Final 5 Study Material

INTERACTIVE STUDY MATERIAL
CLASS XII
ACADEMIC YEAR • 2022-23
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

PATRONAGE
CHIEF PATRON
MS. NIDHI PANDEY(IIS)
COMMISSIONER KVS
PATRON PATRON
SH. N R MURALI MS.CHANDANA MANDAL
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GUIDE
DR ANURAG YADAV
DIRECTOR/DY COMMISSIONER
KVS ZIET GWALIOR
COMPILED BY: TEAM OF TRAINING ASSOCIATES, KVS ZIET GWALIOR
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KVS ZIET GWALIOR

ENGLISH
CHEMISTRY
BIOLOGY
ECONOMICS
HINDI
Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan
Zonal Institute of Education & Training, Gwalior (M.P.)
Interactive Resource Material for Class XII English
T. Uma Maheswari
Training Associate (English)
CONTENTS
S.No. Prose (Flamingo) Click Here
1 The Last Lesson 7
1.1. About the Author 7

1.2. Link for the Text Book Lesson 7
1.3. Link for the Audio Lesson 7
1.4. Images & Video on the Cause of the War 8

1.5. Mind Map & Audio on Linguistic Chauvinism 9
1.6. Synopsis of the Lesson 10
2 Lost Spring 11
2.4. Images & Audio on the Effects of Poverty 12
2.5. Mind Map 13
3 Deep Water 15

3.4. Images 16
3.5. Mind Map & Video - Swimming at River & Pool 17

4 The Rattrap 19
1

4.4. Images & Video – Rattrap as a Symbol 20
4.5. Mind Map 21

5 Indigo 23
5.4. Images & Video – First Civil Disobedience 24
5.5. Mind Map 25
6 Poets And Pancakes 27


6.4. Images & Audio – World of Cinema 28
6.5. Mind Map 29

7 The Interview (Part I & II) 31

7.4. Images 32
2
7.5. Mind Map & Audio – Attitude of the Interviewee 33

8 Going Places 35

8.4. Images & Video – Adolescent Fantasy 36
8.5. Mind Map 37
Poetry (Flamingo) 39
1 My Mother At Sixty-six 40
1.1. About the Poet 40

1.2. Link for the Text 40
1.3. Images 41
1.4. Link for the Audio 41

1.5. Critical Appreciation 42
2 Keeping Quiet 43
2.3. Images 44

3 A Thing Of Beauty 46
3
3.3. Images 47

4 A Roadside Stand 49
4.3. Images 50
5 Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers 52

5.3. Images 53
Supplementary Reader (Vistas) 56
1 57

1.3. Gist of the Lesson 58
2 60
4
3 62

4 64

5 66

6 68
6.1. About the Author – Zitkala Sa 68
6.2. Link for the Text Book & Audio Lesson 68
6.3. About the Author - Bama 69

I Curriculum of the Academic Year 2022 - 23 72
II Rationalisation of Content in the Text Books - Flamingo 81

III Rationalisation of Content in the Text Books - Vistas 82
IV References 83
5
Flamingo
6
1. The Last Lesson
- Alphonse Daudet
Alphonse Daudet (1840 – 1897)
Alphonse Daudet (born May 13, 1840, Nimes, France – died Dec. 16, 1897, Paris) French short-
story writer and novelist. Now he is remembered chiefly as the author of sentimental tales of
provincial life in the south of France. He wrote his first poems and his first novel at the age of
14. Unable to finish his schooling after his parents lost all their money, he took a position in a
duke‟s household.
The Last Lesson is set in the days of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) in which France was
defeated by Prussia led by Bismarck. Prussia then consisted of what now are the nations of
Germany, Poland and parts of Austria. The synopsis of the lesson follows to have a quick
review.
TEXT BOOK LESSON LINK

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?lefl1=1-14
AUDIO LESSON LINK
7
Districts of Alsace and Lorraine
France 1870 – 1871
8
Mind Map
Villagers occupying M.Hamel dressed in

Silent Classroom
the last benches his Sunday best
Bulletin Board
Discontinuation of
French Districts of Alsace teaching French in the
and Lorraine have
passed into Prussian
hands
Franz and Villagers Forced to learn
regrets for not
learning the mother
The loss of language; the

loss of freedom for
France
Highlights the human

Linguistic tendency to postponing the
Chauvinism learning of things - oblivious
Pain inflicted on the
to the fact that life is subject
people of a territory by the
to change.
conquerors
LINGUISTIC CHAUVINISM - AUDIO LINK
PLAY AUDIO
9
Synopsis of the lesson
The Story is narrated by Franz, a French boy. French districts of Alsace and Lorraine have
passed into the hands of Prussian. So Berlin has ordered that only German language should be
taught instead of French in the schools of these districts.
That day was the last day of their French lesson by M.Hamel, French teacher who has been there
for forty years. He was filled with grief, nostalgia and Patriotism. As a mark of respect to his
hard work, the village elders also attended his „last lesson‟. All felt sad as they did not learn their
mother tongue properly when they were young.
Franz was shocked to know that that was his last lesson in French and regrets for not showing
interest in learning it. Suddenly he gets interest in learning it and understands everything was
taught on that day. He develops an instant liking for the teacher, M.Hamel and respects him for
his sincerity and hard work. He feels sad that M.Hamel will teach French no more.
Franz feels bad and ashamed for not being able to recite the lesson of participles. M.Hamel also
tells them that they all are at fault for not being eager enough to learn, and putting it off to the
next day. He blames himself for not teaching them sincerely.
M.Hamel, praised the French language as being the most beautiful and most logical language in
the world. He tells the class to guard their language „because when a people are enslaved, as long
as they hold fast to their language it is as if they had the key to their prison.‟ He made them
realise the importance of learning their mother tongue.
Franz feels that it is impossible to take away one‟s language from a person as it is natural to each
being, may it be the „coo‟ to the pigeons or „French‟ to the Frenchmen.
The lesson focuses on the pain that is inflicted on the people of a territory by its conquerors by
taking away the right to study or speak their own language and student-teacher attitudes to
learning and teaching.
10
2. Lost Spring
Stories of Stolen Childhood
- Anees Jung
Anees Jung (born 1944)

Anees Jung (1944) was born in Rourkela and spent her childhood and adolescence in Hyderabad.
She received her education in Hyderabad and in the United States of America. Her parents were
both writers. Anees Jung began her career as a writer in India. She has been an editor and
columnist for major newspapers in India and abroad and has authored several books. This lesson
is an excerpt from her book titled Lost Spring, Stories of Stolen Childhood. Here she analyses the
grinding poverty and traditions which condemn these children to a life of exploitation.

AUDIO LESSON LINK
11
Rag Pickers & Glass Bangle Makers
POVERTY - AUDIO LINK
PLAY AUDIO
12
Mind Map
Lost Spring, Stories of Stolen

Saheb-e-Alam Mukesh
Childhood
Impoverished conditions, grinding Grinding poverty, pathetic condition,

poverty, denied Schooling, labour humans and animals coexisting in a
at early stage, hardships… primeval state, denied schooling, labour at
early stage, not enjoyed even one full
meal
Looking for gold in the big city,
Seemapuri, outskirts of Delhi, left
their home, Dhaka. Glass making Industry – Health Hazards -
early age blindness, eyes more adjusted to
Excited at the prospect of finding a the dark than to the light outside, know
coin or even a ten rupee note in the nothing except bangle making
garbage – rag picking, their
livelihood.
Not daring and lost their ability to dream

No identity except ration card unlike Mukesh who wants to be a motor
mechanic.
Irony of his name – Saheb-e-Alam

means ruler of earth – lose the spark
No leader among them – burdened by
of childhood and roams barefooted
the stigma of caste – vicious circles like
with his friends.
middlemen, policemen…
Joins tea stall for Rs.800/- per

month with free food – unhappy –
no freedom
13
The author Anees Jung analyses the grinding poverty and traditions which condemn the poor
children to a life of exploitation through Lost Spring, Stories of Stolen Childhood. She narrates the
stories of her interaction with children from two different deprived backgrounds and their plight.
She highlights the plight of street children who are forced into labour early in life and are denied the
opportunity of schooling. The author raises voice to eliminate child labour and strict law
enforcement against it by creating awareness regarding child education. The call is to put an end to
the exploitation of children and allow them to have fun and enjoy spring.
The first part tells the author‟s impressions about the life of poor rag pickers who have come from
Dhaka and settled at Seemapuri, the outskirts of Delhi. Their fields and homes had been swept away
by storms and they had come to the big city in the hope of finding their living. The narrator watches
every morning Saheb-e-Alam as he scrounges for „gold‟ in neighbourhood. Garbage is a means of
survival for the elders and for the children it is something wrapped in wonder. Certain things are
unreachable to them like shoes, tennis etc. They do have ambitions and desires but do not know to
achieve them. Later Saheb joins tea stall for 800 rupees and free meals. He was unhappy as he is not
the master of his own.
The second part of the story is about the life of Mukesh who belongs to the family of Bangle-
makers. Firozabad is best known for its glass-blowing industry. The living and the working
condition is miserable. Nearly 20,000 children are engaged in this business oblivious about the law.
They are caught in two distinct worlds – one of the families, caught in a web of poverty, burdened
by the stigma of caste in which they are born, the other a vicious circle of the sahukars, the
middlemen, the policemen, the keepers of law, the bureaucrats and the politicians. They do have
dreams but to do anything else would mean to dare. And daring is not part of his growing up.
Mukesh is content to dream of cars and the writer feels that he would achieve it.
14
3. Deep Water
- William O. Douglas
William Orville Douglas (1898 –1980)

William Douglas (born October 16, 1898 Maine, Minnesota – died January 19, 1980 Bethesda,
Maryland, USA) after graduating with a Bachelors of Arts in English and Economics, spent two
years teaching high school in Yakima. However, he got tired of this and decided to pursue a legal
career. He met Franklin D. Roosevelt at Yale and became an adviser and friend to the President.
Douglas was a leading advocate of individual rights. He retired I 1975 with a term lasting thirty-
six years and remains the longest-serving Justice in the history of the court.
This excerpt is taken from Of Men and Mountains by William O. Douglas. It reveals how as a
young boy William Douglas nearly drowned in a swimming pool. In this essay he talks about his
fear of water and thereafter, how he finally overcame it. We can notice the autobiographical part
of the selection is used to support his discussion of fear.
AUDIO LESSON LINK
15
The Yakima River
Y.M.C.A. Swimming Pool
16
Mind Map
Piece by piece he
At the age of 3 or 4 – He got an built a swimmer
California beach, waves instructor to learn shedding panic bit
knocked and swept over him to swim by bit
- Had aversion to water –
developed aversion to water
Fear of water Went to different

gripped and lakes to check tiny
Decides to learn deprived the joys of vestiges of fear
swimming at the age of 10 canoeing, boating, still gripped him
or 11 at Y.M.C.A. swimming & fishing
swimming pool
Overcame fear - Will
Three trials he to live is stronger
made – sucked than the fear of
One day a big boy threw him water – became death
into the deep end of the pool unconscious
He planned to Realised, in death

make a big jump there is peace and
Swallowed water and went upwards but came
straight down to the bottom of there is terror only in
up slowly – terror fear of death
the pool seized him
17
Deep Water is about the writer‟s journey of overcoming the fear of water, which is deeply rooted in
him since childhood. The author started fearing water since the age of four. It starts when he was
visiting California with his father. He visits a beach where a wave knocks him down and sweeps
over him. This terrifies the author, although the father laughs at this knowing it was no danger.
However, this experience terrifies him and develops a fear of water. After that, when the author is
11 years old, he experiences another incident which escalates his fear.
He is at a swimming pool in Yakima, trying to learn swimming. On one fine day, a bully decides to
pull a dangerous prank. He pushes him in the deep end of the pool which frightens the author. He
reaches nine feet into the water and starts struggling desperately to hold on to something. Moreover,
he yells for help but he starts feeling paralyzed. Thus, he gives up and readies himself to die but
wakes up at the side of the pool. However, the terror he experiences continues to haunt him for
many years and even spoiled enjoying canoeing, swimming, fishing etc.
He even visits Marine Lakes, Columbia, New Hampshire and more but is not able to enjoy it. He
decides to overcome this fear, so he takes the instructor to learn swimming. The instructor teaches
him many tips and tricks for swimming. He begins with the inhaling and exhaling and practices it
for many weeks bit by bit building a swimmer piece by piece. Finally, he combines all this with the
final move of swimming.
Thus, in order to get rid of the fear, he decides to confront it. He plunges in to the water and to his
surprise, his fear goes away. He faced it in many places and at last, manages to conquer it. There is
terror only in the fear of death, so „All we have to fear is fear itself‟.
18
4. The Rattrap
- Selma Lagerlof
Selma Lagerlof (1858 – 1940)
Selma Lagerlof (1858 – 1940) was a Swedish writer whose stories have been translated into many
languages. A universal theme runs through all of them – a belief that the essential goodness in a
human being can be awakened through understanding and love. This story is set amidst the mines
of Sweden, rich in iron ore, which figure large in the history and legends of that country. The story
is told somewhat in the manner of a fairy tale.

AUDIO LESSON LINK
19
The Rattrap
The whole world was nothing but a big rattrap, set baits for people. It offered riches
and joys, shelter and food, heat and clothing, exactly as the rattrap offered cheese
and pork, and as soon as anyone let himself be tempted to touch the bait, it closed in
on him, and then everything came to an end.
20
Mind Map
The Rattrap
Peddler – Vagabond – Sells rattraps & petty He amused himself by the thought that
thievery for living. this world as a rattrap and all the
material possessions as bait for people.
Peddler takes shelter at Crofter’s Cottage –

enjoys hospitality & steals his 30 kronor. He keeps away from people – gets lost in
jungle – realises he too was caught in the
rattrap, 30 kronor as bait.
Takes shelter at Ramsjo ironworks.

Ironmaster visits – mistakes him to be an old Peddler declines invitation though hoping to
acquaintance – invites him home. get some money out of him.
Ironmaster sends his daughter – persuades Peddler was cleaned, bathed, shaved & wore
him to come home, though doubts him to have Ironmaster’s old clothes.
stolen something or escaped from jail.
Ironmaster realised his mistake & wants to call Edla convinces her father & he permits
the Sheriff. Peddler to spend the Christmas day with them.
Next day at Church Edla & her father come to

Peddler spends his time in eating and sleeping. know about Peddler as a thief who stole 30
kronor from Crofter.
Returns from Church – finds a letter

addressed to Edla signed as Captain Von
Stahle & a rattrap gift for her – 30 kronor
inside it to return to Crofter.
21
The Rattrap begins with a peddler, a homeless wanderer with frail body and starved look, resorts to
selling rattraps, begging and even stealing to survive dressed in rags. He leads a lonely life with no
one to care about him. One fine day, it strikes to him that this whole world is a rattrap itself. If we
touch it, it will trap us and never let us go. He goes on to think that there are people out there who are
already in this rattrap and reaching for the bait. On one cold evening, he reaches at a cottage to ask for
shelter. An old crofter lived in that cottage who took in the peddler.
The crofter needed company so he welcomes the peddler. He gives him hot food and even tobacco to
smoke. They play cards and start talking. The peddler learns that the crofter got thirty kronor by
selling his cow‟s milk for a month which he keeps in a pouch on the window frame. The peddler
leaves the next day but after seeing the crofter leave his cottage, he comes back to steal the pouch of
money.
After stealing it, he takes the woods to remain unsuspected. In the wood, the peddler meets an
ironmaster who mistakes him to be his old comrade. He invites him over for Christmas but he refuses.
After that, the ironmaster‟s daughter, Edla visits him and insists him to stay with them. In between, he
feels sorry for stealing the crofter‟s money. They help the peddler get a makeover and dress him in
nice clothes and shave his beard off. After this, the ironmaster realizes he has made a mistake; the
peddler was not his comrade.
So, the ironmaster thinks he is a fraud and decides to turn him in. However, Edla insists on letting him
stay and celebrate Christmas with them. Her father agrees, and they celebrate Christmas together. Next
day, the ironmaster and Edla learn that the peddler was a thief through the church about the incident at
the old crofter‟s. They head home in a hurry thinking he must have stolen all the silver. However, to
their surprise, the peddler did not steal a thing. He left a note for Edla and the money in the tiny
rattrap. There was also a note thanking her for her kindness which saved him from the trap and asked
her to return the crofter‟s money.
The Rattrap brings out the inner goodness of the poor Peddler through Edla‟s compassion and
kindness and also only love and respect does bring inner joy, not the materialistic things. The trap of
material benefit that most human beings are prone to fall into and the human tendency to redeem
oneself from dishonest ways are the theme and sub-theme of this lesson.
22
5. Indigo
- Louis Fischer
Louis Fischer (1896 – 1970)
Louis Fischer (1896 – 1970) was born in Philadelphia. He served as a volunteer in the British Army
between 1918 and 1920. Fischer made a career as a journalist and wrote for The New York Times, The
Saturday Review and for European and Asian publications. He was also a member of the faculty at
Princeton University. The following is an excerpt from his book The Life of Mahatma Gandhi. The
book has been reviewed as one of the best books ever written on Gandhi by Times Educational
Supplement.
AUDIO LESSON LINK
23
Champaran Episode
Resolute Rajkumar Shukla with Gandhi to Legacy of Champaran Satyagraha in the
take him to resolve Sharecroppers Issue Farmer Movement
Spontaneous Demonstration in Thousands Police Superintendent ordered Gandhi to

around the Courthouse return to Town
24
Mind Map
Indigo – deals with patience, courage and determination of Mahatma Gandhi to fight for
Peasants of Champaran who were oppressed by the Britishers, Zamindars and Big Planters.
Rajkumar Shukla, a poor sharecropper, illiterate but resolute, wished to meet Gandhi to seek
help against injustice – followed Gandhi everywhere to fix a date to visit Champaran.
Gandhi was impressed and agreed - reached Patna to meet Dr. Gandhi tried to educate the peasants – taught them self-
Rajendra Prasad - out of town. reliance – made them fearless to fight their own battle- did not
seek help from Mr. Andrews.
Reached Muzzafarpur, to get the detailed information about

Champaran Sharecroppers.
Gandhi worked towards social and economic reforms –
Mahadev Desai, Narhari Parikh and Kasthurba Gandhi were
called to help the poor.
Sent telegram to J B Kriplani – Stayed in Prof. Malkani‟s home – a

Government servant – at that time Indians were afraid to show
Gandhi agreed to 25% refund by the landowners – surrender

of prestige.
Gandhiji‟s arrival spread – Sharecroppers gathered in large

numbers – Gandhi chided Muzzafarpur lawyers for taking high fee
from sharecroppers.
Spontaneous demonstration – Motihari black with peasants-

Gandhi released without bail – Civil Disobedience triumphed.
Landlords compelled to plant 15% of their land with indigo and

surrender the entire harvest as rent.
Visited maltreated villagers – stopped by the Police

Superintendent – Gandhi disobeyed the order.
Germany developed synthetic indigo-Britishers freed Indians from

15% but demanded compensation.
Gandhi disobeyed – went to Motihari, capital of Champaran

– continued his investigations.
Many signed – some resisted-engaged lawyers paying large sum
Gandhi went to British Official Commissioner – he asked

Gandhi to leave Trihut.
Gandhi reached Champaran – visited secretary of British Landlord
Association to get the fact but denied saying he is an outsider.
25
Indigo is about how Mahatma Gandhi struggled for the underprivileged peasants of Champaran who
were sharecroppers with the British planters at 1916. It gives an account of how he struggled to bring
them justice and equality. The owners of the estates were Englishmen and these landlords compelled
all the tenants to plant indigo, 15% of their land and submit the whole harvest in the form of rent. The
tenants were under long-term agreement for this condition of planting indigo.
In the meanwhile, Germany developed synthetic indigo which is cheaper than this, the British do not
require the indigo crop any more. So, in order to release these sharecroppers from the agreement of
15% they started demanding compensation. Few of the peasants who are illiterate agreed and others
did not. Rajkumar Shukla, one of the sharecroppers waits resolutely to take Gandhi to resolve this
longstanding injustice at Champaran. Raj Kumar Shukla helps Gandhi visit the house of Rajendra
Prasad, a lawyer who was handling the case once for these peasants, to update to Gandhi.
When Gandhi arrived to resolve the Champaran Sharecroppers problem, the news of his arrival and
mission spread across the town like wildfire. This resulted in a lot of lawyers and peasant groups
pouring in large numbers in his support. When Gandhi asked the lawyers about the thug of fees they
charged these poor peasants, the lawyers did accept that the charges are quite high and too
unreasonable for poor peasants. He was emphasizing on counselling as this will provide the peasants
with confidence to fight their fear.
Gandhi decided to fight against injustice. He waged a war which lasted for a year to tackle the
discrimination and got justice for the peasants. It helped the peasants to become courageous and aware
of their fundamental rights. Moreover, Gandhiji did not just work to tackle political or economic issues,
but he also took up social issues. He worked to provide them with education, health, hygiene and taught
them a lesson of self-sufficiency and self-confidence.
26
6. Poets and Pancakes
- Asokamitran
Asokamitran (1931 - 2017)

Asokamitran (1931 - 2017), a Tamil writer, recounts his years at Gemini Studios in his book My Years
with Boss which talks of the influence of movies on every aspect of life in India. The Gemini Studios,
located in Chennai, was set up in 1940. It was one of the most influential film-producing organisations
of India in the early days of Indian film-making. Its founder was S. S. Vasan. The duty of
Asokamitran in Gemini Studios was to cut out newspaper clippings on a wide variety of subjects and
store them in files. Many of these had to be written out by hand. Although he performed an
insignificant function he was the most well-informed of all the members of the Gemini family. This
text is an excerpt from his book My Years with Boss.

