earth, lunar, and
Mars orbits have been proposed for payload transfer between points in space as well as from the
planetary surface to space. Some of these concepts for rotating tethers are quite complex but could
be developed in stages as a means for transfer of payloads from one orbit to another. In one scenario
a rotating tether in lunar orbit reaches down to the surface of the Moon to drop off and pick up
payloads. The payload is then captured in a high-Earth orbit and passed down to another elevator in
LEO. Innovative facilities like this will help develop the infrastructures in space needed for future
space elevator developments.

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3.2.3 Lunar Space Elevator Concepts

Another near-term application of the space elevator concept could be demonstrated at the Moon.
The one-sixth gravity at the Moon makes it theoretically possible to construct tethered connections
from the surface of the Moon to the Lagrange liberation points L1 and L2, on the near and far side,
respectively, using existing materials (Kevlar, Spectra, or PBO graphite epoxy). It has been envisioned
that on the near side of the Moon such a structure could become the transportation system for moving
materials to L1 in support of solar-powered satellite construction and propellant storage platforms.
The regolith located at the base of the elevator contains oxygen which could be extracted. Additional
gases from ice deposits at the lunar poles might also be transported around the Moon to this point for
transfer to L1. At L1, solar-powered satellites would become part of a space utility system for
production and transfer of power to the surface of the Moon and other stations within the Earth/Moon
system. Likewise, a propellant platform at L1 would act as a service station for reusable in-space
transportation vehicles.
On the far side of the Moon at L2, a similar system could be envisioned for lunar and space
infrastructure support. On the surface of the far side of the Moon, ideas have been proposed for large
space observatories, and as a remote location for the long-term storage of hazardous materials like the
nuclear waste generated on Earth that must be stored safely for thousands of years.

3.2.4 Mars Space Elevator Concepts

At Mars, proposals have been studied for tethered elevator type structures in a low-Mars orbit, and
extended from the two moons in orbit around the planet, Phobos and Deimos. Both moons are in the
same orbital plane around Mars at near equatorial inclinations. Tether structures extended toward and
away from Mars on each of these moons have been shown to provide a means of payload transfer
to and away from Mars that would significantly reduce propellant requirements. The material strength
required for a system like this appear to be within the limits of current technology. In one possible
design, a Kevlar tether is used to transfer a 20,000-kg payload from a low-Mars orbit to a Mars-Earth
transfer orbit. Such a system in orbit around Mars could be one way to establish a permanent
transportation infrastructure for ongoing exploration and development of the Mars system.

3.2.5 Applications for Tension Structures

There are many other missions and infrastructure developments that are related to tension
structures that could help develop the technologies needed for space elevator construction. Ideas
for these developments were compiled and are listed as follows; many are related to the current
International Space Station (ISS) program:
• Tethers for remote rendezvous and capture of unproven commercial vehicles at the ISS

• Orbital tethers using electrodynamic propulsion demonstrating incrementally longer lengths

(i.e., 10, 50, 250, 1,000 km, etc.)

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• Tethered mass at ISS for center of gravity control

• Electrodynamic re-boost for ISS
• Tethers to drop payloads and expendable materials from ISS
• Tethers attached to ISS for remote storage and transfer propellants
• Tethers to demonstrate ISS towing with the Space Shuttle

• Electrodynamic tethers for magnetic braking at Jupiter and power generation on exploration
spacecraft
• Tapered tethers for long suspension bridges
• Lighter weight cables for construction and mechanical systems.

As high-strength materials are introduced into commercial markets, there will be more applications that
are not possible to envision today. Technology development and growth in this market will help make
long-term development of space elevators possible.

3.3 COMPRESSION STRUCTURES

The third technology area is in the continued development of tall towers for Earth applications, and
eventually for space applications. This requires the introduction of lightweight composite structural
materials to the general construction industry for the development of tall tower and building
construction systems. The goal is to foster the development of multikilometer-height towers for
commercial applications (i.e., communications, science observatories, and launch platforms).