AUDIO LESSON LINK
27
Gemini Studio
Logo of Gemini Studios Iconic Film Studio
S. S. Vasan
The Entrance of Gemini Studio Kothamangalam
Founder Gemini
Studio Subbu
WORLD OF CINEMA - AUDIO LINK
PLAY AUDIO
28
Mind Map
Gemini Studio at
Madras (Chennai) - S S
Vasan Owner –Editor
of Tamil Weekly
Ananda Vikatan
29
The story Poets and Pancakes is an excerpt from Asokamitran‟s book My Years with Boss.
Asokamitran talks about his days at the Gemini Studio. The Gemini Studio produced many films,
which impacted the aspect of Indian life. Here, he talks about a trendy make-up brand named
Pancake which was used in the Gemini studios excessively by ordering in truckloads. He also
mentions few actresses who used this brand. He talks about the office boy whose task was to slap
paint onto the faces of the players at the time of crowd-shooting. He states that the office boy once
yearned to be a director, actor, screenwriter, or lyricist. However, he blamed his disgrace on
Subbu.
In those days, the author worked inside a cubicle and had to cut newspaper clippings concerning
different topics and maintaining a file of the same which was considered unimportant job by others.
The office boy would come to bother him with his complaints, probably jealous of Subbu‟s growth.
Subbu was very close to his boss because whenever the boss had any problem in doing a scene in a
film, Subbu will be there ready with several practical solutions. Though Subbu was always beside
his boss, he was also a member of the story department. Besides poets and writers in the story
department, there existed a lawyer who was known as a legal adviser but people called him the
opposite of it. This legal adviser once, due to his behaviour destroyed the career of a talented
actress.
The narrator talks about another guest who visited Gemini Studio, an Englishman, a poet or an
editor. The Boss, Mr. Vasan, greeted the Englishman and read out a long speech expressing
freedom and democracy. Then the Englishman conversed. His accent baffled everyone. They could
not understand the purpose of his visit, and it remained a mystery.
Years later, when the writer left the Gemini studios, he did not have much money but had much
free time and got discounted books on sale. The writer came across a book that had six essays
written by six famous men who wrote about communalism. The authors of the book were Richard
Wright, Louis Fischer, and Stephen Spender. As the writer read Stephen‟s name, it reminded him
of the days when Spenders visited Gemini Studios.
30
7. The Interview
- Christopher Silvester
Christopher Silvester (1959)
Christopher Silvester (1959) was a student of history at Peterhouse, Cambridge. He was a reporter for
Private Eye for ten years and has written features for Vanity Fair. Following is an excerpt taken from
his introduction to the Penguin Book of Interviews, An Anthology from 1859 to the Present Day.

AUDIO LESSON LINK
31
Christopher Silvester and Umberto Eco
Mukund Padmanabhan Interviwed ‘I am a Professor who writes novels on

Umberto Eco Sundays’ - Umberto Eco
Christopher Silvester, a Reporter for Umberto Eco, author of

Private Eye The Name of the Rose
32
Mind Map
• Commonplace of Journalism.
Part 1 Interview • Supreme medium of communication.
• Is an art & varies in its functions, methods & merits.

Interview • Know the hidden talent of a person or celebrity, truth about them and
events.
• Holds a position of strong power and confidence.

Interviewer • Holds a ground breaking position and impact
Antagonistic Perspectives An undesirable, unjustifiable, and superfluous interruption and attack

on Interviews into a man‟s private life, they leave individuals injured and destroyed.
Antagonistic Perspectives There are some who have even portrayed meetings as an
on Interviews experience and a thumbprint on their windpipe.
Mukund Padmanabhan Umberto discusses his inclinations, style and the

accomplishment of The Name of the Rose.
Interviews Umberto Eco
Philosophical and moral are prevailing subjects of his scholastic work,

Umberto Eco discusses books & books for youngsters are about peacefulness and harmony.
A briefest hole in the middle of two unique bits of errand –

Umberto Eco discusses holes‟ interstices – makes him do some incredible things.
The Name of the Rose – splendid achievement – mystery, can‟t

Umberto Eco discusses predict, may be the time it was written.
THE INTERVIEW - AUDIO LINK
PLAY AUDIO
33
Part - 1
The author talks about the new invention in journalism that is Interview. It broadly discusses how
different people or celebrities have multiple views about the interview and what it does to their
personality. According to Christopher, Interview had different functions and advantages. Some people
find it a source of truth and a medium through which the questions of a general public are answered
whereas some people claim it as an unwarranted intrusion into their lives. The author has enlisted the
writers who despise interviews like V S Naipaul who feels that „some people are wounded by
interviews and lose a part of themselves‟, for Lewis Carroll, it is „just horror of the interviewer‟ and
therefore refrained from it. Rudyard Kipling says that it‟s immoral, crime, an assault that merits
punishment, cowardly and vile. H G Wells referred to „the interviewing ordeal‟ and Saul Bellow
described it as „thumbprints on his windpipe‟. Despite the drawbacks, interview is a supremely
serviceable medium of communication and „the interviewer holds a position of unprecedented power
and influence‟ writes Denis Brian.
Part – 2
The second part is an extract from an interview of Umberto Eco, a Professor at the University of
Bologna in Italy, by Mukund Padmanabhan from The Hindu. He had formidable reputation as a
scholar for his ideas on Semiotics, literary fiction, academic texts, essays, children‟s books, newspaper
articles and had acquired superstardom with the publication of The Name of the Rose, which sold more
than ten million copies.
Umberto replies that though people might think that he creates a different literary piece every time but
in reality, he simply does the same thing again and again where he pursues his philosophical interests
through his writings. He also replies in the interview that he tries to fill the empty spaces which he
calls interstices to his advantage and make use of them.
When Mukund Padmanabhan asks the reason behind the huge success of the novel, he honestly replies
that it is a mystery even to him. He also replies that it is difficult to trace the success of a novel
because it may have different responses in different times and era, as he himself admits, had the novel
come ten years later or earlier, the novel would not have got such success. This extract does not make
us think that interview is a crime or an offence. He interacts very frankly and modestly which explains
the interview as a communication genre.
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8. Going Places
- A. R. Barton
A R Barton
A R. Barton is a modern writer, who lives in Zurich and writes in English. In the story Going Places,
Barton explores the theme of adolescent fantasising and hero worship.

AUDIO LESSON LINK
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Adolescent Fantasizing and Hero Worship
Sophie’s Day Dreaming ‘I’m going to have a boutique’, Sophie.
Danney Casey, an Irish Football Player. ‘I’ll be like Mary Quant’, Sophie.
ADOLESCENT FANTASY - AUDIO LINK

PLAY AUDIO
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Mind Map
Revolves around • Sophie, a school going teenager, fantasises always,

impractical & dreamy, poor financial background
fantasies and • Jansie, Sophie’s friend and classmate, more
daydreams practical & realistic.
Adolescent hero- • Sophie dreams to own a boutique, be an actress or

worship and fashion designer
• Jansie tries to pull Sophie to reality but in vain.
fantasising
• Family members don’t believe her, more mature &

Relationships- know the harsh realities of life.
family, friends • Sophie has fascination for her elder brother Geoff
Revolves around • She envies his silence and wonders about his
thoughts and areas of his life that she doesn’t know
fantasies and • Sophie fantasises about Danney Casey & makes up a
daydreams story that she met him - nobody believes at home.
Adolescent hero- • Sophie gets so pulled and starts believing her dream
worship and as true
• She waits for him but never showed up
fantasising
• Still she fantasises about her hero and

believes that he would definitely come to
meet her.
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Sophie being a teenager belongs to a very poor family. She has her whims and fancies and wants to
open a boutique, be a fashion designer or an actress. Her friend Jansie pulls her back to the reality by
expressing the need for money to open a boutique and more over the place where Sophie wants to
open a boutique is earmarked for biscuit factory. But Sophie pays no attention to Jansie and continues
her daydreaming.
Sophie lives in a small house with her parents, one elder brother, Geoff and one younger brother,
Derek. She finds a sort of fascination for her elder brother Geoff, who is tall, strong, handsome and
reserved. She envies his silence and often wonders about his thoughts and areas of his life that she
doesn‟t know about. Sophie fantasizes about Danney Casey, an Irish football player whom she had
seen playing in innumerable matches. She makes up a story about how she met him in the streets and
tells this to Geoff. Geoff who is more sensible than Sophie, does not really believe her, even if she
wants to. It seems unlikely incident for Sophie to meet the prodigy in their street, but when Sophie
describes the meeting in all her details, he begins to hope that it could be true. She tells him that
Danney has promised to meet her somewhere again.
Sophie gets so pulled into the story she made that she herself begins to believe that it‟s true. She waits
for the Irish player but obviously he never arrives. Then she makes her way home, wondering how her
brother would be disappointed on knowing that Danney Casey never showed up. However, Sophie
still fantasizes about her hero, Danney Casey and believes he would definitely come to meet her.
38
Poetry
39
1. My Mother at Sixty-six
- Kamala Das
Kamala Das (1934)
Kamala Das (1934) was born in Malabar, Kerala. She is recognised as one of India‟s foremost poets.
Her works are known for their originality, versatility and the indigenous flavour of the soil. Kamala
Das has published many novels and short stories in English and Malayalam under the name
„Madhavikutty‟. Some of her works in English include the novel Alphabet of Lust (1977), a collection
of short stories Padmavati the Harlot and Other Stories (1992), in addition to five books of poetry.
She is a sensitive writer who captures the complex subtleties of human relationships in lyrical idiom;
My Mother at Sixty-six is an example. The whole poem is in a single sentence, punctuated by commas,
and indicates a single thread of thought interspersed with observations of the real world around and the
way these are connected to the main idea.
POEM TEXT LINK

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Cochin Airport on Friday Morning
AUDIO POEM LINK
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Critical Appreciation
My Mother at Sixty-six is an emotional, a confessional and a representational work of Kamala Das.

This poem confesses a daughter‟s fear of losing her mother. Firstly, the daughter, that is the poet, is
surprised to realize that her mother is aging. Secondly, she notices how the rest of the world appears
young and energetic. This is in contrast to her mother who continues to age. Thirdly, the poet
expresses her apprehension over losing her mother. Finally, the poet says how she hides her true
feelings and smiles outwardly. She wishes to show her love for her mother.
The poem, My Mother at Sixty-six, brings out this ordinary but profound human nature through
personal thoughts that death is inevitable but people are afraid of losing their dear ones. As the poet
expresses, the bond between a mother and her child is special, and therefore the anxiety in losing the
relationship is also strong. As its thematic concern, the poem brings out the inner thoughts of a
daughter for her mother. The whole poem is in a single sentence, punctuated by commas, which
indicates a single thread of thought interspersed with observations of the real world and the way these
are connected to the main idea.
The poem, My Mother at Sixty-six, is confessional, such as a first-person monologue. The arrangement
of the lines is free and fluid. The poem is rich in imagery. The poet first compares her mother‟s
appearance to that of a corpse and then describes her mother as the winter‟s moon. Both the
comparisons are in the form of simile and indicate to the imminent death of her mother. Next there are
expressions like „trees sprinting‟ and „merry children spilling out‟, shows the use of metaphor. The
phrase, „Young Trees‟ suggests the use of personification. The last lines of the poem repeat the word,
„smile‟, indicating that people display such positive gestures to express their true feelings for their
loved ones. It could also mean, the poet wants to reassure her mother that she is happy and they are
going to meet again soon.
The title, My Mother at Sixty-six is very appropriate as the subject of the poem is, poet‟s aged mother.
The poem explains the beautiful relationship between a daughter and her mother, where the daughter
is worried about her mother‟s health, old age and perhaps, the imminent death. The title prepares us
for the context of the poem.
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2. Keeping Quiet
- Pablo Neruda
Pablo Neruda (1904 – 1973)
Pablo Neruda (1904 – 1973) is the pen name of Neftali Ricardo Reyes Basoalto who was born in the
town of Parral in Chile. Neruda‟s poems are full of easily understood images which make them no less
beautiful. He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in the year 1971. In this poem Neruda talks about the
necessity of quiet introspection and creating a feeling of mutual understanding among human beings.
Notice the differing line lengths of the stanzas and the shift in thought from stanza to stanza.
POEM TEXT LINK

43
Keeping Quiet
AUDIO POEM LINK
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The poem Keeping Quiet is written by Pablo Neruda is written in free verse and simple. The poet has paused
on the points where he wants the reader to ponder over, and understand the meaning. There are no
rhyming words, or sentences, that are seen in almost all the poems of Neruda, and here as well. The
themes that are present in the poem are about introspect, retrospect, and brotherhood among the
people of the world. The significance of counting till twelve could be that it divides a day in two
parts of twelve hours each. Another interesting fact about the poem is that even the title has twelve
letters in it.
The values that are seen in the poem are about introspection, where everyone stops and thinks
about the purpose of their actions, and how it is benefitting them in the end, retrospection, where
we have a look back at our own actions in the history, where we have created wars, and have taken
many lives, brotherhood, where the differences due to boundaries of cultures and countries are
neglected, and we leave together in peace and harmony.
Neruda asks everyone to count till twelve and then keep still. In these twelve seconds, he wants
everyone to calm down, relax, and get ready to begin introspection and retrospection. He wants that
people speak no languages at all for few minutes and just think. By this action, he wants people to
slow down and not think of their busy schedule and lives for some time, and thinks about the things
that happens and had happened across them, and the purpose of all of them. He says that these
moments of silence would be “exotic” and exciting, where people let their thoughts run about the
purpose of the lives they are leading in the world.
He tries to bring about violence, which is not only against humans, but also the violence that it has
posed towards nature. By this, he tries to put light on the selfish motif of human beings of their
survival, and exploit everything for that. The third stanza about fishermen killing whales in the cold
sea is a dual metaphor here, where the poet tries to point towards the cruel nature towards other
species, and the wide class division of the society. In the third stanza, the poet tries to say that the
fishermen are the oppressors of the society, and the men gathering salt are the oppressed ones. He
appeals to the oppressor to forget about hunting or suppressing the weak for their benefit, and the
men gathering salt to forget their struggle and pain, and think about each other as brothers.
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3. A Thing of Beauty
- John Keats
John Keats (1795 – 1821)
John Keats (1795 – 1821) was a British Romantic poet. Although trained to be a surgeon, Keats
decided to devote himself wholly to poetry. Keats‟ secret, his power to sway and delight the readers,
lies primarily in his gift for perceiving the world and living his moods and aspirations in terms of
language. This poem is an excerpt from his poem „Endymion: A Poetic Romance‟. The poem is based
on a Greek legend, in which Endymion, a beautiful young shepherd and poet who lived on Mount
Latmos, had a vision of Cynthia, the Moon Goddess. The enchanted youth resolved to seek her out
and so wandered away through the forest and down under the sea. Notice the consistency in rhyme
scheme and line length. Also notice the balance in each sentence of the poem, as in „Of noble natures,
of the gloomy days, Of all the unhealthy and o‟er-darkened ways, Made for our searching: yes in spite
of all,‟
POEM TEXT LINK

46
A Thing of Beauty
AUDIO POEM LINK
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The poem A Thing of Beauty by John Keats is an excerpt from his poem Endymion: A Poetic
Romance. He romanticizes beauty as something that has the ability to transform lives. The beauty
and loveliness in anything is everlasting and they enhance every moment but never cease to be.
One can relish its sweetness at all moments irrespective of the limits of time and space. The best
thing about the beautiful things help a person relaxes and gives a sense of satisfaction even during
toughest times. They are like endless gifts that pour down like nectar from heaven and make the
beholder happy. The poet had followed „aa bb cc‟ rhyme scheme throughout the poem.
The poem is fully sprinkled with sensory images and other poetic devices. The poet has used plenty
of metaphors in the poem. The „fountain in heaven‟, „flowery band‟, „grandeur of the dooms‟,
„mighty dead‟ are metaphors used to express the beauty of the nature which comforts humans in
the time of need and low in spirit. The imagery, „are we wreathing a flowery band to bind us to the
earth‟, beautifully creates the picture of universal beauty. The imagery „shady boon‟, „clear rills‟, „a
cooling covert‟ creates a sense of comfort. The „sprinkling of fair musk rose blooms‟ in the midst
of forest is a feast to our eyes. The „flowery band‟ is a paradox where the poet implicitly creates a
sense of being bound. The grave of great people whose life was a tale of struggle is an inspiration.
He creates such lovely images to bring out the idea about the universal beauty that transcends time
itself.
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4. A Roadside Stand
- Robert Frost
Robert Frost (1874 – 1963)
Robert Frost (1874 – 1963) is a highly acclaimed American poet of the twentieth century. Robert Frost
wrote about characters, people and landscapes. His poems are concerned with human tragedies and
fears, his reaction to the complexities of life and his ultimate acceptance of his burdens. Stopping by
the Woods on a Snowy Evening, Birches, Mending Walls are a few of his well-known poems. In the
poem A Roadside Stand, Frost presents the lives of poor deprived people with pitiless clarity and with
the deepest sympathy and humanity. Notice the rhyme scheme. Is it consistent or is there an
occasional variance? Does it indicate thought predominating over sound pattern? Notice the stanza
divisions. Do you find a shift to a new idea in successive stanzas?
POEM TEXT LINK

49
A Roadside Stand
AUDIO POEM LINK
50
The poet, Robert Frost contrasts the lives of the poor with that of the rich in this poem A Roadside
Stand. The poor people had constructed a roadside stand to sell their farm, local produce and earn
their living but the rich do not even bother to take a look at it. The poem begins with the
description of the stand where the farmer has put up outside his house along a highway, hoping the
passing cars would stop to buy things, thereby to earn some money. Unfortunately, no passer by
stop their cars and even if someone does, they look at the stand only to criticize the badly painted
North – South signs without even noticing the „wild berries offered for sale‟. The farmer tells the
travellers, city people, to keep their money if they want to be mean. He is hurt the way he is treated
and ignored, not for noticing or buying from the stand. He wishes for some city life and money
which the „moving-pictures promise‟ but „the party in power‟ is keeping it away.
The poet expands his idea by saying that „good-doers‟ who wants to re-locate the country people to
cities to experience the cinemas and stores for their selfish advantage. These benefactors want to
make these farmers completely dependent on them thus robbing them of their ability to think for
themselves. These „greedy good-doers‟, manipulate these innocent farmers who used to work day
and night, now troubled and unable to sleep at night, „by teaching them how to sleep … all day‟.
The poem continues with the poet‟s personal feelings of his despair at the battered hopes of the
farmers. The windows of the farmer‟s house just ache for a car to stop to make some purchase.
However, they are always disappointed as the cars „did stop‟ to enquire „only to plow up grass in
using the yard to back and turn around‟. Robert Frost feels that these farmers should be put out of
pain, hardships and misery of existence as they have made no progress which is evidently visible
through their lifestyle. He „wonders how I should like you to come to me‟, „And offer to put me
gently out of my pain‟. The poet wonders for some solution to free the farmers from such painful
existence.
The poem is not written in free verse but inconsistent throughout and in certain places the abab
rhyme scheme is used. The use of transferred epithet „polished traffic‟ and „selfish cars‟
emphasizes the hypocrisy and selfishness of the city people. The poet has personified the stand by
using the words plead for, „A roadside stand that too pathetically pled‟ and „The sadness that lurks
near the open window…‟, and ‟voice of the country‟. The alliteration and oxymoron, „greedy good-
doers‟ and „beneficent beasts of prey‟ adds beauty to the poem.
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5. Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers
- Adrienne Rich
Adrienne Rich (1929 - 2012)
Adrienne Rich (1929 - 2012) was born in Baltimore, Maryland, USA. She is widely known for her
involvement to contemporary women‟s movement as a poet and theorist. She has published nineteen
volumes of poetry, three collections of essays and other writings. A strong resistance to racism and
militarism echoes through her work. The poem Aunt Jennifer‟s Tigers addresses the constraints of
married life a woman experiences. Notice the colour suggested in the poem and the repetitive use of
certain sounds.
POEM TEXT LINK

52
The tigers in the panel that she made
Will go on prancing, proud and unafraid.
AUDIO POEM LINK
53
Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers is written by Adrienne Rich an American poet, essayist and feminist,
addresses the constraints of married life a woman experiences. The poem expresses the struggle a
woman faces due to the responsibilities of marital life in a patriarchal society. She engages herself
in the art of creating the world she wishes to be in. She wanted to breathe fresh air of freedom from
the stifling existence with Uncle, her husband. The poem opens up brilliantly with the description
of tigers Aunt had created on the screen. They are fearless and confident which is her innermost
desire to be. The second stanza expresses the ordeals of Aunt Jennifer‟s married life. The final
stanza says even when her endurance comes to an end (she dies), her creation (tigers), will remain
forever on the screen unafraid of men.
The poem, Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers is written in a formal, conventional rhyme scheme of aa bb in
three regular stanzas, having four lines each. Adrienne Rich has beautifully chosen third person
point of view to convey the conventional married life of Aunt Jennifer exactly as she leads. Aunt
cannot reveal her inner feelings or thoughts due to the fear of Uncle. The choice of diction brings
out the objective, unbiased perspective of the poet and Aunt. She uses strong verbs, prance, bright,
denizens, pace, sleek, chivalric, proud, unafraid and active voice to depict the vigour, energy and
dominance of the tigers. At the same time she uses negative words and passive voice to describe
the life of Aunt, massive weight, sits heavily, terrified hand, ringed and ordeals. The choice of
words and sentences are short and simple but profound. The punctuation, full stop and commas, are
very controlled like the life of Aunt. She uses metaphor, bright topaz to describe yellow colour of
the tigers and contrast visual imagery of bright topaz denizens with the world of green.
The poem, Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers uses symbols to bring out not only Aunt Jennifer‟s married life
but all the sufferings a married woman endures during that period. Aunt Jennifer does not have any
identity of her own. Brave, free and confident tigers symbolise the inner desires of Aunt, the
creator who lives in constant fear. Wedding band and ringed with ordeals symbolise the unhappy
and suppressed life of Aunt. The animal imagery presents the power and energy which Aunt
aspires to acquire. The tigers are certain in their action which was created by fluttering fingers and
terrified hands of Aunt, a paradox. The poet uses hyperbole and alliteration to emphasise Aunt‟s
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suffering massive weight…wedding ring, fingers fluttering, and prancing proud.
The title, Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers, is very apt as the subject of the poem is Aunt Jennifer‟s
possession of her creation, the tigers on the screen. Even though Uncle’s wedding band‟s massive
weight is suffocating, terrifying and fluttering, it could not ring her mind. It is powerful and free.
Aunt may not be free even after her death but her tigers (art) in the panel will be fearlessly moving
around. The title prepares us for the context of the poem.
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Vistas
Supplementary
Reader
56
1. The Third Level
- Jack Finney
Jack Finney (1911 – 1995)
Jack Finney (October 2, 1911 – November 14, 1995) was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and
given the name John Finney. After his father died when Finney was three years old, he was
renamed Walter Braden Finney in honour of his father, but continued to be known as “Jack”. He
was graduated from Knox College in Galesburg, Illinois, in 1934. He was an American writer. His
best-known works are Science Fiction and Thrillers. Finney‟s first article, “Someone Who Knows
Told Me…” published in the December 1943 issue of Cosmopolitan. The Third Level, Knox
College‟s Science Fiction and fantasy publication, is named for Finney‟s short story “The Third
Level”, published in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction in October 1952.

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?levt1=1-8
Gist of the Lesson
57
Gist of the Lesson
The Third Level is set in 1950‟s New York. The three main characters of the story are – Charlie, a 31
year old man; Louisa, Charlie‟s wife and Sam, Charlie‟s friend and psychiatrist by profession. The
story opens with our narrator (Charlie) addressing the readers that there are only two levels at the
Grand Central Station of New York. Though there are only two levels, Charlie has visited the third
level of Grand Central. He narrates that one night while he was in a hurry to get back home, he
decided to take the subway from the Grand Central as it was faster means. He entered the Grand
Central and went down the steps to the first level. Then he walked down another flight to the second
level and got lost. The corridor he was in, turned sharp left and was slanting downwards. He went
down a short flight of stairs and came out on the third level at Grand Central Station. (Delhi Metro
Station too is multilevel and there are many corridors and steps. An example of this is Central
Secretariat Metro Station.)
It looked different, “the room was smaller, there were fewer ticket windows and train gates, and the
information booth in the centre was of wood and old looking. The man in the booth wore a green
eyeshade and long black sleeve protectors. The lights were dim and sort of flickering” because “they
were open-flame gaslights”. There were brass spittoons on the floor. A man wearing a derby hat, a
black four-button suit with tiny lapels, and a big, black, handlebar moustache was pulling a gold
watch from his vest pocket. Women wearing dress with leg-of mutton sleeves and skirts to the top of
their high-buttoned shoes. He even “caught a glimpse of a locomotive, a very small Currier & Ives
locomotive with a funnel-shaped stack”. Everybody on the station was dressed like 1890s. He
realised that he has travelled to the past. “To make sure, he walked over to a newsboy and glanced at
the stack of papers at his feet. It was The World and The World hasn‟t been published for years. The
lead story said something about President Cleveland and it was printed June 11, 1894.”
Understanding the entire situation, Charlie immediately moved to the ticket window. He wanted to
buy two tickets for Louisa and himself to go to Galesburg, Illinois of 1894 with the First World War
still twenty years off, and World War II over forty years in the future. Charlie had enough money to
buy two one-way tickets. But, when he counted the money and looked up, the clerk nodded at the
bills, “That ain‟t money, mister and if you‟re trying to skin me, you won‟t get very far”. Charlie
58
glanced at the cash drawer beside him. The money was old-style bills and different looking. Charlie
turned away and got out fast. Next day, during lunch hour, Charlie drew three hundred dollars out of
the bank, paid a premium and bought old-style currency. Charlie‟s three hundred dollars bought him
less than two hundred in old-style bills, but he didn‟t care because things were cheaper in 1894. But
to his dismay, he never again found the corridor that leads to the third level at Grand Central Station.
His friends brushed his claim aside by suggesting it was a waking dream wish fulfilment (he was
hallucinating). His psychiatrist friend said, “Charlie is unhappy as the modern world where he lives
is full of insecurity, fear, war, worry and all the rest of it, and that he just wants to escape”. His
friends further argued that Charlie‟s habit of collecting the stamps was a „temporary refuge from
reality‟. Charlie wonders about their claim as his grandfather too was a stamp collector though things
were nice and peaceful in his days. Even President Roosevelt collected stamps. But his fruitless
wandering made his wife Louisa worried and she didn‟t want him to look for the third level
anymore, and after a while he stopped and went back to stamp collection. Suddenly, Charlie informs
the readers that now both, he and his wife are looking for the third level, every weekend.
AUDIO BOOK LINK

https://ciet.nic.in/pages.php?id=vistasxii&ln=en
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2. The Tiger King
- Kalki
Kalki (1899 – 1954)
Ramaswamy Krishnamurthy (September 9, 1899 – December 5, 1954), better known by his pen
name Kalki was an Indian writer, journalist, poet, critic and Indian Independence activist. He
started writing fiction stories in Navasakthi in 1923 where he worked as a sub editor. He was
working under the tutelage of Thiru Vi Ka when he published his first book in 1927. He started
writing with C Rajagopalachari in Thiruchengode in Gandhi Ashram. He joined Ananda Vikatan, a
popular Tamil Magazine along with editor S S Vasan. He became very popular as a critic, witty
author, political commentator and short story writer. He wrote under various pen names like
“Kalki”, “Ra Ki”. “Tamil Theni” and “Karnatkam”. He left Ananda Vikatan and joined freedom
struggle. On his release, he and Sadasivam started a weekly named Kalki. He was the editor in the
journal till his death on December 5, 1954. His writings include over 120 short stories, 10 novellas,
5 novels, 3 historical romances, editorial and political writings and hundreds of film and music
reviews.
AUDIO BOOK LINK

61
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Gist of the Lesson
The Maharaja Sir Jilani Jung Jung Bahadur was called the „Tiger King‟. When he was just ten days
old he asked intelligent questions to the astrologers and was told that he would be killed by a tiger.
He uttered „Let tigers beware!‟ No other miracle took place, the child grew like any other Royal
child drinking white cow‟s milk, taught by an English tutor, looked after by an English nanny and
watched English films.
When he was twenty, he was crowned as king. It was then the prediction of his death by the tiger
reached the Maharaja‟s ear. He to safeguard himself killed a tiger and being thrilled he told the
astrologer. The astrologer replied that he can kill ninety nine tigers but should be careful with the
hundredth. From then on he started killing tigers and none was allowed to hunt tigers. A high
ranking British officer visited the state that was fond of hunting tiger and his wish was declined.
The officer requested for getting a photograph with a tiger killed by Maharaja and this request was
rejected. So to please the officer‟s wife he sent fifty diamond rings expecting that she would take
one or two instead she kept all the rings costing three lakh rupees and sent thanks to the Maharaja.
But his state was secured.
In ten years he killed seventy tigers and did not find any in Pratibandapuram. So he decided to
marry a girl from royal state which had more tigers to complete his target whenever he visited his
in-laws he killed five to six tigers. So he killed ninety nine tigers and was feverishly anxious to kill
the hundredth but could not find. News about the presence of a tiger near a village proved
disappointing. The Maharaja‟s mood became worse and dismissed many and all were afraid to go
near him. Dewan was also afraid and he made a plan to visit „People‟s Park in Madras‟ to bring the
old tiger from there and placed it in the forest and informed Maharaja.
The Maharaja took great care and shot the tiger and left the place with great triumph. The bullet did
not hit the tiger but out of fear and shock the tiger had collapsed. Then the staff killed the tiger and
brought it in grand procession.
It was the third birthday of the Maharaja‟s son and he wanted to buy a present from the toy shop.
He bought a wooden tiger which was poorly carved. The Maharaja, while playing with the prince, a
tiny sliver of the wooden tiger pierced his right hand which later caused his death. Thus the
hundredth tiger takes his final revenge upon The Tiger King.
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3. Journey to the end of the Earth
- Tishani Doshi
Tishani Doshi (1975)

Tishani Doshi (December 9, 1975) is an Indian poet, journalist and dancer based in Chennai. She
was born in Madras, India, to a Welsh mother and Gujarati father. She completed a bachelor‟s
degree in the United States, at Queen‟s College in Charlotte, North Carolina. She graduated with a
master‟s degree in creative writing from the Johns Hopkins University. She works as a freelance
writer and journalist. In 2006 she won the Forward Prize for her debut poetry book Countries of the
Body. Her poetry book A God at the Door has been shortlisted for the 2021 Forward Prize under
best poetry collection category.

AUDIO BOOK LINK

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Gist of the Lesson
The author joined the Akademik Shokalskiy, a Russian research ship which was on its way to
Antarctica, the oldest, driest and windiest continent in the world. The journey beginning at Madras
(Chennai), passed through many areas, geographical, local, ecological and temporal. The narrator‟s
first reaction to the continent was of relief, followed by wonder at its vastness, seclusion and
geological history.
Before human evolution, Antarctica was part of a huge tropical landmass called Gondwana land
which flourished 500 million years ago. Biological, geological and geographical changes occurred
and Antarctica separated and moved away evolving into what it is today. A visit to Antarctica gave
the narrator a deeper understanding of mountains, the earth‟s history, ecology and environment.
The long summers, the silence broken occasionally by cracking ice sheets and avalanches, the blue
whales and ice bergs, all contribute to an ecological implication that the future for human isn‟t
good.
Humans, who are known to have existed for a mere 12000 years, have caused tremendous impact
and played havoc with nature. Population explosion, putting a strain on available resources, carbon
emissions, fossil fuels and global warming have all resulted in climatic and ecological imbalances
that have also affected Antarctica. Antarctica, though unpopulated, has been affected and there are
concerns for its half a million year old carbon records trapped under its ice sheets. The Students on
Ice programme, an initiative of Canadian adventure educator, Geoff Green takes students on
expedition to Antarctica, to create awareness in them, the future policy makers. The stark proof of
global warming and environmental threats help students attain an understanding of ecosystems and
biodiversity of our planet. An amazing display of food chain of the Southern Ocean helps in the
understanding that further depletion of the ozone layer will set off a chain reaction that will affect
the global carbon cycle. The simple truth is if the small things are taken care of automatically the
bigger ones will be taken care.
The write got an opportunity to walk on the ocean at 65.55 degrees south before returning which
made her realise that she was walking on 180 meters of ocean water, a rich kaleidoscope of life.
Reaching home, she wondered whether Antarctica would ever be warm again, how much
difference a million years can make and, that each day makes a difference.
63
4. The Enemy
- Pearl S. Buck
Pearl S. Buck (1892 – 1973)
Pearl Sydenstricker Buck (June 26, 1892 – March 6, 1973), also known by her Chinese name Sai
Zhenzhu was an American writer and novelist. She is best known for The Good Earth which was
the best-selling novel in the United States in 1931 and 1932 and won the Pulitzer Prize in 1932. In
1938, Buck won the Nobel Prize for Literature “for her rich and truly epic descriptions of peasant
life in China” and for her “masterpieces”, two memoir-biographies of her missionary parents. She
was the first American Woman to win that prize.

AUDIO BOOK LINK

64
Gist of the Lesson
The story The Enemy by Pearl S. Buck was set in the days of World war. Japan was at war with
America. Hana played an important role to make the situation normal when the servants denied
serving the white man as well as Dr. Sadao. They took the final decision to leave the house. Dr. Sadao
realised the importance of the situation and considered it a wake-up call. He informed as well as
persuaded the General to get him rid of Tom, an American prisoner of war. General Takima‟s selfish
nature indirectly facilitated the way to solution. His attitude in the matter of the enemy soldier was an
example of delay of action and compromised on the national interest for the sake of his own interest.
The story is set in the day of World war. A prisoner of war was washed ashore at the door step of
Japanese doctor. Dr. Sadao, who completed his education of medicine in America, has a dilemma to
save the prisoner or to hand him over to the police. He was born and brought up in a Japanese
traditional family.
He took the decision to give him urgent medical help that was required. His decision was respected by
his wife Hana. But the servants openly disobeyed his order. They thought that their master was driven
by the American influence and culture as the later spent his quality time in America. Dr. Sadao‟s
professionalism overpowers his sense of patriotism.
Dr. Sadao, at last, could succeed to resolve the issue that made him very much depressed. He saved
the life of American prisoner of war thrice. He brought him to his house. He operated upon him. He
made him escape comfortably. There was a moment in doctor‟s life when he had to make a hard
choice between his role as a private individual (professional doctor) and as a citizen with a sense of
national loyalty. Dr. Sadao was engrossed with his professional ethics while helping the enemy
soldier.
On the other hand, Hana, an example of love and affection, rendered her service in high spirit as a
mother, sister and companion does. After all, it proves that excessive glorification of patriotism
(Jingoism) is a state of mind driven by overloaded emotions during war period. It is for time-being. It
lasts transiently. On the other hand, humanism is the way of life. It fosters the feeling of universal
brotherhood forever. Service to man is service to God.
65
5. On the face of It
- Susan Hill
Susan Hill (1942)
Dame Susan Hill, Lady Wells (February 5, 1942) is an English author of fiction and non-fiction
works. She was born in Scarborough, North Yorkshire. Her home town was later referred to in her
novel A Change for the Better (1969) and in some short stories like Cockies and Mussels. She
attended Scarborough Convent School where she became interested in theatre and literature. Her
novels include The Woman in Black, The Mist in the Mirror, and I‟m the King of the Castle, for
which she received the Somerset Maugham Award in 1971. Her novels are written in a descriptive
gothic style, especially her ghost story The Woman in Black (1983). Her novels turned into plays
have run for over twenty years and was also made into a television film. She began a series of
crime novels featuring detective Simon Serrailler, entitled The Various Haunts of Men (2004).

66
Gist of the Lesson
The play has mainly two characters, an old man, Mr. Lamb with a tin leg and a small boy, Derry
with a burnt face, meeting in the former‟s garden. The old man strikes up a friendship with the boy
who is very withdrawn and defiant. The play depicts the grim world of the physically impaired.
The pain caused by the attitude of the people causes more trouble and hurt than the acids or
physical impairment.
People tell him inspiring stories to console him, and no one will kiss him except his mother that too
on the other side of his face. Once he overheard a woman saying about his face that only a mother
can love such a face. Derry was hurt, withdrawn, without any friends feeling lonely and had full of
negative feelings about life. Mr. Lamb revives through his friendly talk bring back hope and
positivity in Derry. Derry asks many questions to Mr. Lamb, his fear leaves him, becomes friendly
with him and his mind set changes about people, things and life.
Mr. Lamb narrates a story about a man who locked himself as he was so scared of everything and
at last inside the room, a picture fell off from the wall and got killed. He also gives the example of
bees and weeds saying everything appears to be the same but different. He also tells Derry that his
garden gates will always be opened. Derry inspired by Mr. Lambs talk, promises him to come
back.
Derry‟s mother stops him but he is very firm and adamant saying if he does not go now it would be
never. When he comes back he sees Mr. Lamb lying on the ground. It is ironical that when he
searches a new foothold to live happily, he finds Mr. Lamb dead. The play thus depicts the mental
state of loneliness, alienation due to their physical disability and the attitude of the other people
who never bothers about their remark and behaviour with such people. Also it brings out the
positive side of life through Mr. Lamb. So beautifully the play brings out the two sides of a coin
through Derry and Mr. Lamb.
AUDIO BOOK LINK

67
6. Memories of Childhood
The Cutting of My Long Hair - Zitkala Sa
We too are Human Beings - Bama
Zitkala Sa (1876 – 1938)
Zitkala Sa (February 22, 1876 – January 26, 1938), also known by her missionary and married
names Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, was a Yankton Dakota writer, editor, translator, musician,
educator, and political activist. She wrote several works chronicling her struggles with cultural
identity, and the pull between the majority culture in which she was educated, and the Dakota
culture into which she was born and raised. Her later books were among the first works to bring
traditional Native American stories to a widespread white English-speaking readership. She has
been noted as one of the most influential Native American Activists of the 20th century.