3.3.1 Tall Towers

The height of existing towers and buildings today are not limited by construction technology or by
materials strength. Conventional materials and methods make it possible even today to construct towers
many kilometers in height. When considering how high a tower can be built, it is important to
remember that it can be built out of anything if the base is large enough. Theoretically, you could build
a tower to GEO out of bubble gum, but the base would probably cover half the sphere of the Earth. The
height of existing towers and buildings today are not limited by building technology or by materials
strength; it is simply that there has not been a good economic reason to build towers any taller than
have been built so far. One approach in determining the maximum height practical for various tower
construction materials is to look at the maximum height of a column that can just support its own
weight.

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3.3.2 Pressurized Tower Concept

The pressurized tower concept is a way to do this convert tensile strength of materials into
compressive strength. Consider a balloon as an example. The rubber fabric has tensile strength, but
falls flat under compression from its own weight. Once inflated, the air pressure inside the balloon
converts the structure into a pressurized shell capable of withstanding both tension and compression
loads.

By converting tensile strength into compressive strength with a pressurized shell, PBO fibers can be
used to build towers many times taller than would otherwise be possible. For example, a tower
3,000 km in height is theoretically possible using PBO fiber, and it would still be less massive than
the CN Tower. A problem with a tower of this height is failure through buckling. Although the PBO
fiber materials in combination with a pressurization system can likely handle the compressive loads,
some type of active stabilization system would be required to keep the tower vertical. Today, many
tall buildings include active control systems to control movement from high winds and earthquakes.
These systems provide sway control for additional comfort in high winds and stabilization during
earthquake emergencies. However, no tall buildings or structures have been built with their basic
structural integrity dependent on an active system.

3.3.3 Tall Tower Applications

Tall towers that extend up through the Earth’s thick atmosphere appear to have numerous
applications for government and commercial purposes and appear to be feasible in the near term from
a materials capability standpoint. Two concepts illustrated in this section help explain the wide variety
of uses that tall towers could perform.
Other uses for towers of this height include the following:

• Communications boost: A tower tens of kilometers in height near large metropolitan areas could
have much higher signal strength than orbital satellites.
• Observation platform: A permanent observatory on a tall tower would be competitive with
airborne and orbital platforms for Earth and space observations.

• Solar power receivers: Receivers located on tall towers for future space solar power systems
would permit use of higher frequency, wireless, power transmission systems (i.e., lasers).

• Drop tower: Tall towers several tens of kilometers in height could provide several minutes of
free-fall time for microgravity science experiments.

• Deep sea platforms: Tower construction technology of this magnitude means it would be possible
to support deep sea platforms from the ocean floor even to the maximum depth of the ocean at 11
km.

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3.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPULSION

Electro- magnetic propulsion is important to the space elevator concept because of the need for a high-
speed, noncontact transportation system to quickly traverse the space elevator’s great length.
Technology development would include the application of electromagnetic systems to a variety of
transportation systems including MagLev for propulsion of trains, MagLifter for launch assist of
new, reusable launch vehicles, and mass driver and rail gun systems for propulsion of payloads to
orbit at high-g levels.

3.4.1 Elevator Climbing Mechanisms

Mechanical mechanisms are in existence today for elevators in tall buildings. The problem with
these systems is that they are mechanical, and require cables and guide wheels in contact with
supporting rails in order to climb the structure. This type of system may be used for the space elevator,
and may well be the only way to climb the elevator during its construction phase. The purpose for
exploring electromagnetic technology for the elevator is to develop a means by which vehicles can
climb up and down the elevator without contacting the structure or guide rails. This would then lend
itself to a system that would be very low maintenance on both the vehicles and the structure, and
potentially very fast. High-speed systems in the thousands of kilometers per hour are desirable due to
the great length to be traveled in space. Another reason for the pursuit of an electromagnetic system
is a concept for energy recovery. Energy is used during the initial lift and acceleration phase up the
elevator. With an electromagnetic system there is the potential that electrical energy could be
recovered in the braking phase to slow the vehicle down. An energy management system that recovers
and reuses this energy could make the total system very energy efficient.

3.4.2 Low-Gravity Systems

Two concepts for use of electromagnetic propulsion in low-g systems are the MagLev for magnetically
levitated train systems, and the MagLifter for magnetic lift to provide launch assist for space launch
vehicles. The tracks for these high-speed vehicles are very precise engineering achievements utilizing
electromagnetic levitation, or in some cases, permanent magnets that require no lift energy at all. Other
vision vehicle systems have included concepts for integrating both automobiles and trains into a
common electromagnetic track system such that they can transition from one to the other. The potential
for MagLev systems is to accelerate ground transportation up to speeds equivalent to airline travel.

3.4.3 High-Gravity Systems

High-g systems are for nonhuman payloads that can survive high accelerations in the hundreds and
thousands of gees. Two concepts for high-g propulsion systems are the rail gun and the mass driver
(or coil gun). Please note that both systems deliberately use gun terminology in their descriptions
because the resulting launch velocities from the end of their tracks are at velocities equivalent to
projectiles fired from a gun or cannon.

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3.5 SUPPORTING INFRASTRUCTURE

The fifth technology area is in the development of space infrastructures that will facilitate a growing
economy in space to support construction of large systems like the space elevator. Today, our progress
in space development is restricted to single projects of limited scope in LEO. Significant expansion of
space infrastructure will be necessary to create the economic base and the construction capabilities
needed for major developments beyond LEO.

3.5.1 Space Transportation Systems

A mature space transportation system from Earth to GEO will be needed to facilitate space elevator
construction. This includes launch systems from Earth to LEO, in-space transfer systems from LEO
to GEO, and transportation support facilities from Earth to GEO. These transportation systems should
not be built exclusively for space elevator construction. The space elevator concept will only be
successful if it is done in support of a growing economy in space where people are actively working
to make this new frontier their permanent home. As such, the transportation systems must be
multipurpose and highly reusable to support frequent flights comparable to today’s airline and
ground transportation systems.

3.5.2 Robotic Assembly, Maintenance, and Repair Systems

The space elevator and all of the infrastructure elements described in this section will require
continued advances in robotics to support space assembly, maintenance, and repair systems. For the
space elevator, it will be important that advances are made toward autonomous systems where the
robot will recognize the assembly, maintenance, or repair condition, and proceed with the work
accordingly. The unique requirements for constructing a space elevator may create additional
technologies related to robotic assembly, maintenance, and repair. The concept for assembly of the space
elevator in this report described construction of a tall tower through the atmosphere joined to a tether
structure suspended from GEO. This will call for high-altitude construction methods from the
ground and perhaps some form of automated material processing, fabrication, and assembly of linear
structures from GEO.

3.5.3 Lunar Infrastructure Elements

Developments at the Moon could have an important role to play in the overall plan to develop and
demonstrate the technology for a space elevator. The materials are available today to extend a tether
connection from the surface of the Moon to the L1 or L2 points in space on the near or far side,
respectively. These systems could prove the technology required for construction of the space
segment of the elevator before it is done on Earth. If development of lunar resources proves to be
profitable for overall space development, then such resources may be useful for development of the
elevator at GEO as well. In general, in-space transportation systems that are developed to move
payloads from LEO to GEO will likely have the ability to go all the way to the Moon.

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4. ISSUES
Major issues related to the space elevator concept tended to focus on either environmental or safety
concerns. The environmental issues dealt primarily with the effects the natural environment on Earth
and in space would have on the space elevator system. Some of these concerns led to safety issues for
people traveling on the elevator as well as for others on Earth and in space in the event of a catastrophic
failure.

4.1 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

In this section, environmental issues will be addressed by examining the Earth’s environmental
effects on the ground segment, the tower, and the space environmental effects on the space
segment of the space elevator. Potential debris impacts and collisions in space are covered
primarily as part of the safety issues.

4.1.1 Equatorial Ocean Platform

The ocean platform provides one of the most remote locations possible for space elevator
construction. This is desirable, especially for the first elevator, in the event of catastrophic failure. As
described in earlier sections, the center of mass for the entire space segment of the space elevator would
be located at a geostationary orbit directly over one point on the Earth’s equator. In addition, the
worst-case weather conditions at the equator are milder than anywhere else on Earth. This makes the
equatorial location important from both a construction and stability standpoint.