AUDIO BOOK LINK

68
Bama (1958)
Bama (1958), also known as Bama Faustina Susairaj, is a Tamil Dalit feminist, teacher and
novelist. She was born as Faustina Mary Fatima Rani in a Roman Catholic family belonging to
Paraiyar community from Puthupatti in the then Madras State. Later she accepted „Bama‟ as her
pen name. Her father, Susairaj was employed in the Indian Army and her mother was named
Sebasthiamma. She is the sister of famous Dalit writer Raj Gauthaman. Bama‟s grandfather had
converted from Hinduism to Christianity. Bama‟s ancestors were born from the Dalit community
and worked as agricultural labourers. She had her early education at village. Her early literary
influences include Tamil writers like Jayakanthan, Akhilan, Mani, and Parthasarathy. In College,
she read and enjoyed Kahlil Gibran and Rabindranath Tagore. She became a school teacher for
very poor girls and later she served as a nun for seven years to escape caste-based discrimination
and for helping in the advancement of poor girls.
Her autobiographical novel Karukku (1992) chronicles the joys and sorrows experienced by Dalit
Christian women in Tamilnadu. She subsequently wrote two more novels, Sangati (1994) and
Vanman (2002) along with three collections of short stories Kusumbukkaran (1996) and Oru
Tattiyum Erumaiyum (2003), Kandattam (2009), in addition to this, she has written twenty short
stories.
69
Gist of the Lesson
It is an autobiographical episode from the lives of two women - Zitkala-Sa an American Indian
Woman born in the late nineteenth century and Bama a contemporary Tamil Dalit Writer - from
marginalised communities who look back on their childhood, and reflect on their relationship with
the mainstream culture.
Part 1
The excerpt begins with an account of a Native American woman, Zitkala Sa‟s first day in the land
of apples, in a missionary Quaker boarding school in Wabash, Indiana. She was unaccustomed with
the rules, procedures and customs of the place. She felt undignified and immodest seeing the Indian
girls wearing closely clinging dresses, tightly fitting clothes and the small girls in sleeved aprons
and shingled hair and wondered how they agreed to wear such clothes. She was embarrassed at the
breakfast table as she did not know the table manners and was keenly observed by the paleface
strange woman. This eating by formula was not the hardest trial for her but the blow came when
her friend Judewin gave a terrible warning of cutting their long and heavy hair. Judewin knew few
words of English and she overheard the paleface woman talk about cutting their hair. She
remembered her mother say according to her custom short hair was worn by mourners and
shingled hair by cowards. Unskilled warriors who were captured had their hair shingled by the
enemy.
Zitkala Sa decided to struggle first unlike her friend who has decided to submit, when she heard
from Judewin, her friend that they were planning to cut their hair. She crept up the stairs and
disappeared into a room which was dim as dark green curtains covered the windows. She decided
to rebel and protest by hiding herself under the bed, even though she knew it will be futile. Soon
people start searching for her everywhere. Someone threw up the curtains and the room was filled
with light. Someone stooped down to look under the bed and there they saw her hiding. They
pulled her, dragged her and carried her downstairs. They tied her in a chair. She tried her might by
kicking, scratching wildly and by shaking her head. She then lost her spirit and suffered extreme
indignities. Her long hair was shingled like cowards. She moaned for her mother to comfort her but
none turned out. She felt like an animal driven by a herder. This enduring moment had a long
lasting imprint on her mind.
70
Part 2
This excerpt is taken from the autobiography Karukku by the Tamil Dalit writer Bama. She
describes an incident happened when she was in the third class. She used to dawdle along the way
from her school to home taking half an hour to an hour to cover ten minutes‟ walk, watching all the
fun, games, entertaining novelties and oddities on the streets, shops and bazaars.
During one such time she observes an elderly person carrying a packet of vadais or green banana
bhajji in such a funny manner kindled her curiosity. She followed him and the elder bowed low
before the landlord and extended the packet, cupping the hand that held the string with his other
hand. The landlord opened the parcel and ate the vadais without offering him.
Bama narrated the whole incident with all its comic details to her elder brother and burst out with
laughter. But her Annan (elder brother) did not find it funny. Instead he explained to her since he
belonged to a lower caste like theirs, these upper caste people treated them as untouchables.
Hearing this Bama found the incident no funnier. She was deeply saddened and affected. Her
brother narrated another incident to her. When he was home during one of his University holidays,
one of the landlord‟s men asked his name and the street he lived while coming back from library, to
know his caste as he looked unfamiliar. Her brother also told her that the only way to get honour or
dignity or respect and throw away these indignities is by working hard and learn. That was a
strong message conveyed to her by Annan made a very deep impression on her. She studied with
all her breath and being, in frenzy almost and stood first in her class which attracted many people
to become her friends.
Memories of Childhood presents autobiographical episodes of Zitkala-Sa and Bama who were the
victims of racial and caste discriminations. They look back on their childhood and reflect on their
relationship with the mainstream culture. Their bitter childhood experience sowed the seeds of
rebellion in them.
71
Curriculum of Academic Year 2022 – 23
ENGLISH (CORE)
Code No. 301
(2022-23)
Background
Students are expected to have acquired a reasonable degree of language proficiency in English
Language by the time they come to class XI, and the course aims, essentially, at promoting the
higher-order language skills.
For a large number of students, the higher secondary stage will be a preparation for the
university, where a fairly high degree of proficiency in English may be required. But for another
large group, the higher secondary stage may be a preparation for entry into the professional
domain. The Core Course should cater to both groups by promoting the language skills required
for academic study as well as the language skills required for the workplace.
Competencies to be focused on:
The general objectives at this stage are to:
● listen and comprehend live as well as record in writing oral presentations on a variety of
topics
● develop greater confidence and proficiency in the use of language skills necessary for social
and academic purpose to participate in group discussions, interviews by making short oral
presentation on given topics
● perceive the overall meaning and organisation of the text (i.e., correlation of the vital
portions of the text)
● identify the central/main point and supporting details, etc., to build communicative
competence in various lexicons of English
● promote advanced language skills with an aim to develop the skills of reasoning, drawing
inferences, etc. through meaningful activities
● translate texts from mother tongue(s) into English and vice versa
● develop ability and acquire knowledge required in order to engage in independent reflection
and enquiry
● read and comprehend extended texts (prescribed and non-prescribed) in the following genres:
science fiction, drama, poetry, biography, autobiography, travel and sports literature, etc.
● text-based writing (i.e., writing in response to questions or tasks based on prescribed or
unseen texts) understand and respond to lectures, speeches, etc.
● write expository / argumentative essays, explaining or developing a topic, arguing a case, etc.
write formal/informal letters and applications for different purposes
72
● make use of contextual clues to infer meanings of unfamiliar vocabulary
● select, compile and collate information for an oral presentation
● produce unified paragraphs with adequate details and support
● use grammatical structures accurately and appropriately
● write items related to the workplace (minutes, memoranda, notices, summaries, reports etc.
● filling up of forms, preparing CV, e-mail messages., making notes from reference materials,
recorded talks etc. The core course should draw upon the language items suggested for class IX-X and delve deeper
into their usage and functions. Particular attention may, however, be given to the following areas of grammar:
 The use of passive forms in scientific and innovative writings.
 Convert one kind of sentence/clause into a different kind of structure as well as other items to
exemplify stylistic variations in different discourses modal auxiliaries- uses based on semantic
considerations.
A. Specific Objectives of Reading
Students are expected to develop the following study skills:

 skim for main ideas and scan for details
 refer to dictionaries, encyclopedia, thesaurus and academic reference material in any format
 select and extract relevant information, using reading skills of skimming and scanning
 understand the writer's purpose and tone
 comprehend the difference between the literal and the figurative
 differentiate between claims and realities, facts and opinions, form business opinions on the basis of latest
trends available
 comprehend technical language as required in computer related fields, arrive at personal conclusion
and logically comment on a given text.
 Specifically develop the ability to be original and creative in interpreting opinion, develop the ability to be
logically persuasive in defending one's opinion and making notes based on a text.
Develop literary skills as enumerated below:

 respond to literary texts
 appreciate and analyse special features of languages that differentiate literary texts from non-literary
ones, explore and evaluate features of character, plot, setting, etc.
 understand and appreciate the oral, mobile and visual elements of drama. Identify the elements of
style such as humour, pathos, satire and irony, etc.
 make notes from various resources for the purpose of developing the extracted ideas into sustained pieces
of writing
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A. Listening and Speaking
Speaking needs a very strong emphasis and is an important objective leading to professional
competence. Hence, testing of oral skills must be made an important component of the overall
testing pattern. To this end, speaking and listening skills are overtly built into the material to
guide the teachers in actualization of the skills.
Specific Objectives of Listening & Speaking

Students are expected to develop the ability to:
 take organized notes on lectures, talks and listening passages
 listen to news bulletins and to develop the ability to discuss informally a wide ranging
issues like current national and international affairs, sports, business, etc.
 respond in interviews and to participate in formal group discussions.
 make enquiries meaningfully and adequately and to respond to enquiries for the purpose
of travelling within the country and abroad.
 listen to business news and to be able to extract relevant important information.
 to develop public speaking skills.
B. Specific Objectives of writing

The students will be able to:
 write letters to friends, relatives, etc. to write business and official letters.
 open accounts in post offices and banks. To fill in railway/airline reservation forms.
 draft notices, advertisements and design posters effectively and appropriately
 write on various issues to institutions seeking relevant information, lodge complaints,
express gratitude or render apology.
 write applications, fill in application forms, prepare a personal bio-data for admission into
colleges, universities, entrance tests and jobs.
 write informal reports as part of personal letters on functions, programmes and
activities held in school (morning assembly, annual day, sports day, etc.)
 write formal reports for school magazines/events/processes/ or in local newspapers
about events or occasions.
 express opinions, facts, arguments in the form of speech or debates, using a variety of
accurate sentence structures
 draft papers to be presented in symposia.
 take down notes from talks and lectures.
 write examination answers according to the requirement of various subjects.
 summarise a text.
74
C. More About Reading
Inculcating good reading habits in children has always been a concern for all stakeholders in
education. The purpose is to create independent thinking individuals with the ability to not only
create their own knowledge but also critically interpret, analyse and evaluate it with objectivity
and fairness. This will also help students in learning and acquiring better language skills.
Creating learners for the 21st century involves making them independent learners who can learn,
unlearn and relearn. If our children are in the habit of reading, they will learn to reinvent
themselves and deal with the many challenges that lie ahead of them.
Reading is not merely decoding information or pronouncing words correctly. It is an interactive

dialogue between the author and the reader in which the reader and the author share their
experiences and knowledge with each other. Good readers are critical readers with an ability to
arrive at a deeper understanding of not only the world presented in the book but also of the real
world around them.
Consequently, they become independent thinkers capable of taking their own decisions in life
rationally. Hence, a few activities are suggested below which teachers may use as a part of the
reading project.
 Short review / dramatization of the story
 Commentary on the characters
 Critical evaluation of the plot, storyline and characters
 Comparing and contrasting the characters within the story, with other characters in
stories by the same author or by different authors
 Extrapolating about the story read or life of characters after the story ends defending
characters actions in the story
 Making an audio story out of the novel/text to be read aloud.
 Interacting with the author
 Holding a literature fest where students role-play as various characters to interact with
each other
 Role playing as authors/poets/dramatists, to defend their works and characters
 Symposiums and seminars for introducing a book, an author, or a theme
 Creating graphic novels out of novel or short stories they read
 Dramatizing incidents from a novel or a story
 Creating their own stories
 Books of one genre to be read by the whole class.
Teachers may select books and e-books suitable to the age and level of the learners. Care
ought to be taken to choose books that are appropriate in terms of language, theme and
content and which do not hurt the sensibilities of a child.
75
Teachers may later suggest books from other languages by dealing with the same themes
as an extended activity. The Project should lead to independent learning/reading skills and
hence the chosen book should not be taught in class, but may be introduced through
activities and be left for the students to read at their own pace. Teachers may, however,
choose to assess a student's progress or success in reading the book by asking for verbal or
written progress reports, looking at their diary entries, engaging in a discussion about the
book, giving a short quiz or a work sheet about the book/short story. A befitting mode of
assessment may be chosen by the teacher.
Methods and Techniques
The techniques used for teaching should promote habits of self-learning and reduce
dependence on the teacher. In general, we recommend a multi-skill, learner-centred, activity
based approach, of which there can be many variations. The core classroom activity is
likely to be that of silent reading of prescribed/selected texts for comprehension, which can
lead to other forms of language learning activities such as role-play, dramatization, group
discussion, writing, etc., although many such activities could be carried out without the
preliminary use of textual material. It is important that students be trained to read
independently and intelligently, interacting actively with texts, with the use of reference
materials (dictionary, thesaurus, etc.) where necessary. Some pre-reading activity will
generally be required, and the course books should suggest suitable activities, leaving
teachers free to devise other activities when desired. So also, the reading of texts should be
followed by post reading activities. It is important to remember that students should be
encouraged to interpret texts in different ways.
Group and pair activities can be resorted to when desired, although many useful language
activities can be carried out individually. In general, teachers should encourage students to
interact actively with texts and with each other. Oral activity (group discussion, etc.)
should be encouraged.
76
ENGLISH CORE
CODE NO. 301
CLASS – XII 2022-23
Section A
Reading Skills
Reading Comprehension through Unseen Passage 20 Marks
I. One unseen passage to assess comprehension, interpretation and inference. Vocabulary and
inference of meaning will also be assessed. The passage may be factual, descriptive or literary.
( (10x1=10 Marks)
II. One unseen case-based passage with verbal/visual inputs like statistical data, charts etc.
(10x1=10 Marks)
Note: The combined word limit for both the passages will be 700-750 words.
Multiple Choice Questions / Objective Type Questions will be asked.
Section B
III. Creative Writing Skills 20 Marks
The section has Short and long writing tasks.
i. Notice up to 50 words. One out of the two given questions to be answered.(5 Marks: Format:
1 / Organisation of Ideas: 1/Content: 2 / Accuracy of Spelling and Grammar: 1).
ii. Formal/Informal Invitation and Reply up to 50 words. One out of the two given questions to
be answered. (5 Marks: Format: 1 / Organisation of Ideas: 1/Content: 2 / Accuracy of Spelling
and Grammar: 1).
iii. Letters based on verbal/visual input, to be answered in approximately 120-150 words. Letter
types include application for a job with bio data or resume. Letters to the editor (giving
suggestions or opinion on issues of public interest) . One out of the two given questions to be
answered. (5 Marks: Format: 1 / Organisation of Ideas: 1/Content: 2 / Accuracy of Spelling
and Grammar:1).
iv. Article/ Report Writing, descriptive and analytical in nature, based on verbal inputs, to be
answered in 120-150 words. One out of the two given questions to be. (5 Marks: Format: 1 /
Organisation of Ideas: 1/Content: 2 / Accuracy of Spelling and Grammar:1).
77
Section C
This section will have variety of assessment items including Multiple Choice Questions,
Objective Type Questions, Short Answer Type Questions and Long Answer Type Questions to
assess comprehension, analysis, interpretation and extrapolation beyond the text.
IV. Reference to the Context 40 Marks

i. One Poetry extract out of two from the book Flamingo to assess comprehension,
interpretation, analysis and appreciation. (6x1=6 Marks)
ii. One Prose extract out of two from the book Vistas to assess comprehension, interpretation,
analysis and appreciation. (4x1=4 Marks)
iii. One prose extract out of two from the book Flamingo to assess comprehension,
Interpretation and analysis. (6x1=6Marks)
V. Short answer type question (from Prose and Poetry from the book Flamingo), to be
answered in 40-50 words. Questions should elicit inferential responses through critical
thinking. Five questions out of the six given are to be answered.
(5x2=10 Marks)
VI. Short answer type question, from Prose (Vistas), to be answered in 40- 50 words. Questions
should elicit inferential responses through critical thinking. Any 2 out of 3 questions to be
done. (2x2=4 Marks)
VII. One Long answer type question, from Prose/Poetry (Flamingo), to be answered in 120-150
words. Questions can be based on incident / theme / passage / extract / event as reference
points to assess extrapolation beyond and across the text. The question will elicit analytical
and evaluative response from student. Any 1 out of 2 questions to be done.
(1x5=5 Marks)
VIII. One Long answer type question, based on the chapters from the book Vistas, to be answered
in 120-150 words to assess global comprehension and extrapolation beyond the text.
Questions to provide evaluative and analytical responses using incidents, events, themes as
reference points. Any 1 out of 2 questions to be done. (1x5=5 Marks)
78
Prescribed Books
1. Flamingo: English Reader published by National Council of Education Research and

Training, New Delhi
(Prose)
• The Last Lesson
• Lost Spring
• Deep Water
• The Rattrap
• Indigo
• Poets and Pancakes
• The Interview
• Going Places
(Poetry)
• My Mother at Sixty-Six
• Keeping Quiet
• A Thing of Beauty
• A Roadside Stand
• Aunt Jennifer‟s Tigers
2. Vistas: Supplementary Reader published by National Council of Education Research

and Training, New Delhi
• The Third Level

• The Tiger King
• Journey to the end of the Earth
• The Enemy
• On the Face of It
• Memories of Childhood
○ The Cutting of My Long Hair
○ We Too are Human Beings
INTERNAL ASSESSMENT
Assessment of Listening Skills - 05 marks.

Assessment of Speaking Skills – 05 Marks
Project Work - 10 Marks
79
Question Paper Design 2022-23
Code No. 301
English CORE XII
Section Competencies Total marks
Reading Skills Conceptual understanding, decoding, Analyzing,

inferring, interpreting, appreciating, literary, conventions
20
and vocabulary, summarizing and using appropriate
format/s.
Creative Writing Sills Conceptual Understanding, application of rules, Analysis,

Reasoning, appropriacy of style and tone, using
20
appropriate format and fluency, inference, analysis,
evaluation and creativity.
Literature Text Books Recalling, reasoning, critical thinking, appreciating

and Supplementary literary convention, inference, analysis, creativity with
40
Reading Texts Fluency.
80
TOTAL
Assessment of Listening and Speaking

Skills
10
Internal Assessment
• Listening
• Speaking 5
5
• Project Work
10
GRAND TOTAL 100
80
English Medium
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks
In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on students. The
National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing the content load and providing
opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset. In this background, the NCERT
has undertaken the exercise to rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes
already developed by the NCERT across classes have been taken into consideration in this
exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in the same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much interventions from teachers and can be
learned by children through self-learning or peer-learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context
This booklet contains information in tabular form about subject-wise contents which have
been dropped and hence are not to be assessed.
Table for Rationalised Content
12074 – Flamingo — English Core
Chapter Page No. Dropped Topics/Chapters
Poetry Chapter 2: An
Elementary School
Classroom in a Slum by
92–94 Full Chapter
Stephen Spender
81
English Medium
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks
In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on students. The
National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing the content load and providing
opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset. In this background, the NCERT
has undertaken the exercise to rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes
already developed by the NCERT across classes have been taken into consideration in this
exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in the same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much interventions from teachers and can be
learned by children through self-learning or peer-learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context
This booklet contains information in tabular form about subject-wise contents which have
been dropped and hence are not to be assessed.
Table for Rationalised Content
12075 – Vistas
Chapter Page No. Dropped Topics/Chapters

Chapter 5: Should Wizard hit
Mommy by John Updike
48–55 Full Chapter
Chapter 7: Evans Tries an O-

Level by Colin Dexter 70–92 Full Chapter
82
References
1. Flamingo, NCERT Text Book https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?lefl1=4-14

2. Vistas, NCERT Text Book https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?levt1=0-8
3. Wikipedia Links
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse_Daudet
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anees_Jung
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_O._Douglas
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selma_Lagerl%C3%B6f
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Fischer
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashokamitran
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._R._H._Barton
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamala_Surayya
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Neruda
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Keats
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Frost
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrienne_Rich
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Finney
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalki_Krishnamurthy
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tishani_Doshi
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_S._Buck
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Hill
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zitkala-Sa
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bama_(writer)
4. Christopher Silvester - https://www.livingobit.com/christopher-silvester
5. Speak your Language, Save Your Heritage
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RVUuc4M5bB0
6. The Last Lesson Animated Video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fz1GPDkk6k0
7. Language Chauvinism is far more dangerous than terrorism – Debate
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0u9Vt4-qxY
8. CIET AUDIO BOOKS LINK
https://ciet.nic.in/pages.php?id=flamingo&ln=en (Flamingo)
https://ciet.nic.in/pages.php?id=vistasxii&ln=en (Vistas)
9. Curriculum of the Academic Year 2022 – 23
https://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/CurriculumMain23/SrSec/English_core_SrSec_202
2-23.pdf
10. Rationalisation of Content in the text books - Flamingo
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?lefl1=rc-14
11. Rationalisation of Content in the text books – Vistas
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?levt1=rc-8
83
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
ZONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION AND

TRAINING, GWALIOR
INTERACTIVE STUDY
MATERIAL
CHEMISTRY
CLASS XII 2022-23
Sh. JAIKISHAN KESWANI
TRAINING ASSOCIATE (CHEMISTRY)
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

INDEX
S.No Title Link

1 Solutions Click here
2 Electrochemistry Click here
3 Chemical Kinetics Click here
4 d -and f -Block Elements Click here
5 Coordination Compounds Click here
6 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes Click here
7 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers Click here
8 Aldehydes, Ketones and Click here

Carboxylic Acids
9 Amines Click here
10 Biomolecules Click here
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

UNIT -1
SOLUTIONS
Points to Remember
1. The component that is having more number of moles is known as solvent. Solvent
determines the physical state of the solution. Water is a universal solvent.
2. Mole fraction (X) is a unitless quantity.
3. Molality (m) and mole fraction are temperature independent quantities whereas
molarity decreases with increase in temperature.
4. As the temperature increases Henry’s law constant, KH increases so the lower is

the solubility of the gas in the liquid.
5. 11.7% w/w Helium is added to air used by scuba divers due to its low solubility
in the blood.
6. Raoult’s law becomes a special case of Henry’s law in which KH becomes equal
to P 0, i.e., vapour pressure of pure solvent.
A
7. Azeotropes having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at a
constant temperature and therefore can’t be distilled.
8. Azeotropes arise due to very large deviation from Raoult’s law. Maximum
boiling azeotropes form when solutions exhibit negative deviation from Raoult’s
law whereas minimum boiling azeotropes form when solutions exhibit positive
deviation from Raoult’s law.
9. Relative lowering in vapour pressure is a colligative property but lowering in

vapour pressure is not.
10. Van’t Hoff factor (i) is the ratio of the observed value of the colligative property
in solution to the theoretically calculated value of the colligative property.
(a) A non-volatile solute undergoes dissociation, then i > 1.
(b) A non-volatile solute undergoes association, then i < 1.
CLICK HERE FOR DETAILED PRESENTATION
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

1
Some Important Formulae
1. Mole fraction (X)

If the number of moles of A and B are nA and nB respectively, the mole fractions
of A and B will be
n A and X  nB
XA  B
n n n n
A B A B
XA + XB = 1
Moles of solute mol L1
2. Molarity (M) = Volume of solution in liters
3. Moles of solute 1
Molality (m) = mol kg
Mass of solvent in kilograms
4. Parts per million (ppm)
 Number of parts of the compound 106

Total number of parts of all components of the solution
5. Raoult’s law for a solution of volatile solute in volatile solvent:

pA= p 0AX A
pB= p 0BX B
Where pA and pB are partial vapour pressures of component ‘A’ and component
‘B’ respectively in solution. p 0 and p 0 are vapour pressures of pure components
A B
‘A’ and ‘B’ respectively.
6. Raoult’s law for a solution of non-volatile solute and volatile solvent:

p 0 p n W M
A A
 i XB  i B  i B A
(for dilute solutions)
p 0
n W M
A A A B
p 0 p
Where XB is mole fraction of solute, i is Van’t Hoff factor and A A
is relative
0
lowering of vapour pressure. p A
VISUAL EXPLANATION
7. Elevation in boiling point (Tb) :
Tb = i.Kb m
Where Tb= T b– T 0
b
Kb = molal boiling point elevation constant
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2
m = molality of solution
Tb = Boiling point of solution
T 0 = Boiling point of solvent
b
VISUAL EXPLANATION
8. Depression in freezing point (Tf) :

Tf = i Kf m
Where Tf = T f 0 – T f
Kf = molal freezing point depression constant
m = molality of solution
Tf 0 = Freezing point of solvent
Tf = Freezing point of solution
VISUAL EXPLANATION
9. Osmotic pressure () of a solution:

V = i nRT or  = i CRT
where  = osmotic pressure in bar or atm
V = volume in litres
i = van’t Hoff factor
C = molar concentration in moles per litres
n = number of moles of solute
T = Temperature on Kelvin scale
R = 0.083 L bar mol–1 K–1
R = 0.0821 L atm mol–1 K–1
VISUAL EXPLANATION
10. Van’t Hoff factor (i)
 Number of particles in solution after association or dissociation

Number of particles actually dissolved in solution
i Observed colligative property

Theoretically calculated colligative property
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

3
i  Normal molar mass
Abnormal molar mass
i > 1 For dissociation of solute

i < 1 For association of solute
i = 1 For ideal solution undergoing no association or dissociation
VISUAL EXPLANATION
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

4
UNIT -2
Electrochemistry
Points to Remember
Electrochemistry may be defined as the branch of chemistry which deals with the
quantitative study of inter-relationship between chemical energy and electrical energy
and inter-conversion of one form into other relationships between electrical energy
taking place in redox reactions.
A cell is of two types:
I. Galvanic cell
II. Electrolytic cell
In Galvanic cell, the chemical energy of a spontaneous redox reaction is converted
into electrical work.
In Electrolytic cell, electrical energy is used to carry out a non-spontaneous redox
reaction.
1. Conductivity (k) :
k  1  1  li
 R A
where R is Resistance, l/A= cell constant (G*) and  is resistivity.
2. Relation between k and m
m  1000  k
C
where m is molar conductivity, k is conductivity and C is molar concentration
VISUAL EXPLANATION.
Kohlrausch’s law:
(a) In general, if an electrolyte on dissociation give y+ cations and  anions, then
its limiting molar conductivity (ºm) is given by
  v   v 
m    
Here, º+ and º are the limiting molar conductivities of cation and anion
respectively and v+ and v are the number of cations and anions furnished by one
formula unit of the electrolyte.
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(b) Degree of dissociation () is given by:
cm

ºm
Here,  = is molar conductivity at the concentration C and º
c
is limiting molar
m m
conductivity of the electrolyte.
(c) Dissociation constant (K) of weak electrolyte:
VISUAL EXPLANATION
Dry cell:
At anode (Oxidation)
Zn  Zn2+ + 2e-
At cathode (Reduction)
2NH4+ + 2MnO 2+ 2e  2MnO (OH) + 2NH 3
Overall Zn (s) + 2NH + 2MnO 2 Zn + 2MnO (OH) + 2NH

4
+ 2+
3
Mercury cell:
Zn (Hg) + 2OH  ZnO (s) + H2O + 2e-
HgO (s) + H2O + 2e  Hg (l) + 2OH-
Overall Zn (Hg) + HgO (s)  ZnO (s) + Hg (l)
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Lead storage cell
Pb (s)  Pb2+ + 2e-
Pb2+ + SO 42  PbSO 4
PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e  Pb2+ + 2H2O
Pb2+ + SO 2  PbSO (s)
4 4
VISUAL EXPLANATION
3. Nernst Equation for
electrode reaction:
4. Relation between E0 cell and equilibrium constant (K c) :
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7
5. G0 =  nF E0cell
where G0 = standard Gibbs energy change and nF is the number of Faradays of
charge passed. E0cell is standard cell potential.
G0 =  2.303 RT log Kc
Corrosion of metals is an electrochemical phenomenon.
In corrosion, metal is oxidized by loss of electrons to oxygen and formation of
oxides.
At anode (Oxidation) :
2Fe (s)  2Fe2+ + 4e-
At cathode (Reduction) :
O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e  2H2O
Atmospheric oxidation :
2Fe2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l) + ½O2 (g)  Fe2O3 (s) + 4H+ (aq)
CLICK HERE FOR DETAILED

EXPLANATION
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UNIT -3
Chemical Kinetics
CONCEPTS
Chemical Kinetics : The branch of physical chemistry which deals with the study
of rate of reaction and factors affecting rate.
Rate of chemical reaction : The change in concentration of any reactant or
product per unit time is called rate of reaction.
Types of Rate of Reaction :
1. Average rate of reaction : The rate of reaction measured over the long time
interval is called average rate of reaction.
2. Instantaneous rate of reaction : The rate of reaction measured at a particular
time is called instantaneous rate of reaction.
Factors affecting Rate of Reaction
1. Concentration of reactant
2. Surface area
3. Temperature
4. Nature of reactant
5. Presence of catalyst
6. Radiation in photochemical reaction
VISUAL EXPLANATION
Rate constant (k) : It is equal to the rate of reaction when molar concentration of
reactant is at unity.
Rate law : The rate of reaction is directly proportional to the product of
concentration of reactant and each concentration is raised to the equal to no of moles
actually participating in the reaction.
For a reaction, aA + bB  cC + dD
Rate law = k[A]p[B]q
where powers p and q are determined experimentally.
Molecularity : The total number of reactants taking part in elementary chemical
reaction is called molecularity.
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Order of reaction : The sum of powers to which the concentration terms are
raised in a rate law expression is called order of reaction.
For above case, Order = P + Q
Orders of reaction is determined experimentally.
VISUAL EXPLANATION
Half-life period : The time during which the concentration of the reactant is
reduced to half of its initial concentration is called half-life period.
Activation energy : The minimum extra amount of energy absorbed by reactant

molecules so that their energy becomes equal to the threshold energy is called activation
energy.
Activation energy = Threshold energy – Kinetic energy
Temperature coefficient : The ratio of rate constant at two temperatures having

difference of 10ºC is called temperature coefficient.
Temperature coefficient = Rate constant at T + 10ºC/Rate constant at TºC
Arhenius Equation :
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

1. Integrated rate law equation for zero order reaction is given as below :
[R]0  [R]t
(a) k =
t
Where k is rate constant and [R]0 is initial molar concentration.
= [R]o , t 1/2 is half-life period of zero order reaction.
(b) t 1/2
2k
2. Integrated rate law equation for first order reaction :
(a) k = 2.303 log [R]0

t [R]t
where k is rate constant, [R]0 is initial molar concentration and [R], is final
concentration at time 't'.
(b) Half-life period (t1/2) for first order reaction :
t = 0.693
½ k
Pseudo chemical reaction : The chemical reaction which looks like higher order
reaction but in real it follows lower order reaction.
2  CH C
CH3COOC2H5+ H O 3 OOH + C 2H O
5 H
Rate = k[CH3COOC 2H 5]1
Order = 1
Click here for Visual Explanation of the Chapter
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

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UNIT -4
d and f block elements
1. Introduction
d-block elements are present from fourth period onwards. There are mainly three
series of the transition metals – 3d series (Sc to Zn), 4d series (Y to Cd) and 5d series
(La to Hg, omitting Ce to Lu).
d-block elements are known as transition elements because their position in the
periodic table is between the s-block and p-block elements. Electronic configuration of
the d-block elements is (n – 1)d1-10nsº –2 but Cu+, Zn, Cd, Hg etc. [(n – 1)d10] are d-block
elements, but not transition metals because these have completely filled d-orbitals.
Transition Metals of d-block Elements

3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th
group group group group group group group group group group
ns2 1 2 2
d ns d ns2d3 ns2d5 ns2d5 ns2d6 ns2d7 ns2d8 ns2d10 ns2d10
(n – 1) (n – 1) (n – 1) (n – 1) (n – 1) (n – 1) (n – 1) (n – 1) (n – 1) (n – 1)
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
VISUAL EXPLANATION
2. General Properties of the Transition Elements

(i) Atomic and Ionic Radii
In transition metals, left to right net nuclear charge increases due to poor
shielding effect. Due to this, the atomic and ionic radii for transition elements for a
given series show a decreasing trend for first five elements and then becomes almost
constant for next five elements of the series.
(ii) Enthalpies of Atomisation
Transition elements exhibit higher enthalpies of atomization because of large
number of unpaired electrons in their atoms. They have stronger interatomic interaction
and hence, stronger bond.
(iii) Ionisation Enthalpies
• In a series from left to right, ionization enthalpy increases due to increase in
nuclear charge.
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

• The irregular trend in the first ionization enthalpy of the 3d metals, though
of little chemical significance, can be accounted for by considering that the removal of
one electron alters the relative energies of 4s and 3d orbitals.
(iv) Oxidation States
• Transition metals shows variable oxidation state due to two incomplete
outermost shells. Only stable oxidation states of the first row transition metals are
Sc(+ 3), Ti(+ 4), V(+ 5), Cr(+ 3, + 6), Mn(+ 2, + 7), Fe(+ 2, + 3), Co(+ 2, +
3), Ni(+ 2), Cu)+ 2), Zn(+ 2)
• The transition elements in their lower oxidation states (+ 2 and + 3) usually
forms ionic compounds. In higher oxidation state compounds are normally covalent.
• Only Os and Ru show + 8 oxidation states in their compounds.
• Ni and Fe in Ni(CO)4 and Fe(CO)5 show zero oxidation state.
VISUAL EXPLANATION
(v) Trends in the Standard Electrode Potentials
• Transformation of the solid metal atoms to M2+ ions in solution and their
standard electrode potentials.
• If sum of the first and second ionization enthalpies is greater than hydration
enthalpy standard potential (Eº M2+/M) will be positive and reactivity will be lower and
vice-versa.
(vi) Trends in Stability of Higher Oxidation States
The higher oxidation numbers are achieved in TiX4, VF5 and CrF6. The + 7 state
for Mn is not represented in simple halides but MnO3F is known and beyond Mn no
metal has a trihalide except FeX3 and CoF3 and increasing order of oxidizing power in
the series VO2+ < Cr2O72 < MnO4.
(vii) Magnetic Properties
• When a magnetic field is applied to substances, mainly two types of
magnetic behavior are observed : diamagnetism and paramagnetism. Paramagnetism
due to presence of unpaired electrons, each such electron having a magnetic moment
associated with its spin angular momentum.
• The magnetic moment is determined by the number of unpaired electrons.
Magnetic moment = nn  2
where, n = number of unpaired electrons.

If all electrons are paired, substance will be diamagnetic and magnetic
moment will be zero.
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(viii) Formation of Coloured Ions
• The d-orbitals are non-degenerated in presence of ligands. When an electron
from a lower energy d-orbital is excited to a higher energy d-orbital, the energy of
required wavelength is absorbed and rest light is transmitted out. Therefore, the colour
observed corresponds to the complementary colour of the light absorbed.
• In V2O5, V is in + 5 oxidation state. It is coloured due to defects in crystal
lattice.
(ix) Formation of Complex Compounds
• Transition metals have small size high nuclear charge which facilitates the
acceptance of lone pair of electron from ligands.
• They have vacant d-orbitals of appropriate energy in order to accommodate
the lone pair of electrons.
(x) Catalytic Properties
• Transitionmetals have two outermost shells incomplete and ability to adopt
multiple oxidation states and to form complexes, therefore used as a catalyst.
• Transition metals also provide larger surface area for the reactant to be
adsorbed.
(xi) Formation of Interstitial Compounds
• Small size of non-metals (H, C, N) fit into the voids of crystalline solid of
transition metals and form interstitial compounds.
• The principal physical and chemical characteristics of these compounds are
as follows :
(i) They have high melting points, higher than those of pure metals.
(ii) They are very hard, some borides approach diamond in hardness.
(iii) They retain metallic conductivity.
(iv) They are chemically inert.
(xii) Alloy Formation
Alloy is the homogeneous mixture of two or more metals. Transition metals have
approximate same size therefore, in molten form they can fit to each other crystalline
structure and form homogeneous mixture and form the alloy.
E.g., Brass (copper-zinc) and bronze (copper-tin) etc.
VISUAL EXPLANATION
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3. Some Important Compounds of Transition Elements
Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
(i) Ore
Ferrochrome or chromate (FeO.Cr2O3) or (FeCr2O4)
(ii) Preparation
4FeO.Cr O + 8Na CO + 7O  8Na CrO + 2Fe O + 8CO
2 3 2 3 2 2 4 2 3 2
(yellow)
2Na CrO + 2H  Na Cr O + 2Na+ + H O
+
2 4 2 2 7 2
(orange)
Na2Cr2O7+ 2KCl  K 2Cr 2O 7+ 2NaCl
Sodium dichromate is more soluble than potassium dichromate.
• Chromates and dichromates are interconvertible in aqueous solution
depending upon pH of the solutions.
(iii) Properties
Sodium and potassium dichromates are strong oxidizing agents, thus, acidified
K2Cr2O7 will oxidise iodides to iodine, sulphides to sulphur, tin (II) to tin (IV) and iron
(II) salts to iron (III).
Cr2O72 + 14H+ + 6I  2Cr3+ + 7H2 O + 3I2
Cr2O72 + 3H 2S + 8H+  2Cr3+ + 3S + 7H O
2
Cr2O72 + 14H+ + 3Sn2+  3Sn4+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H O

2
(iv) Uses
(a) K2Cr2O7 is used as oxidizing agent in volumetric analysis.
(b) It is used in mordant dyes, leather industry, photography (for hardening of
film).
(c) It is used in chromyl chloride test.
(d) It is used in cleaning glassware.
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

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Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)
(i) Ore
Pyrolusite (MnO2)
(ii) Preparation
2MnO2 + 4KOH + O2  2K2MnO4 + 2H2O
(green)
3MnO42 + 4H+  2MnO 4 + MnO 2+ 2H O

2
(iii) Commercial preparation
MnO  FusedwithKOHoxidised MnO 2

2 with air or KNO3 4
Manganate ion

MnO 2 Elec
t rolytic oxidation MnO
4 (alkaline medium) 4
Permanganate ion
(purple)
(iv) Properties
KMnO4 acts as strong oxidizing agent.
(a) In presence of dilute H2SO4, KMnO4 is reduced to manganous salt.
MnO4 + 8H+ + 5e  Mn2+ + 4H2O
Acidic KMnO4 solution oxidizes oxalates to CO2, iron (II) and iron (III), nitrites
to nitrates and iodides to iodine. The half reactions of reductants are
C2O 42  CO +2 2e
Fe2+  Fe3+ + e
NO   NO  + 2e
2 3
2I  I2 + 2e

To acidify KMnO4, only H2SO4 is used and not HCl or HNO3 because HCl
reacts with KMnO4 and produce Cl2 while HNO3, itself acts as oxidizing agent.
(b) In alkaline medium, KMnO4 is reduced to insoluble MnO2.
MnO4 + 3e + 2H2O  MnO2+ 4OH   2 2
Alkaline or neutral KMnO4 solution oxidizes I to IO , S O to SO ,
3 2 3 4
2+
Mn to MnO2 etc.
(v) Uses
(a) In laboratory preparation of Cl2.
(b) KMnO4 is used as an oxidizing agent, disinfectant.
(c) In making Baeyer’s reagent.
VISUAL EXPLANATION
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4. The Inner Transition Elements (f-Block)
The f-block consists of the two series, lanthanoids and actinoids. Lanthanoids are
known as rare earth metals and actinoids are known as radioactive elements (Th to Lr).
Lanthanoids
General characteristics
• General configuration [Xe] 4f1-14, 5d0-1, 6s2.
• Atomic and ionic size from left to right, decreases due to increase in nuclear
charge. This is known as lanthanoid contraction.
• All the lanthanoids are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air.
• Many trivalent lanthanoid ions are coloured both in the solid state and in
aqueous solutions. Neither La3+ nor Lu3+ ion shows any colour but the rest do so.
• The lanthanoid ions other than the f 0 type (La3+ and Ce4+) and the f14 type (Yb2+
and Lu3+) are all paramagnetic. The paramagnetism arises to maximum in neodymium.
• Oxidation states  Ce4+; (Some elements) is favoured by its noble gas
configuration, but it is a strong oxidant reverting to the common + 3 state. The Eºvalue
for Ce4+/Ce3+ is + 1.74 V, the reaction rate is very slow and hence, Ce(IV) is a good
analytical reagent. Pr, Nd, Tb and Dy also exhibit + 4 state but only in oxides. Eu2+ is
formed by losing the two s-electrons and its f7 configuration accounts for the formation
of this ion. However, Eu2+ is a strong reducing agent changing to the common + 3 state.
Similarly, Yb2+ which has f14 configuration is a reductant, Tb4+ has half-filled f-orbitals
and is an oxidant.
• Lanthanoid are very reactive metals like alkaline earth metals.
• Misch metals, contain lanthanoids about 90-95% (Ce 40-5%, Lanthanum and
neodymium 44%) iron 4.5%, calcium, carbon and silicon, used in cigarette and gas
lighters, toys, tank and tracer bullets.
Actinoids
• General configuration [Rn] 5f1-14, 6d0-2, 7s2.
• Actinoids exhibit a range of oxidation states due to comparable energies of 5f,
6d and 7s orbitals. The general oxidation state of actinoids is + 3.
• All the actinoids are strong reducing agents and very reactive.
• Actinoids are radioactive in nature and therefore, it is difficult to study their
chemical nature
VISUAL EXPLANATION
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17
UNIT -5
COORDINATION COMPOUNDS
1. Introduction
Complex compounds or coordination compounds are those molecular compounds
which retain their identity in solid as well as in solution are known as complex
compounds.
Example,
K4 [Fe(CN)6] + H 2O  4K(aq)+ + [Fe(CN) ]64(aq)
2. Types of Complex
(i) Anionic complex
K3[Fe(C 2O 4) 3]  3K+ + [Fe(C 2O 43
) ]3
anionic complex
(ii) Cationic complex
[CoCl2(en)2]Cl  [CoCl2(en)2]+ + Cl
cationic complex
(iii) Neutral complex
[Ni(CO)4]
neutral complex
3. Ligands
VISUAL EXPLANATION
The ions or molecules bound to the central atom/ion in the coordination entity are
called ligands.
Types of Ligands
(i) Unidentate, a ligand which is bound to a metal ion through a single donor atom.
e.g., H2O, NH3, CO, Cl, NH 2 etc.
(ii) Didentate, a ligand which is bound to a metal ion through a two donor atoms.
e.g.,
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

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(iii) Polydentate, a ligand which is bound to a metal ion through a several donor
atoms.
e.g., ethylene diamine tetraacetate ion [EDTA]4.
(iv) Ambidentate ligands, which can ligate through two different atoms.
e.g.,  NO2 – ONO, – SCN – NCS etc.
(v) Chelate ligands, these may be a di- or polydentate ligand which form closed
ring with central metal ion. Closed ring is known as chelate ring. Number of more
chelate ring in complex, complex will be more stable. The number of such ligating
groups is called the denticity.
4. Homoleptic and Heteroleptic Complexes
Complexes in which a metal is bound to only one kind of donor groups e.g.,
Co(NH3)6]3+ are known as homoleptic. Complexes in which a metal is bound to more
than one kind of donor groups e.g., [Co(NH3)4Cl2]+, are known as heteroleptic.
5. Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds
Cationic Complex
[Cr(NH3)3(H2O)3]Cl2
triamminetriaquachromium (III) chloride
(i) Prefixes mono, di, tri, etc. are used to indicate the number of the individual
ligands and ligands are named in an alphabetical order.
(ii) Central metal atom and oxidation state indicated by Roman numeral in
parenthesis.
(iii) Name of ionisable anion.
Anionic Complex
K3[Fe(CN)6]
Potassium hexacyanoferrate (III)
(i) Name of ionisable metal and oxidation state
(ii) Name of ligand in an alphabetical order
(iii)Central metal atom + ate and oxidation state
Neutral Complex
[Pt(NH3)2Cl(NO2)]
Diammine chloronitrito-N-platinum (II)
(i) Name of ligands in an alphabetical order
(ii) Central metal atom and oxidation state
VISUAL EXPLANATION
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