The location off land is not necessarily detrimental to construction and operational access. If the base
is developed as a major port for shipping and air transportation, then it can develop as a city island. In
addition, if the base can be constructed as a floating platform and not be anchored or structurally
supported from the ocean floor, then the entire structure would be mobile, such that adjustments in its
final location might be possible.

4.1.2 Ocean Environmental Issues

Ocean currents at the equator move from east to west except near the surface where there is an
equatorial counter current that moves from west to east. Water temperatures from 24–28 °C (75–82
°F) are typical with cold water up-wells along western coastlines near 20 °C (68 °F) periodically.
Precipitation is greater than evaporation at the equatorial region, making the ocean less salty at the
equator than at higher and lower latitudes.13 Ocean depth along the equator varies to a maximum depth
<8 km.

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4.1.3 Atmospheric Conditions

Wind conditions in the equatorial regions are calm, varying from near 0 to 16 km/hr year round.
Higher wind speeds in the jet stream are <54 km/hr, and have minimal impact due to the low air
pressure at higher altitudes. At altitudes of the highest stratospheric balloons, 35–45 km, the wind
speed generally does not exceed 180 km/hr. At 25-km altitude the wind speed is <72 km/hr. Lower
altitudes have lower wind speeds and higher altitudes have less air pressure, which results in a
maximum dynamic pressure at ≈10 km in altitude.

Of particular interest is that hurricanes are not possible at the equator. The rotation of the Earth
causes all winds in hurricanes, tornados, and cyclones to rotate counterclockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. At the equator the rotation can occur in
either direction, but cannot sustain the high concentrations of angular momentum required for the
formation of destructive windstorms. Rainfall can vary widely from 0.04 to 7.3 m per year,
depending on the location along the equator. This has produced some of the most arid lands and
tropical rain forests in the world in the equatorial regions.

4.1.4 Gravitational Field

The most stable gravitational location for the construction of a space elevator is in the Indian Ocean at
70° E., which is south of India near the Maldives Islands. Second to that is a site in the eastern Pacific
at 104° W. near the Galapagos Islands. Any location along the equator could be feasible, although some
advantage might be found for the first elevator construction at one of these sites. In general, wind
and weather conditions in the equatorial regions are very mild, although it was noted that little is
understood about wind gusts in the tropics to be able to identify any specific issues. Icing at altitudes in
the 4- to 5-km range could occur even at the equator, so a tower extending through that part of the
atmosphere would need to address this potential problem in the design of the structure, rails, and
vehicles passing through at that level.

4.1.5 Space Environments

Space environmental effects on materials can be broken into distinct areas where different effects are
more prominent: LEO, where atomic oxygen (AO), space debris, plasma, and ultraviolet (UV) and
vacuum UV radiation effects are most prominent; and GEO, where particulate radiation, UV and
vacuum UV radiation, and meteoroid effects are most prominent.

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4.1.6 Low-Earth Orbit (200- to 900-km Altitude)

4.1.6.1 Atomic oxygen. Atomic oxygen in this altitude can have significant impact on spacecraft. It
will erode organic films and polymeric materials, and can have a negative effect on the materials’
thermal optical properties, conductivity, reflectivity, vacuum sealing capability, and strength.

4.1.6.2 Space debris. Space debris is a concern for space elevator systems as well as all space systems
in general. Small debris only millimeters in diameter can sever tethers, damage shielding, and
potentially puncture pressure vessels, leading to catastrophic rupturing.

4.1.6.3 Ionospheric plasma. It effects on materials include material erosion, changes in optical
properties, arcing of thin coatings, and pitting of material leading to sputtering. Electron collection of
highly positive surfaces can alter floating potential and increase parasitic current flow in the system.

4.1.6.4 Ultraviolet radiation. Ultraviolet radiation will darken many materials causing changes to the
optical properties of polymer materials and thermal control coatings, and pitting of anodized aluminum
will occur over long-term exposure.