19
6. Isomerism in Coordination Compounds
Stereo isomerism and structural isomerism are the two principal types of isomerisms
which are known among coordination compounds.
Stereo Isomerism
It occurs due to different arrangements of ligands around central metal atom. It is of
two types : geometrical isomerism and optical isomerism.
Geometrical Isomerism
It arises in heteroleptic complexes due to different possible geometric arrangements
of the ligands. Important examples of this behavior are found in square planar and
octahedral complexes.
(i) Square planar complex of formula [MX2L2] (X and L are unidentate), the
two ligands X may be arranged adjacent to each other in a cis isomer, or opposite
to each other in a trans isomer.
e.g., [Pt(NH3)2Cl2]
(ii) Square planar complex of the type [MABXL] (where A, B, X, L are
unidentates) shows three isomers – two cis and one trans. Such isomerism is
not possible for tetrahedral geometry.
e.g., [Pt(NH3)(Br)(Cl)(Py)]
(iii) Octahedral complexes of formula [MX2L4]1 in which the two ligands X may
be oriented cis or trans to each other.
e.g., [Co(NH3)4Cl2]+
(iv) Octahedral complexes of formula [MX2A2] where X are unidentates and A are
didentate and form cis and trans isomers.
e.g., [CoCl2(en)2]
(v) Octahedral coordination entities of the type [Ma3b3] like [Co(NH3)3(NO2)3].
If three donor atoms of the same ligands occupy adjacent positions at the corners
of an octahedral face, we have the facial (fac) isomer. When the positions are
around the meridian of the octahedron, we get the meriodional (mer) isomer.
Optical Isomerism
• It arises when mirror images cannot be superimposed on one another. These
mirror images are called as enantiomers. The two forms are called dextro (d)
and laevo (l).
• Optical isomerism is common in octahedral complexes but at least one didentate
ligand should be present.
e.g., [Co(en)3]3+, [PtCl2(en)2]2+ etc.
Structural Isomerism
In structural isomerism, isomers have different bonding pattern. Different types of
structural isomerism is as follows :
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

20
(i) Linkage isomerism, arises in a coordination compound containing ambidentate
ligand.
e.g., [Co(NH3)5(NO2)]Cl2
[Co(NH3)5(ONO)]Cl2
(ii) Coordination isomerism, arises from the interchange of ligands between
cationic and anionic entities of different metal ions present in a complex.
e.g., [Co(NH3)6][Cr(CN)6]
[Cr(NH3)6][Co(CN)6]
(iii) Ionisation isomerism, when the ionisable anion exchange with anion ligand.
e.g., [CO(NH3)5SO4]Br and [Co(NH3)5Br]SO4
(iv) Solvate isomerism, is also known as ‘hydrate isomerism’. In this case water is
involved as a solvent.
e.g., [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3, [Cr(H2O)5Cl2.H2O, [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl.2H2O
VISUAL EXPLANATION
7. Bonding in Coordination Compounds
Werner’s Theory
(i) In complex compounds, metal atom exhibit two types of valencies – primary
valency and secondary valency.
(ii) Primary valencies are satisfied by anions only while secondary valencies are
satisfied by ligands. Primary valency depends upon oxidation number of central metal
atom while secondary valency represents coordination number of central metal atom.
(iii) Primary valencies are ionisable and are non-directional while secondary
valencies are non-ionisable and directional. Therefore, geometry of complex is decided
by secondary valencies.
Valence Bond Theory
According to this theory, the metal atom or ion under the influence of ligands form
inner orbital and outer orbital complex. These hybridized orbitals are allowed to overlap
with ligand orbitals that can donate electron pairs for bonding.
(i) Six ligands (unidentate) (octahedral entity) Generally central atom belongs
3d series and ligands can be monodentate or didentate but coordination number should
be six and shape of complexes will be octahedral and form two types of complexes.
(a) Inner orbital complexes, which are formed due to participation of (n –1)d
orbitals in hybridisation is (d2sp3) and shape of complex will be octahedral.
(b) Outer orbital complexes, which are formed due to participation of nd
orbitals in hybridisation is (sp3d2). Generally halides (F, Cl, Br, I), SCN, S2 form
outer orbital complexes and other ligands form inner orbital complexes.
e.g., Inner orbital complex, [Co(NH3)6]3+
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

21
All electrons are paired therefore, complex will be diamagnetic in nature.
e.g., Outer orbital complex, [CoF 6]3




Complex has unpaired electrons, therefore, complex will be paramagnetic in nature.
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

Complexes with coordination number : 4
1. [Ni(CN) ]42

All electrons are paired. Complex will be diamagnetic in nature.

2. [CoCl ]4

 3+
 Orbitals of Co ion

 3d 4s 4p

 3 3+
sp hybridizes orbitals of Co
 3
sp hybrid


 3d 4s 4p
 –
 [CoCl4]
× × × ×
 4s 4p

Four pairs of

electrons from 4Cl


Complex has unpaired electrons. Complex will be paramagnetic in nature.
VISUAL EXPLANATION
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

Crystal Field Theory
The five d-orbitals are split into lower and higher energy level due to approach of
ligands is known as crystal field theory. The five d-orbitals in a gaseous metal atom/ion
have same energy.
(i) Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination entities.
• Energy separation is denoted by  (the subscript o is for octahedral).

o
• The energy of the two eg orbitals (higher energy orbitals) will increase by (3/5)o
and that of the three t2g (lower energy orbitals) will decrease by (2/5)o.
• If o < p, the fourth electron enters one of the eg , orbitals giving the configuration
t32g eg1 . Ligands for which o < p are known as weak field ligands and form high spin
complexes.
• If o> p, it becomes more energetically favourable for the fourth electron to
4
occupy a t2g orbital with configuration t2g eg . Ligands which produce this effect are
known as strong field ligands and form low spin complexes, where p represents the
energy required for electron pairing in a single orbital.
(ii) Crystal field splitting in tetrahedral coordination entities.
dxy,dxy, dyz
Energy
Bary 2/5
centre t
Average energy
of the d-orbitals in 3/5
spherical crystal field
eg
dx – y , dz
d-orbitals Splitting of d-orbitals
In tetrahedral crystal
field
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

24
• In tetrahedral coordination entities,  = (4/9) . Consequently the orbital
splitting energies are not sufficiently large for forcing pairing and, therefore, low spin
configurations are rarely observed.
• Due to less crystal field stabilization energy, it is not possible to pair electrons
and so all the tetrahedral complexes are high spin.
8. Colour in Coordination Compounds
• In complex compounds d-orbitals split in two sets t2g and eg. These have different
energies. The difference in energies lies in visible region and electron jump from ground
state t2g level to higher state eg level. This is known as d-d transition and it is responsible
for colour of coordination compounds.
• d-d transition takes place in d1 to d9 ions, so the ions having d1 to d9 configuration
are coloured. On the other hand, the ions d0 and d10 configuration do not show d-d
transition.
9. Importance and Applications of Coordination Compounds
• Hardness of water is estimated by simple titration with Na EDTA. The Ca2+ and
2
Mg2+ ions form stable complexes with EDTA.
• Some important extraction processes of metals, like those of silver and gold
make use of complex formation.
• Similarly, purification of metals can be achieved through formation and
subsequent decomposition of their coordination compounds. For example, impure
nickel is converted to [Ni(CO)4], which is decomposed to yield pure nickel.
• Coordination compounds are used as catalysts for many industrial processes.
Examples include rhodium complex, [(Ph3P)3RhCl], a Wilkinson catalyst, is used for
the hydrogenation of alkenes.
SELF TESTING CUM VISUAL EXPLANATION
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

25
UNIT -6
HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES
Points to Remember
1. Haloalkanes (Alkyl halides) are halogen derivatives of alkanes with general formula
[CnH2n + 1X]. (X = F, Cl, Br or I)
2. Haloarenes (Aryl halides) are halogen derivatives of arenes with general formula
Ar – X.
3. Since halogen is more electronegative than C, hence C – X bond is polar.
4. Named Reactions :
(a) Sandmeyer Reaction :
(b) Finkelstein Reaction :
R  X  NaI dyracetone R  I  NaX X  Cl, Br

(c) Swartz Reaction :
CH3 – Br + AgF  CH3 – F + AgBr
Instead of Ag – F, other metallic fluoride like Hg2F2, CoF2 or SbF3 can also be used.
(d) Wurtz Reaction :
2R  X  2Na dry ether R  R  2NaX
(e) Wurtz-Fittig Reaction :
VISUAL EXPLANATION
(f) Fittig Reaction :
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

26
5. Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions :
– |+ – –
Nu + – C – X C – Nu + X
|
haloalkane
(a) Substitution nucleophilic bimolecular (S N2) :
1. 1º haloalkane
2. Bimolecular, 2nd order
3. One step
Order of reactivity : 1º > 2º > 3º
Deciding factor : Steric hindrance
(b) Substitution nucleophilic unimolecular (S 1N):
1. 3º haloalkane
2. Unimolecular, 1st order
3. Two steps
Order of reactivity: 3º > 2º > 1º

6. Aryl halides are much less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution reactions than
haloalkanes.
7. Halogen is deactivating but o, p-directing in electrophilic substitution reaction of

haloarenes.
8. CHCl3 is stored in dark bottles upto brim so that formation of poisonous gas
phosgene in presence of air and light can be avoided.
2CHCl3 + O2 light 2COCl + 2HCl
2
Chloroform Carbonyl chloride (phosgene)
VISUAL EXPLANATION
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

27
9. Reaction of Haloalkanes :
NaOH
R–OH
KOH
NaI
R–I
KCN
RCN
AgCN
RNC R–O–
KNO2
N=O
AgNO2
R–NO2
R–X LAH RH R–
NH3 NH
2
Mg
R–MgX
Na, D.E.
R–R R–
NaOR
O–R'
R'COOAg
R'COOR
10. Electrophilic Substitution Reaction of Haloarenes :
Sulphonatio
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28
11. Elimination reaction: Two groups or atoms attached to two adjacent carbon
atom and simultaneous formation of multiple bonds between these carbon atom.
[Reverseof addition]
Two types (i) -Elimination  E1 Two step eliminate

E2
(ii) -elimination One step eliminate
Saytzaff's Rule
VISUAL EXPLANATION
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

29
UNIT -7
ALCOHOLS PHENOLS AND ETHERS
Points to Remember
1. Hydroxyl ( OH) derivatives of alkane are called alcohols.
2. Alcohols are classified as 1º, 2º and 3º.
3. OH group is attached to sp3 hybridized carbon. Alcohols further may be
monohydric, dihydric and polyhydric on the basis of OH group.
4. Phenols : Compounds containing – OH group bound directly to benzene ring.
5. Structure : Oxygen atom is sp3 hybridised and tetrahedral geometry of hybrid

atomic orbitals ROH bond angle depends upon the R group. R – O – H angle for
CH3 – OH is 108.9º.
6. Isomerism :
(i) Functional isomerism
(ii) Chain isomerism
(iii) Positional isomerism
VISUAL EXPLANATION
7. General Methods of Preparation :

(i) Acid catalysed hydration of alkenes :
(ii) Hydroboration oxidation :
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

30
(iii) From carbonyl compounds with Grignard’s reagent :
Formaldehyde gives 1º alcohol and ketones gives tertiary alcohol.
(iv) By reduction of carbonyl compounds :
RCHO + 2[H]  Pd RCH2 OH

H NaBH4 H
C = O + 2[H] CH2OH
R R
R NaBH4 R
C = O + 2[H] CHOH
R R
(v) By reduction of esters with LiAlH4 or Na/C2H5OH :

O
LiAlH4
R – C – OR' + 4[H] R– CH2 OH + R' – OH
(vi) By hydrolysis of esters :

O O
conc
R – C – O – R' + H2O R – C – OH + R' – OH
H2SO4
(vii) From alkyl halides :
R – X + KOH (aq)  R – OH + KX
(viii) By reduction of acids and their derivatives :
R – COOH  LiAlH4 RCH 2OH
R – COCl + 2H2 Ni R.CH 2OH + HCl
(ix) From 1º amines :
R – NH2  NaNO2HClROH  H2O  N2
VISUAL EXPLANATION
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

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NAME REACTIONS
1. Reimer Tiemann Reaction x – +
OH – + O Na
O Na
CHCl2 CHO
CHCl3 + aq NaOH NaOH
Intermediate
OH
CHO
H+
Salicyaldehyde
2. Kolbe reaction
OH ONa OH
COOH
NaOH (i) CO2
(ii) H+
2- Hydroxybenzoic acid
(Salicylic acid)
VISUAL EXPLANATION
3. Friedel craft reaction

OCH3
OCH3 OCH3
CH3
+ CH3CI Anhyd. AlCl3
CS2 +
CH3
2-Methoxy-
toluen 4- Methoxy
(Minor) toluen
(Major)
OCH3 OCH3 OCH3
COCH3
Anhyd. AlCl3
+ CH3COCl +
Ethanoyl 2- Methoxy-
COCH3
chloride acetophenone
4-Methoxy-
(Minor)
acetophenone
(Maior)
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

4. Williamson synthesis: Reaction with alkyl halide with sodium alkoxide or
sod. Phenoxide is called Williamson synthesis.
R – X + R – O– Na R – O – R + NaX
1 1
CH3I + CH3CH2ONa CH3O.CH2 – CH3 + Nal

ONa
CH3CH2 – I + + Nal
Both simple and mixed ether can be produced.

Depending upon structure and cleavage of unsymmetrical ethers by halogen
acid may occur either by SN2 or SN1 mechanism.
MECHANISMS
1. Hydration of Alkene :
H' C— C
C =C + H2O
H OH
H'
CH3CH = CH2 + H2O CH3– CH – CH 3
OH
Mechanism
The mechanism of the reaction involves the following three steps:
Step 1: Protonation of alkene to form carbocation by electrophilic attack of
H3 O+.
+ +
H2O + H H3O
H H
+
+ H – O –H +
: :
C = C C C + H 2O
Step 2: Nucleophilic attack of water on carbocation.

H H H
O –H
+
+
C C
: :
C C + HO
2
Step 3: Deprotonation to form an alcohol.

:
H H H :OH
O –H
+ +
C C + H O: C C +HO
:
2 3
:
VISUAL EXPLANATION
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

33
2. Dehydration Reaction
100°C/373 K
CH3 – CH2HSO4
H2SO4
Conc. 413 K CH CH – OCH – CH
CH – CH – OH
3 2
3 2 2 3
433 TO 444 K
CH2 = CH2 + H2O
Conc.
(1) 2CH3 CH2 OH CH3 CH2 OCH2 CH3
H2SO4
413 k
Mechanism:
H
Step 1: CH CH OH + H+ CH CH O H
: :
3 2 3 2
+ .. +
Step 2: CH3 CH2 — O — H + CH3 CH2 .O.H CH3CH2 — O — CH2CH3+H2O
| |
H H
+
CH CH — O+ — CH CH CH CH OCH CH + H
Step 3: 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3
|
H
(2) CH3CH2 OH Con443K

H 2 C  CH2  H2 O
c.H 2SO 4
H
.. Fast |
Step1: CH3 CH2 O
. . H + H+ . .—H
CH3 CH2 O
+
+ Slow +
Step 2: CH3CH2 — O — H CH3CH2 +H2O
|
H
H H
| |
H —C—C—H
+
Step 3: CH = CH + H
2 2
| +
H
CLICK HERE FOR POWER POINT PRESENTATION
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

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IMPORTANTPREPARATIONS
(1) Preparation of phenol from Cumene
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH CH3 C–O– O– H OH
O3 H+
+ CH3COCH3
H2O
Cumene Cumene
Hydroperoxide
VISUAL EXPLANATION
(2) Prepation of Aspirin
COOH COOH
OH OCOCH3
+ (CH3CO)2O H+
+ CH3COOH
Salicylic acid Acetylsalicylic acid

(Aspirin)
8. Ethers are dialkyl derivatives of water or monoalkyl derivatives of alcohols with

formula R – O – R'
9. Lucas test can be used to distinguish primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols
(ZnCl2 + HCl).
(3º turbidity – instant, 2º - 5 minutes, 1º - heating for 60 minutes)
10. Ethers are relatively inert and hence are used as solvents.
11. 100% ethanol is known as absolute alcohol.
12. 95% ethanol is called rectified spirit.
13. A mixture of 20% ethanol and 80% gasoline is known as power alcohol.
14. Iodoform test is used for distinguishing compounds having the groups
15. Presence of EWGs increase the acid strength of phenols while EDG decrease the
acid strength.
EWG :  NO2,  X,  CN,  COOH etc.
EDG :  R,  OR,  OH,  NH2 etc.
16. 3º alcohols are resistant to oxidation due to lack of -hydrogen.
17. Intermolecular H-bonds of p- and m-nitrophenol increases water solubility/acid
strength while intramolecular H-bonds in o-nitrophenol decreases these properties.
18. In the reaction of alkyl aryl ether (anisole) with HI, the products are always alkyl
halide and phenol because O – R bond is weak than O – Ar bond which has partial
double character due to resonance.
19. C – O – C bond in ether is bent and hence the ether is always polar molecule even
if both alkyl groups are identical.
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

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UNIT -8
ALDEHYDES KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Points to Remember
1. Aldehydes and ketones, are commonly called as carbonyl compounds.

2. In Rosenmund’s reduction, poisoning of Pd with BaSO4 prevent reduction of
R – CHO to R – CH2OH.
3. In the reaction of toluene with CrO3, acetic anhydride is used to protect
benzaldehyde by forming benzylidenediacetate to avoid its oxidation to benzoic
acid.
4. Order of reactivity of aldehydes and ketones towards nucleophilic addition is :
(i) HCHO > CH3CHO > CH3CH2CHO.
(ii) HCHO > RCHO > R CO R.
(iii) ArCHO > Ar COR > Ar CO Ar.
5. Benzaldehyde does not reduce Fehling’s reagent.
6. Aldehydes and ketones with atleast one H atom get condensed in presence of
a base. This is known as Aldol condensation.
7. Aldol condensation involves carbanion as intermediate.
8. Aldehydes with no H atoms under Cannizzaro’s reaction.
9. Ketones react with dihydric alcohols to form cyclic ketals.
10. Monocarboxylic acids having (C12C18) carbon atoms, are called fatty acids.
11. Boiling points of carboxylic acids is greater than corresponding alcohols.
12. Presence of EWGs enhances the acidic character of carboxylic acids.
13. COOH group is m-directing in electrophilic substitution reactions.
14. Compounds containing – CHO group are named as carbaldehydes if – CHO
groups are three or more.
15. Isomerism : Chain, position and functional.
16. Structure of –CHO group sp2 hybridised.
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

36
17. General Methods of Preparation:
(i) Controlled oxidation of 1º alcohols :

RCH2OH  RCHO
PCC/CrO3
(Collin’s reagent)
(ii) Dehydrogenation of 1º alcohols :

RCH2OH  RCHO + H2
Cu/573 K
(iii) From Rosenmund reaction/reduction :
RCOCl + H2 Pd/BaSO4 RCHO + HCl

(iv) Hydration of alkynes :
CH  CH 1%HgSO4[CH  CHOH] TautomerismCH CHO

40% H2SO4 2 3
(v) Reductive ozonolysis of alkenes :
R – CH = CH – R (i)O3  2RCHO + H O
(ii) Zn/H2O 2 2
(vi) From salts of fatty acids :
(RCOO)2Ca + (HCOO)2Ca  2RCHO + 2CaCO3

D Dist.
(vii) Stephen’s reduction of nitrile compounds :

SnCl /HCl H O
R – C  N   [R – CH = NH.HCl] 3 
2
 RCHO + NH Cl
H2O  H 4
(viii) Hydrolysis of germinal halides :
(ix) From Grignard’s reagent :
H–C  N + R– MgX H – C = N – MgX H3O+

 
RCHO + NH3 + Mg (OH)X
Dryether |
R
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General Methods of Preparation of Ketones only
(i) Dehydrogenation of 2º alcohols :
O
R – CHOH – R Cu 
||
R – C – R + H2
573K
(ii) Hydration of alkynes : HO  O| H 
R – C  CH 2    Tautomerism
1% HgSO4 R C = CH 2  
40% H2SO4   O
  |
R–C–CH3
Ozonolysis of Alkene
O3
(iii)
(iv) From Grignard's reagents :
R'MgX + R – C  N

R – C = O + NH3 + Mg (OH) X
|
R'
(iv) From acid chlorides :
O
||
RCOCl + R Cd  2R – C – R' + CdCl
2 2
Physical Properties:
HCHO is a gas at normal temperature. Formalin is 40% as solution of HCHO.