4.1.7 Geosynchronous Orbit

4.1.7.1 Charged particles. Charged-particle effects on materials will tend to darken polymer
coatings, changing their optical properties, and causing them to become brittle. Metals can become
more hardened, affecting their electrical and thermal conductivity.

4.1.7.2 Solar ultraviolet. Solar UV tends to neutralize charge buildup. Because parts of the
spacecraft are shadowed, the photoelectric effect tends to produce differential charging. Molecular
contamination from the spacecraft under action by UV darkens external surfaces, degrading its
thermal optical properties.

4.1.7.3 Meteoroids. Meteoroids are a concern for space elevator systems as well as all other space
systems. Whereas the space debris environment can be cleaned up over time, there is no control over
incoming meteoroids from space.

4.1.8 Energy From the Space Environment

Several ideas for generating energy from the space environment to help lift, stabilize, and
operate the space elevator were suggested. They include collection of ionospheric currents to produce
power, use of controlled tether currents to drive against the geomagnetic field (especially the lower
altitude portion), and the feasibility of creating a short circuit between the electron and proton belts to
generate energy. These ideas were not studied in depth, but were identified as areas needing further
research.

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4.2 SAFETY ISSUES

The single greatest safety concern identified centered on the hazards caused by potential collisions
between the elevator structure and other objects in orbit. This included orbital debris, active spacecraft,
and meteoroids. Orbital debris includes everything from paint chips to dead satellites, which are a
threat to all active spacecraft today. Cleanup of orbital debris was identified as a high priority that
needed to be done to protect all future spacecraft. Active spacecraft were also considered a threat to
the space elevator but it was noted that future systems could include collision avoidance navigation
systems. Meteoroids from space were perhaps the only natural debris hazard that will impact the
maintainability of a space elevator structure. Impacts that could cause significant damage were found
to be remote, but possible.

4.2.1 Space Debris Analysis

Small debris materials <1 mm in diameter are numerous and can cause erosion of spacecraft surfaces.
Space junk larger than 10 cm in diameter can be tracked by ground radar systems for collision avoidance
purposes, and could eventually be captured and removed from Earth orbit. The real problem is with
debris and incoming meteoroids in the 1 mm to 10 cm size. They are difficult to track with current
technology and can cause significant damage to spacecraft systems. Small debris materials <1 mm in
diameter are numerous and can cause erosion of spacecraft surfaces. Space junk larger than 10 cm in
diameter can be tracked by ground radar systems for collision avoidance purposes, and could
eventually be captured and removed from Earth orbit. The real problem is with debris and incoming
meteoroids in the 1 mm to 10 cm size.

4.2.2 Space Elevator Collision Avoidance

The first space elevator will probably not be built until after the current generation of space assets have
been used up. Next-generation space systems could be designed with the space elevator structure in
mind and include automated collision avoidance systems for both satellites and the space elevator.
This will be critical because all objects orbiting the Earth cross the equator twice per orbit and have
the potential of colliding with a space elevator structure. , Global Positioning Systems (GPS’s), and other
Earth observation systems, it is apparent that the orbits from LEO to GEO will be populated by perhaps
thousands of operational spacecraft by the time the technology. This congestion could improve the

feasibility of space elevator structures by forcing, in advance, the cleanup of all orbits and the
development of automated collision avoidance technology for all satellite systems.

4.2.3 Catastrophic Failure Modes

Catastrophic failure or the complete severing of the space elevator structure is the ultimate
disaster that must be considered in the design of a safe system. Such failure could occur through
impacts from space objects, excessive vibration of the entire structure, or unanticipated structural
stresses from temperature variations or orbital dynamics, causing material failures.

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5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The massive size and complexity of the space elevator concept is often cited as making such a
system impossible to conceive except in the realm of science fiction. More detailed analysis of the
system indicates that it is indeed very complex, but it is comparable to other Earth-based
infrastructures that have been built over many years. For example, the mass of the PBO tower
referenced in 3.3 Compression Structures connected to a GEO tether has a mass greater than a recent
Norwegian North Sea oil-drilling platform, 1 million tons, but is less massive than the 5 million tons
of the Great Pyramid of Giza. And even the length of the space elevator, ≈36,000 km from Earth to
GEO, is short in comparison to our interstate highway system that extends some 100,000 km, with
a mass of several thousand million tons. The following section provides the groups’ thoughts on the
pros for building a space elevator, the cons against building a space elevator, some concerns and
possible solutions, and recommendations for future consideration.