Due to polarity they have high values of boiling point. Solubility in water is only
for lower members.
Reactivity :
(i) + I effect of alkyl groups decreases the +ve charge on carbonyl carbon.
(ii) Steric hindrance : Bulky group hinder approach of nucleophile.
(iii) -hydrogen atom is acidic due to resonance.
CLICK HERE FOR PRESENTATION
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

1. ROSENMUND REDUCTION:
Acyl chlorides when hydrogenated over catalyst, palladium on barium sulphate
yield aldehydes
O
Pd-BaSO4
C– CI + 2[H] CHO
Benzoyl chloride Benzaldehyde
2. STEPHEN REACTION
Nitriles are reduced to corresponding imines with stannous chloride in the

presence of Hydrochloric acid, which on hydrolysis give corresponding aldehyde.
+
HO
3
RCN + SnCI2 + HCI RCH = NH RCHO
3. ETARD REACTION
On treating toluene with chromyl chloride CrO2Cl2, the methyl group is oxidized
to a chromium complex, which on hydrolysis gives corresponding benzaldehyde.
OR
CH3 CH(OCrOHCI2)2 CHO

+ CrO CI CS2 H 3O+
2 2
Toluene Chromium complex Benzaldehyde
This reaction is called Etard reaction
4. CLEMMENSEN REDUCTION
VISUAL EXPLANATION
The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketone is reduced to -CH2 group on

treatment with zinc amalgam and cone. Hydrochloric acid.
5. WOLFF- KISHNER REDUCTION

On treatment with hydrazine followed by heating with sodium or potassium
hydroxide in high boiling solvent like ethylene glycol
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

6. ALDOLCONDENSATION
Aldehydes and ketones having at least one a-hydrogen condense in the presence
of dilute alkali as catalyst to form p-hydroxy ehydes (aldol) or -hydroxy ketones
(ketol).
,
CH3—CH—CH2—CHO
OH
4-Methyl pent-3-en-2-one
(Ketal)
7. CROSS- ALDOL CONDENSATION
When aldol condensation is carried out between two different aldehydes and / or
ketones, a mixture of self and cross-aldol products are obtained.
VISUAL EXPLANATION
8. CANNIZZARO REACTION
Aldehydes which do not have an a-hydrogen atom, undergo self oxidation and
reduction (dispropotionation) reaction on treatment with concentrated alkali, to
yield carboxylic acid salt and an alcohol respectively.
H-CHO + H-CHO + Conc.KOH  CH3OH + HCOOK
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

40
CARBOXYLIC ACID
1. HELL-VOLHARD-ZELINSKY REACTION (HVZ)
Carboxylic acids having an a – hydrogen are halogenated at the a -position
on treatment with chlorine or bromine in the presence of small amount of red
phosphorus to give a -halocarboxylic acids.
(i) X2/ Red phosphorus
RCH2 – COOH R– CH– COOH
(ii) H2O
X
X = CI, Br
 – halocarboxylic acids
2. ESTERIFICATION
Carboxylic acids react with alcohols or phenols in the presence of a mineral acid
such as conc.H2SO4 as catalyst to form esters.
RCOOH + R'OH H+ RCOOR' + H2O
18. Vinegar is 8 to 10% solution of CH3COOH.

19. -hydrogen atoms in carboxylic acid are acidic in nature and can be easily
replaced by halogen atoms in HVZ reaction.
21. Relative acid strength of RCOOH > HOH > ROH > HC  CH > NH3. It is because
a strong acid has weak conjugate base.
22. Some dicarboxylic acids bearing general formula HOOC – (CH2)n – COOH
where n – 0, 1, 2, ........ etc.
HOOC – COOH Oxalic acid 1, 2 ethanedioic acid
HOOC – CH2 – COOH Malonic acid 1, 3 propanedioic acid
HOOC – (CH2)2 – COOH Succinic acid 1, 4 butanedioic acid
HOOC – (CH2)3 – COOH Glutonic acid 1, 5 pentamdioic acid
HOOC – (CH2)4 – COOH Adipic acid 1, 6 hexanedioic acid

23. Melting points: Higher: Even carbonatoms than next lower or higher homologues
containing even number of carbon atoms due to symmetry and closer packing of
molecules in the crystal lattice.
VISUAL EXPLANATION
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

UNIT -9
AMINES
Points to Remember
1. Amines are alkyl and/or aryl derivatives of NH3.

2. Functional groups of 1º, 2º and 3º amines are respectively as given below :
3. Gabriel phthalimide synthesis can’t be used for the preparation of 2º and 3º

amines. It gives aliphatic primary amine only.
4. Hoffmann’s bromamide reaction gives 1º amines having one carbon atom less
than parent primary amide.
5. The order of basic strength of aliphatic amines is :
(i) Aliphatic amines are more basic than NH3.
(ii) In aqueous solution medium, the order is 2º > 1º > 3º (for–CH3 group) and
2º > 3º > 1º for – C2H5 group.
(iii) In non-aqueous medium or gaseous phase, the order is 3º > 2º > 1º.
6. Basic strength of aromatic amines :
(i) Aromatic amines are weaker bases than NH3.
(ii) ERGs like – CH3, – OR, – NH2 etc. increase basic strength while EWGs
like – NO2, – CN etc. decrease the basic strength. The effect of
substituents is more at para positions and less at meta position.
VISUAL EXPLANATION
7. Basic strength of amines is expressed in terms of Kb or pKb.

8. 1º, 2º and 3º amines can be distinguished by Hinsberg’s test.
9. Hinsberg’s reagent is benzenesulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl).

10. 3º amines like trimethylamine are used as insect attractants.
11. Diazonium salts are represented by the general formula [Ar N  N]+ X.
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

42
12. Structure of amines : Pyramidal for trimethyl amine CH3   N. They are
3
Lewis bases.
13. Carbylamine test only given by 1º amines.
14. Manich reaction involves the reaction of ketones with HCHO and NH3 (or
amine) in acidic medium to form Manich bases.
15. 1º amines give effervescence with HNO2.
16.  NH2 group in aniline is o- and p- directing and is highly activating in nature.
17. Acylation of aniline is done before subjecting it to nitration or halogenation.
18. Aliphatic diazonium salts are very unstable and do not exist while aromatic salts
are relatively stable.
19. These salts are prepared from 1º aryl amines by diazotization reactions.
20. Diazotised salts (diazonium salts) are used to prepare a variety of aromatic com-
pounds.
21. R – C  N have generally pleasant odours but alkyl isocyanides have highly
unpleasant odours.
22. Alkyl isocyanides have lower boiling points than that of isomeric alkyl cyanides
due to lower dipole moments.
23. Arenediazonium salts are highly reactive compounds and reactivity is due to
excellent leaving ability of diazo group as N2 gas.
VISUAL EXPLANATION
NAME REACTIONS
1. Gabriel phthalimide synthesis

Gabriel synthesis is used for the preparation of primary amines. Phthalimide on
treatment wi ethanolic potassium hydroxide forms potassium salt of phthalim-
ide which on heating with alkyl halide followed by alkaline hydrolysis produces
the corresponding primary amine. Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

43
by this method because aryl halides do not undergo nucleophilic substitution
with the anion formed by phthalimide.
O O O
C KOH C – + R–X C
N–H NK N–R
C C C
O O O
Phthalimide N–Alkylphthalimide
O
O
C –
NaOH (aq) C ONa+
N–R – + + R – NH 2
C ONa
C (1° amine)
O
O
2. Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction
Hoffmann developed a method for preparation of primary amines by treating an
amide with bromine in an aqueous or ethanolic solution of sodium hydroxide.
The amine so formed contains one carbon less than present in the amide.
O
R – C – NH2 + Br2 + 4NaOH R – NH2 + Na2CO3 + 2NaBr + 2H2O

3. Carbylamine reaction
Aliphatic and aromatic primary amines on heating with chloroform and eth-
anolic potassium hydroxide form isocyanides or carbylamines which are foul
smelling substances. Secondary and tertiary amines do not show this reaction.
This reaction is known as carbylamine reaction or isocyanide test and is used as
a test for primary amines.
Heat
R– NH + CHCl + 3KOH R – NC + 3KCl + 3H O
2 3 2
VISUAL EXPLANATION
4. Hinsberg Test:
Benzenesulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2CI), which is also known as Hinsberg’s
reagent, reacts with primary and secondary amines to form sulphonamides.
(a) The reaction of benzenesulphonyl chloride with primary amine
yields N-ethylbenzenesulphonyl amide.
O O
S Cl + H —N— C2H5 S N —C2H5 + HCl
O O H
N-Ethylbenzenesulphonamide
(soluble in alkali)
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

The hydrogen attached to nitrogen in sulphonamide is strongly acidic due to the
presence of strong electron withdrawing sulphonyl group. Hence, it is soluble
in alkali.
(b) In the reaction with secondary amine, N, N-diethylbenzenesuIphonamide
is formed.
O O
S Cl + H —N— C2H5 H3C S N —C2H5 + HCl
O C2H5 O C2H5
N,N-Diethylbenzenesulphonamide
Since N, N-diethylbenzene sulphonamide does not contain any hydrogen atom

attached to nitrogen atom, it is not acidic and hence insoluble in alkali.
(c) Tertiary amines do not react with benzenesulphonyl chloride. This property
of amines reacting with benzenesulphonyl chloride in a different manner
is used for the distinction of primary, secondary and tertiary amines and
also for the separation of a mixture of amines.
5. Sandmeyer Reaction
The C1-, Br- and CN- nucleophiles can easily be introduced in the benzene ring
of diazonium salts in the presence of Cu(I) ion.
CuCI/HCl ArCl + N2
+– CuBr/HBr
ArN2X ArBr + N2
CuCN/KCN
ArCN + N2
VISUAL EXPLANATION
6. Gatterman Reaction
Chlorine or bromine can be introduced in the benzene ring by treating the dia-
zonium salt solution with corresponding halogen acid in the presence of copper
powder.
Cu/HCl
+– ArCl + N 2+ CuX
ArN2X
Cu/HBr ArBr + N2 + CuX
7. Coupling reactions
The azo products obtained have an extended conjugate system having both the
aromatic rings joined through the -N=N- bond. These compounds are often co-
loured and are used as dyes. Benzene diazonium chloride reacts with phenol in
which the phenol molecule at its para position is coupled with the diazonium
salt to form p-hydroxyazobenzene. This type of reaction is known as coupling
reaction.
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

Similarly the reaction of diazoniu– m salt with aniline yields p-aminoazobenzene.
+ –
OH
N NCl + H OH N=N OH + HCl
P-Hydroxyazobenzene (orange dye)
+ – +H
N NCl + H NH2 N=N NH2 + HCl
p-Aminoazobenzene
(yellow dye)
VISUAL EXPLANATION
DISTINCTION BETWEEN PAIRS OF COMPOUNDS

Give one chemical test to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds.
(i) Methylamine and dimethylamine
(ii) Secondary and tertiary amines
(iii) Ethylamine and aniline
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

46
UNIT -10
BIOMOLECULES
Points to Remember
1. Carbohydrates : These are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or

the compounds which produce these on hydrolysis.
2. Classification :
(i) Monosaccharides : Those carbohydrates which cannot be hydrolysed into
further simpler carbohydrates. E.g., glucose, fructose, galactose etc.
(ii) Disaccharides : Those carbohydrates which produces two monosaccharides

on hydrolysis. E.g., sucrose, maltose and lactose.
(iii) Oligosaccharides : Those carbohydrates which give two to ten

monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
(iv) Polysaccharides : Those carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give large
number of monosaccharides hydrolysis. E.g., starch, cellulose, glycogen.
3. Sugar : Carbohydrates which are sweet in taste.
(i) Reducing sugars : Those which reduce Fehling’s or Tollen’s reagent due to
availability of free aldehydic groups. E.g., glucose, fructose, galactose.
(ii) Non-reducing sugars : Those which do not reduce Fehling’s or Tollen’s

reagent. They do not have free aldehydic group. E.g., sucrose.
4. Glucose : It is a monosaccharide with molecular formula C6H12O6
VISUAL EXPLANATION
Preparation :
(i) From sucrose :

H
C H O +H O  C H O + C H O (only from sucrose)
12 22 11 2  6 12 6 6 12 6
(ii) From starch : glucose Fructose

(C6H10O5)n + nH2O  C12H22O11 + H2O  2C6H12O6
glucose
5. Structure :
Fischer structure : (+) glucose has ‘D’ configuration as shown
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

47
‘D’- means – OH group on first chiral ‘C’ from the bottom is on right hand and (+)
means it is dextrorotatory i.e., it rotates plane polarized light towards right.
Reactions of glucose :
HI
CH3 – (CH2)4CH3 n-hexane
NH2OH
CH = NOH
(CHOH)4
CH2OH glucose oxime

Br2 –H2O
COOH
CHO (CHOH)4
(CHOH)4 CH2OH gluconic acid

HNO3
CH2OH COOH
glucose
(CHOH)4
COOH saccharic acid

(CH3CO)2O
CHO
(CHOCOCH3)4
CH2OCOCH3 glucose pentaacetate
HCN OH
CH CN
(CHOH)4
CH2OH glucose cyanohydrin
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

48
Objections against open chain structure of glucose
The open chain structure was unable to explain the following reactions :
(a) It does not give the 2, 4-DNP test, Schiff’s test and does not form the
hydrogensulphite product with NaHSO3.
(b) The pentacetate of glucose does not react with NH2OH, indicating the
absence of free aldehydic group.
(c) Glucose exist in 2 different crystalline forms  and  forms. These are called
anomers. They differ in optical rotation, they also differ in melting point.
After which a close chain (cyclic) structure of glucose was proposed by Haworth.
* Anomers are isomers which have a different configuration at C-1 functional

group c-atom
6. Glycosidic linkage : The linkage between two monosaccharide units through

oxygen is called the glycosidic linkage.
VISUAL PRESENTATION
7. Proteins : These are macro molecules made up of amino acids joined by amide
linkage [ ( CONH ) ] is here called as peptide linkage. These are required for
growth and development of the body.
8. Amino acids : These contain an amino (- NH2) and an acidic (- COOH) group and
are therefore amphoteric in nature. In solution they exist in the form of zwitter ion
(a dipolar ion).
9. Classification
Fibrous Protein Glubular Protein

(i) Polypeptide chains run par`allel (i) Chains of polypeptide coil around to
or anti-parallel and held together by give a spherical shape.
hydrogen and disulphide bonds.
(ii) Generally insoluble in water e.g., (ii) Usually soluble in water, e.g., insulin,
keratin, collagen, myosin, fibroin. thyroglobin, albumin, haemoglobin and
fibrinogen gets converted into fibrous
protein fibroin on clotting of blood.
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

49
10. Structure and shape of protein (Ref. page no. 416 NCERT Book)
Primary struc- Secondary struc- Tertiary struc- Quaternary struc-

ture ture ture ture
The specific se- It is the shape in Represent Protein can be com-
quence of ami- which the long overall folding posed of two or more
no acids in the polypeptide chain of the poly polypeptide chains
polypepide chain. can exist. It is of peptide chain called sub-units. The
Change in amino two types : -he- It gives rise to spatial arrangement
acids sequence lix and -pleated. the fibrous or of these sub-units
changes the pro- These structures globular mo- with respect to each
tein completely. arise due to regu- lecular shapes other is quaternary
They have cova- lar folding of the Forces stabiliz- structure of the pro-
lent bonds. backbone of the ing the 2º and tein.
polypeptide chain 3º structures
due to H-bonding are hydrogen
between the C bonds, disul-
= O and – NH – phide linkages,
groups of the pep- van der Waal’s
tide bond. and electrostat-
ic forces of at-
traction.
11. Native state of protein : The parental state or the natural state in which the protein
is found.
12. Denaturation of protein : Destruction of the native state of protein is denaturation.

It can be brought by physical and chemical methods. The 2º and 3º structures are
destroyed, only 1º structure is retained.
VISUAL EXPLANATION
Enzymes : These are biocatalyst and generally globular proteins e.g., invertase,
zymase, phenylalanine hydroxylase, urease etc.
Main characteristics of enzymes :

(i) It speed up the biological reaction upto million times.
(ii) It is highly specific and work on lock and key theory.
(iii) It is highly sensitive to pH and temperature.
13. Vitamins : They are organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts
to perform specific biological functions for maintenance of optimum growth and
health of the organism. They are classified as follows :
(i) Fat soluble vitamins : Vitamin A, D, E and K. They are stored in liver and
adipose tissues.
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

50
(ii) Water soluble vitamins : B group vitamins and vitamin C. They need to
supplied regularly in diet as they are excreted in urine and cannot be stored
(except vitamin B12) in our body.
Their deficiency causes diseases. (Ref. table in page no. 418 of NCERT Book)
Biotin (Vit H) is however neither fat nor water soluble. Its deficiency leads to loss
of hair.
14. Nucleic acids : These are biomolecules which are long chain polymers of
nucleotides. They are of two types :
(i) Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
(ii) Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
15. Vitamin Deficiency disease

A Xerophthalmia (eye fails to produce tears),
night blindness
B1 Beri-beri(severe lethargy)
B2 Ariboflavinosis, cheilosis, burning sensation of skin
B12 Pernicious anaemia(gradual loss of RBCs),
inflammation of tongue and mouth
C Scurvy
D Rickets & osteomalacia(softening of bones)
E Increased fragility of RBC and muscular weakness
K Increased blood clotting time
H Loss of hair
VISUAL EXPLANATION
16. Hormones are chemical substances which are produced in ductless glands in the
body.
17. Nuceloside = Base + Sugar
Nucleotide = Base + Sugar + Phosphoric acid
18. DNA RNA

(i) Double helical. (i) Single stranded.
(ii) Sugar is 2-deoxyribose. (ii) Sugar is ribose.
(iii) Bases : A, T, G, C. (iii) Bases : A, U, G, C.
(iv) Property of replication. (iv) Do not replicate.
(v) It is responsible for transmission (v) Helps in protein biosynthesis.

of heredity character.
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

51
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN, NEW DELHI
ZONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING, GWALIOR
INTERACTIVE STUDY MATERIAL FOR CLASS XII

(BIOLOGY)
Smt Shajila P, Training Associate (Biology)
1
INDEX
Sl. No. Content Page No.
1 Unit-wise Weightage 3
2 Reproduction in Organisms 4
3 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 8
4 Human Reproduction 17
5 Reproductive Health 26
6 Principles of Inheritance 29
7 Molecular Basis of Inheritance 40
8 Evolution 55
9 Human Health and Diseases 61
10 Microbes in Human Welfare 76
11 Biotechnology- Principles and Processes 79
12 Biotechnology and its Applications 88
13 Organisms and Populations 96
14 Ecosystem 101
15 Biodiversity and Conservation 109
2
CLASS XII- BIOLOGY (2022-23)
Unit-Wise Weightage:
Unit Title Marks
Reproduction
VI Chapter 2: Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 14
Chapter-3: Human Reproduction
Chapter 4: Reproductive Health
Genetics an Evolution
VII Chapter-5: Principles of Inheritance and Variation 18
Chapter-6: Molecular Basis of Inheritance
Chapter-7: Evolution
Biology and Human Welfare

VIII Chapter-8: Human Health and Disease 14
Chapter-10: Microbes in Human Welfare
Biotechnology and its Applications

IX Chapter-11: Biotechnology: Principles and Processes 12
Chapter-12: Biotechnology and its Applications
Ecology and Environment

X Chapter-13: Organisms and Populations 12
Chapter-14: Ecosystem
Chapter-15: Biodiversity and its Conservation
Total 70
Please click the link:

For Class XII Syllabus for 2022-23:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1URNn1b7o1XPYRi12BnilDzZmBurKSqJt/view?usp=share_link
For sample paper:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1L0mpnsZ51Dvs2nSbtbBH14HNsSvEOHXM/view?usp=sharing
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1E-XcKQBEXqWPEltVy201VqF_QPQkLHGz/view?usp=sharing
3
UNIT VI - REPRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
Note: This chapter is deleted for the year 2022-23. Here it is given as an introduction for the unit.
Reproduction:
Defined as a biological process in which an organism gives rise to young ones (offspring)
similar to itself.
Phases of Life (Life Span of Organisms)
Juvenile Phase Reproductive Phase Senescence phase
PPT link for further explanations

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1Y_pLa7PkWt6fnI9tg0_1dOz7iWamXjpa/edit?usp=share_link&ouid=107171444
976724466844&rtpof=true&sd=true
Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
Fission - eg. Amoeba Eye buds in tuber
Budding - eg. Hydra Rhizome of ginger
Conidia – eg. Penicillium Bulbil of Agave
Zoospore - eg. Leaf buds of Bryophyllum
Gemmule – eg. Sponge Offset of water hyacinth
Vegetative Propagation Bulb in onion

4
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Offsprings are produced by single parents Offsprings are produced by the involvement of
single or two parents
Does not involve gamete formation and Gamete formation and gamete fusion takes place.
gamete fusion
No zygote formation Gametes are fused to form a diploid zygote (2n)
and zygote develops into embryo.
Offsprings are genetically identical to their Offsprings are not genetically identical to their
parents parents
Asexual reproduction
Methods of asexual reproduction:
 Binary fission; e.g. Amoeba, Paramoecium.
 Budding: e.g. yeast.
 Asexual reproductive structures:
Zoospores: aquatic fungi, eg. Chlamydomonas.
Conidia: Penicillium.
Bud:Hydra
Gemmules: sponges.
 Vegetative propagation units in plant: (Vegetative propagules)
Rrhizome, tuber, offset, bulb.etc.
For more examples -

https://drive.google.com/file/d/17zJdXsZwRx9M9faQlHee9Ar3cbkNZ_WH/view?usp=sharing
5
Sexual reproduction
Features of sexual reproduction:
Events in Sexual Reproduction
Pre fertilisation Fertilisation Post fertilisation
Gametogenesis Internal Zygote
Gamete transfer External Embryogenesis
Pre-fertilization events:
Gametogenesis: Process of gamete formation.