5.1 PRO’S FOR BUILDING SPACE ELEVATORS

Many benefits were identified that supported the pursuit of space elevator technology, most of
which centered on the potential for low-cost mass transportation capabilities to space. Those ideas
were as follows:

• The space elevator is one of very few concepts that may allow Earth to orbit launch costs less
than $10/kg.

• Lowering launch costs to $10/kg and less will open up near-Earth space to miners, explorers,
settlers, and adventurers, which will give us a frontier society once again. This will alleviate any
perception of over- crowding and scarcity of resources.
• A surface to GEO space elevator would be good for placing satellites into GEO and allows
lower acceleration into orbit for fragile cargo. It is a potential mass transportation system.

• The elevator concept could be more environmentally friendly than burning rocket fuel in the
atmosphere necessary to do the same tonnage.

• A side benefit of materials research for the space elevator would be a massive reduction in fuel
use here on Earth from lighter weight structures in automobiles, trains, ships, and planes.

• The space elevator is like a bridge that can support an unlimited amount of mass delivery between
Earth and GEO.

• The space elevator could revolutionize space flight and space development. It could be the key to
moving polluting industries and power production into space and ending pollution of the biosphere.

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5.2 CONS AGAINST BUILDING SPACE ELEVATORS

There are many questions and problems to be resolved before space elevators can be considered
feasible. Some of these problems are as follows:

• Financial tradeoffs (initial investment cost versus payback) and ultimate launch cost ($/kg) have
not been addressed—there may not be any real cost benefit.

• If the travel time on the elevator is over 24 hour, this may prove to be unacceptable to the paying
public. Long tether rides will require vehicles the size of railroad cars that include restroom
facilities, cafeterias, entertainment, and even sleeping quarters.

• A catastrophic failure of a space elevator could produce massive political, legal, financial
(lawsuits), and ecological disasters with massive loss of human life.

• There are numerous political issues that will need to be addressed in order for a space elevator to
be constructed.

• Any project planning with more than a 20-yr time horizon is a waste of time because predictions
cannot be made as to what will happen to technology in that timeframe.

• The space elevator seems too far in the future relative to the space infrastructure that could
develop from more near-term propulsion technology. Also, even if it were to be possible to build
today,

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5.3 CONCERNS AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

There are many things that need to be done before a space elevator can actually be considered a

feasible approach for accessing the space frontier. The following concerns were collected along

with an explanation of what could be done to help determine feasibility or alternative approaches:

• An operations assessment needs to be performed before the space elevator can seriously be

considered: power requirements, collisions, maneuverable tethers, initial assembly, maintenance

concepts, contingency plans for damage and breaks, and simultaneous use by many users.

• All the technical problems are important; however, the real problem is how to fund it. It must be

shown that it is a commercially viable program. Thus, there has to be payback to commercial

partners that is in a timeframe of interest to them.

• Satellites and space stations in LEO and MEO can coexist with a space elevator if the position of

the elevator is well known and broadcast (like GPS) to the spacecraft operators so that they can

redirect the satellite when necessary.

• The space elevator makes a lot of sense if materials with characteristics like carbon nanotubes

become available for long tethers in ton quantities.

• Good space development policy is perhaps the most important determinate as to whether space

development, and eventually space elevator development, will come to fruition. A number of barriers

must be overcome before progress can be made.

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REFERENCE

 Space Elevators An Advanced Earth-Space Infrastructurefor the New Millennium, by D.V.

Smitherman, Jr.Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama

 The Orbital Tower: A Spacecraft Launcher Using the Earth’s Rotational Energy, by Acta

Astronautica

 Space Elevator – Science Fiction or the Future of Mankind, by Kurzgesagt

 “Sky-hook”, by Isaacs

 “Lunar Orbit Tether Station Concept,” by Calspace

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