There are two types of gametes- isogametes: (when two gametes are morphologically similar) and
heterogametes: (when the two gametes produced are morphologically different)
Male gamete is called antherozoids or sperm and the female gamete is called ovum or egg.
There are two types of plants based on their sexuality.
i) Monoecious Plants: Possess both male and female sex organs.
ii) Dioecious Plants: Possess only one sex organ, male or female.
Gamete transfer: During this event both male and female gametes are physically brought
together to facilitate fertilization.
* In most cases male gametes are motile, female gametes are non-motile.
* In case of few fungi and algae, both male and female gametes are motile.
* In most cases water is the medium for gamete transfer.
* Male gametes are produced in several thousand times the number of female gametes produced to
compensate the loss during transfer.
6
Types of Gametes
Isogametes of Cladophora
Heterogametes of Fucus
Heterogametes of Homo sapiens
Fertilization:
* Fusion of male and female gamete is called fertilization or syngamy.
* Two types of fertilization- Internal (Gametic fusion takes place inside the body) and External
(Gametic fusion takes place outside the body)
* The female gamete undergoes development to form new organism without fertilization. This
phenomenon is called parthenogenesis.
Post Fertilisation Events:

Zygote formation: Fusion of male and female gametes results in the formation of zygote.
Embryogenesis: Development of zygote into an embryo is called embryogenesis.

Zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation. Cell division increase the number of
cells and cell differentiation helps to form specialized tissues and organs.
*****************************
7
CHAPTER 2
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Structure of Flower
Calyx (Consists of Sepals) Androecium Gynoecium Corolla (Consists of Petals)
Stamen Filament Stigma Style Ovary
Pre fertilization events:

This stage is characterised by the production of male and female gametes and transfer of
gametes for fertilization process. During this stage androecium (stamen) and gynoecium (pistil)
are fully developed for the production of gametes.
Structure of Stamen:
Typical stamen consists of two parts, long and slender stalk called filament and terminal bilobed structure
called anther.
8
Anther:
Atypical angiosperm anther is a bilobed and dithecous structure. Each anther contains four
microsporangia located at the corners, two in each lobe. Microsporangia become pollen sacs and are
packed with pollen grains.
Structure of microsporangium:
Each microsporangium surrounded by four wall layers
* Epidermis
* Endothecium Protects the inner tissues.
* Middle layer.
* Tapetum. Nourishes the developing pollen grain.
The center of each microsporangium contains homogenous cells called sporogenous tissues.
Microsporogenesis:
* The process of formation of microspores from pollen mother cell through meiosis is called
microsporogenesis.
* The sporogenous tissue of microsporangium differentiated into microspore mother cell or pollen
mother cell.
* Each microspore mother cell undergoes meiosis and gives rise to haploid microspore tetrad.
* On dehydration microspore tetrad dissociated to form four microspores.
* Each microspore developed into a pollen grain.
Video link for Microsporogenesis
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1oARpDAhFiVjnCFHWyBcKcsIHf4lEvNyr/view?usp=share_link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vus-lgBrIV8
9
PPT link for Microsporogenesis and structure of pollen grain
https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1m7C99e6twj35bFdRTjHwm1d6eXzjd98O/edit?usp=sharing&ouid=107
171444976724466844&rtpof=true&sd=true
(a
(b
(a) Stages of a microspore maturing into a pollen grain (b) Enlarged view of pollen grain tetrad
The Pistil:
Pistil has three parts the stigma, style and ovary. Inside the ovary is the ovarian cavity (locule).
Megasporongia or ovules arise from the placenta. The number of ovule inside the ovary may be single or
many.
The Megasporangium (Ovule):

Megasporangium is attached to the placenta of locule with a stalk called funicle. The body of the ovule
fused with the funicle in the region called hilum. Hilum is the junction between the funicle and ovule.
Each ovule has one or two protective envelops called integuments with an opening called micropyle.
Opposite of the micropylar end, is the chalaza, representing the basal part of the ovule.
10
Pistil Anatropous Ovule
Megasporogenesis:
* The process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore mothercell is called
Megasporogenesis.
* In the centre of the ovule there is a mass of tissue called nucellus.
* Cells of nucellus have abundant reserve food materials.
* One cell of the nucellus towards micropylar end differentiated into megaspore mother cell
(MMC).
* It is a large diploid cell, dense cytoplasm with prominent nucleus.
* The MMC undergo meiotic division resulting four haploid megaspores.
PPT Link for Megasporogenesis

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/10Cpgs8y17bGxC-
BQKv89sws2BQROAQQ9/edit?usp=sharing&ouid=107171444976724466844&rtpof=true&sd=true
11
Pollination:
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a pistil is termed as pollination.
Kinds of pollination:
Autogamy Geitonogamy Xenogamy
Pollination within same Pollination between two Transfer of pollen grains from the anther
flower. flowers of the same plant. to the stigma of different plant.
Self-Pollination Pollination by pollinating It is commonly called as cross-

agent. pollination.
Genetically similar plants are Genetically similar to the It brings genetically different types of
produced autogamy. pollen grains to the stigma and
genetically different plants are produced.
Viola, Oxalis and Commelina produce two types of flowers:

Chasmogamous: With exposed anther and stigma
Cleistogamous: With closed anther and stigma.
Cleistogamous flower is invariably autogamous and assured seed set even in the absence of the
pollinator.
Agents of pollination:
Anemophily Hydrophily Entomophily

Pollinating agent is wind. Pollination by water. Pollinating agent is insect
particularly bees are the
dominant biotic agents for
pollination.
Produces more number of pollen Vallisneria,Hydrilla and flowers are very large,
to compensate the uncertainties Zostera are the common colorful, fragrant and rich in
of pollination. example for Hydrophily. nectar.
Flowers with well exposed Pollen grains released into Small flowers present in
stamens. the surface of water and cluster to make them
carried to the stigma by air conspicuous.
current as in Vallisneria.
Large feathery stigma to trap air- This type of pollination is Flower pollinated by flies and
borne pollen grains. very rare, mostly monocot. beetles secrete foul odours.
In sea grass the flowers
remained submerged.
Contains single ovule in one Pollen grains are long, Contains single ovule in one
ovary and numerous flower ribbon like and carried ovary and
12
packed into an inflorescence passively inside the water
e.g. corn cob.
Pollen grains are light and non- Pollen grains are protected
sticky. from wetting by
mucilaginous covering.
Outbreeding Devices:
* Pollen released and stigma receptivity is not synchronized.
* Spatial separation of anthers and stigmas
* Anther and stigma are placed at different positions.
* Self incompatibility.
* Production of unisexual flowers.
PPT Link for Double fertilisation

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1KHyulpTc-cWR8hfwy4Un7R4JRR6PNG8Z/view?usp=sharing
Video link for Double fertilization
https://www.youtube.com/embed/dgFY7WUTASQ
13
Pollen pistil Interaction: All the events – from pollen deposition on the stigma until pollen tubes
enter the ovule – are together referred as pollen-pistil interaction.
The pistil has the ability to recognize the pollen

whether it is compatible or incompatible.
If it is right type the stigma allow the pollen to

germinate.
The pollen grain produce pollen tube through one of

the germ pore.
Pollen tube grows through the tissues of the stigma

and style and reaches the ovary.
Contents of the pollen grain move into the pollen

tube.
The generative cell divides and forms two male

gametes inside the pollen tube.
Pollen tube enters into the ovule through micropyle

and then into the embryo sac through synergids guided
by filiform apparatus.
Double fertilization:
* After entering one of the synergids, the pollen tube releases two male gametes into the cytoplasm of
the synergids.
* Syngamy: one of the male gamete fused with egg cell, to form a diploid zygote.
* Two polar nuclei of central cell fused to form a diploid secondary nucleus.
14
* Triple fusion: The second male gamete fused with the secondary nucleus to form a triploid
primary endosperm nucleus.
* Since two type of fusion, syngamy and triple fusion take place in the embryo sac the phenomenon is
termed as double fertilization.
* The central cell after triple fusion becomes primary endosperm cell and developed into the
endosperm.
* The zygote developed into an embryo.
Longitudinal section of a pistil showing growth of pollen tube
POST- FERTILIZATION : STRUCTURE AND EVENTS

Events of endosperm and embryo development, maturation of ovule into seed and ovary into fruit, are
collectively termed as post-fertilization events.
Endosperm:
* Development of endosperm takes place before the embryo development.
* Primary endosperm cell divides repeatedly to form a triploid endosperm.
* PEN undergoes successive nuclear division to give rise to free nuclei. This is called free-nuclear
endosperm.
Embryo:
* Zygote formed and placed at the micropylar end of the embryo sac and undergoes cell division and
develop into embryo.
15
APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY.
 Apomixis is very common in Asteraceae and grasses.
 Seeds are produced without fertilization.
 Apomixis is a type of asexual reproduction which mimics the sexual reproduction.
 Diploid egg cell is formed without meiosis and develops into seed without fertilization.
 In Citrusand Mango the nucellar cells starts dividing, protrude into the embryo sac and
develop into embryo.
 Ovule having more than one embryo is termed as polyembryony.
 Hybrid plants are developed by apomixis to maintain the genetic identity.
********************************************************************
16
CHAPTER 3
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.
Male reproductive system includes a pair of testes, accessory ducts, accessory glands and external
genitalia
Testes:
Testes is located outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called scrotum. Scrotum provides low
temperature required for spermatogenesis. Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular
lobules. Each lobule contains one to three seminiferous tubules. Male germ cell undergoes meiosis
and produce sperm. Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the germ cell and the sperm. In between the
seminiferous tubule there is interstitial cell or Leydig cells that produce testicular hormones called
androgen (testosterone).
17
Hormones involved in the regulation of Spermatogenesis
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The female reproductive system includes a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviduct, uterus and
cervix, vagina, external genitalia and a pair of mammary gland.
18
Oviduct:
* Oviducts, uterus and vagina constitute the female accessory ducts.
* Each fallopian tube is about 10-12 cm long and extends from the periphery of each ovary to the
uterus.
* Close to the ovary the oviduct has a funnel shaped structure called infundibulum?
* The edges of the infundibulum possess finger-like projections called fimbriae, which helps in
collection of the ovum after ovulation.
* The infundibulum leads to a wider part of the oviduct called ampulla.
* The last part of the oviduct is called isthmus which joined to uterus.
Uterus:
* Attached the pelvic wall by ligaments.
* The uterus opens into vagina through a narrow cervix.
* The lumen of cervix is called cervical canal.
* Cervical canal along with vagina form the birth canal.
* The wall of the uterus has three layers of tissues Perimetrium, Myometrium and Endometrium.
* Endometrium undergoes cyclical changes during menstrual cycle.
* Myometrium exhibits strong contraction during delivery of the baby.
GAMETOGENESIS: (formation of gametes)

Spermatogenesis:
Link for Spermatogenesis:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1fiTw5LSOkXlRu_FbodaTJIAYRrwKAs9x/view?usp=sharing
Sectional view of seminiferous tubule

19
Hormonal control of spermatogenesis:
* This process is initiated at puberty due to secretion of gonadotrophins releasing hormone (GnRH)
* GnRH secreted form hypothalamus and stimulate anterior pituitary to secrete two gonadotrophins.
Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle stimulating Hormone (FSH).
* LH acts on Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis of androgens.
* Androgen stimulates spermatogenesis.
* FSH acts on Sertoli cells and stimulates spermatogenesis in other ways.
Structure of sperm:
* Ultrastructure of sperm consists of a head, neck, a middle piece and a tail.
* Whole body of sperm surrounded by plasma membrane.
* The sperm head contain an elongated haploid nucleus.
* Above the nucleus a cap like structure present called acrosome.
* The acrosome contains enzymes which help in fertilization of ovum.
* The middle piece contains mitochondria, which provide energy for movement of tail that facilitate
sperm motility.
* Sperm released from seminiferous tubules enters into accessory ducts.
* On their way fluids from seminal vesicle and prostate gland added which collectively called as
Semen.
Link for spermatogenesis- Video: https://www.youtube.com/embed/6fBa8UqEano
Structure of Sperm
Oogenesis:
Formation of a mature female gamete or ovum is called oogenesis.
Link for Oogenesis:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/14nIrhCzc8ZFALyjVcBU7YWvqggbTrSRc/view?usp=sharing
Link for oogenesis- Video: https://www.youtube.com/embed/hKa57JPfKDE
20
Gametogenesis
Menstrual cycle:
* Reproductive cycle of female primates is called menstrual cycle.
* The first menstruation begins at puberty is called Menarche.
* Menstrual cycle repeated at an average interval of 28/29 days.
* One ovum is released in the middle of each menstrual cycle.
21
Video of Menstrual cycle
https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZNM8KsSQerk
Menstrual cycle has four phases:
i) Menstrual phase, ii) Follicular phase, iii)Ovulatory phase and iv)Luteal phase.
Fertlisation:
Fertilisation
Sex determination:
* Sex of a baby has been decided during fertilization and in the zygote.
* Sex is determined by the sex-chromosomes present in gametes.
* Human female contain two XX chromosomes.
* Human male contain XY chromosomes.
* All the female gametes produced with only ‘X’ chromosome.
* Sperms produced by male, 50% with ‘X’ and 50 % with ‘Y’ chromosome.
* After fertilization zygote either carries XX or XY chromosomes.
* Zygote with XX chromosomes develop into female and with XY chromosome develops into male.
Sex determination in Human beings

22
Cleavage: Repeated mitotic division of the zygote without growth resulting a multicellular ball like
embryo is called cleavage.
Zygote
Cleavage
Morula
Blastula (Blastocyst)
Trophoblast Inner cell mass
Helps development of Embryo

placenta
Cleavage and formation of blastocyst
23
Implantation: The attachment of blastocyst in the uterine endometrium is called Implantation..
Pregnancy and embryonic development:

* After implantation, finger like projections appears on the trophoblast called chorionic villi.
* Chorionic villi surrounded by uterine tissue and maternal blood.
* chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and jointly form a structural
and functional unitbetween developing embryo (foetus) and maternal body called placenta.
Function of placenta:
* The embryo connected to the placenta by umbilical cord, which transports substances to and from
the embryo.
* Facilitate transport of oxygen and nutrient from mother to embryo.
* Removes CO2 and waste material from the embryo.
* Acts as endocrine gland and produces several hormones like: Human chorionic gonadotrophins
(hCG), Human placental lactogen (hPL), Estrogen, Progesterone and Relaxin produced from the
ovary in the later stage of pregnancy.
Embryonic development:
* After implantation the inner cell mass of blastocyst differentiated into an outer layer called
ectoderm and an inner layer called endoderm.
* Mesoderm differentiated in-between ectoderm and endoderm.
* The inner cell mass thus called stem cells, having potency to produce all types of cell, tissues and
organs by differentiation.
Organogenesis:
* Formation of different organs in the embryo is called organogenesis.
* Human pregnancy lasts for 9 months.
* After one month of pregnancy heart is formed in the embryo.
* By the end of 2nd month the foetus develops limbs and digits.
* By the end of 12 weeks (first trimester) most of organ system is formed (limbs and external
genitalia are well developed).
* First movement of foetus and appearance of hairs observed in 5th month.
* By the end of 24th week (2nd trimesters) the body is covered with fine hairs, eye-lids separate,
and eyelashes are formed.
* By the end of 9 months the foetus is fully developed and is ready for delivery.
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PARTURATION:
The period of pregnancy is called gestation period. (9 months).

 Ejection or expulsion or delivery of foetus is called parturition.
 Parturition is due to vigorous contraction of uterine Myometrium.
 The signal of parturition is originated from the fully developed foetus and the placenta
which induces mild contraction of uterus called fetal ejection reflex.
 Fetal ejection reflex triggers the release of Oxytocin from pituitary.
 Oxytocin induces stronger contraction of uterine endometrium.
 Stimulatory reflex continues stronger contraction leads to expulsion.
 After delivery the placenta is also expelled out of the uterus.
****************************************************************************
25
CHAPTER 4
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Abbreviations:
Abbreviations Expanded form

IUCD Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device
RCH Reproductive and Child Health care
STD Sexually Transmitted Disease
HIV Human Immuno deficiency virus.
AIDS Acquired immuno deficiency syndrome
CDRI Central Drug Research Institute
MMR Maternal Mortality Rate
IMR. Infant mortality rate
MTP Medical Termination of Pregnancy
VD Venereal Disease
RTI Reproductive Tract Infection
PID Pelvic Inflammatory Disease
ART Assisted Reproductive Technologies
IVF In Vitro Fertilisation
ZIFT Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer
AI Artificial insemination
IUI Interna uterine insemination.
26
ET Embryo transfer.
IUT Intra uterine transfer.
ICSI Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection
POPULATION EXPLOSION AND BIRTH CONTROL:

* Increased health facilities, better living conditions are the cause of population explosion.
* Out of 6 billion world population 1 billion are Indians.
* Rapid decline in death rate, maternal mortalility rate (MMR) and infant mortality rate (IMR)
are major cause of population growth.
* Indian population growth rate is around 1.7 percent.
Characteristics of ideal contraceptive.
* User friendly.
* Easily available.
* Effective
* Nor or least side – effects.
* No way interferes with sexual drive.
BIRTH CONTROL METHODS:
Natural methods: Principle of working: Avoiding chances of ovum and sperms meeting.
i) Periodic abstinence
ii) Withdrawal or coitus interruption
iii) Lactational amenorrhea
Barrier methods: Principle of working: prevents physical meeting of sperm and ovum.
Condoms,Diaphragm, cervical caps and vaults.
Intra Uterine Devices: Eg. Non-medicated IUDs e.g. Lippes loop,Copper releasing IUDs (CuT, Cu7,
Multiload 375), Hormone releasing IUDs (Progestasert, LNG-20).
Principle of working:
27
* Increase phagocytosis of sperm within the uterus.
* Cu ion released suppresses sperm motility and fertilizing capacity of sperm.
* Hormone releasing IUDs make the uterus unsuitable for implantation and the cervix hostile to the
sperm.
Oral contraceptives: Principle of working:
* Inhibit ovulation, Inhibit implantation.
* Alter the quality of cervical mucus to prevent/retard entry of sperms.
* Saheli- a non steroidal preparation used as oral contraceptive pills.
Surgical methods:
Vasectomy Tubectomy
Sterilization process in male. Sterilization process in female.
A small part of the vas deferens is removed or A small part of the fallopian tube is removed or
tied up. tied up.
MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY:

Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called medical termination of
pregnancy (MTP) or induced abortion.
INFERTILITY:The couple unable to produce children inspite of unprotected sex.
In case there no corrections are possible, some special technologies used to have children called
assisted reproductive technologies (ART).
Assisted reproductive technologies:
(a) In vitro fertilization:
(b) Embryo transfer: ZIFT- Zygote intra fallopian transfer.IUT- Intra Uterine transfer (embryo
with more than 8 blastomeres).
(c) Gamete intra fallopian transfer- GIFT
(d) Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI):
(e) Artificial insemination (AI)
***************************************************************************
28
UNIT VII – GENETICS AND EVOLUTION
CHAPTER 5
PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION
PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION
* Genetics: deals with the inheritance, as well as the variation of characters from parents to offsprings.
* Inheritance: is the process by which characters are passed on from parent to progeny.
* Variation: is the degree by which progeny differ from their parents.
MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE:
* Gregor Mendel. Conducted hybridization experiments on garden peas for seven years (1856 – 1863) and proposed laws
of inheritance.
* Mendel conducted artificial pollination/cross pollination experiments using several true-breeding pea lines.
* A true breeding line is one that, having undergone continuous self-pollination for several generations.
* Mendel selected 14 true-breeding peas’ plant varieties, as pair’s which were similar except for one character with
contrasting traits.
True breeds selected by Mendel
INHERITANCE OF ONE GENE: (Monohybrid cross)

* Mendel crossed tall and dwarf pea plants to study the inheritance of one gene.
* He collected the seeds produced as a result of this cross and grew them to generate plants of the
first hybrid generation. This generation is called filial progeny or the F1.
* Mendel observed that all the F1 progeny plants ere tall, like one of its parents; none were dwarf.
* He made similar observations for the other pairs of traits – he found that the F1 always resembled
either one of the parents, and that the trait of the other parent was not seen in them.
* Mendel then self – pollinated the tall F1 plants and to his surprise found that in the F2 generation
some of the offsprings were ‘dwarf; the character that was not seen in the F1 generation was now
expressed.
th
* The proportion of plants that were dwarf was 1/4 of the F2 plants while 3/4th of the F2 plants were
tall.
29
* The tall and dwarf traits were identical to their parental type and did not show any blending, that is
all the offsprings were either tall or dwarf, none were of in between height.
* Similar results were obtained with the other traits that he studied: only one of the parental traits was
expressed in the F1 generation while at the F2 stage both the traits were expressed in the proportion
of 3:1.
* The contrasting traits did not show any blending at either F1 or F2 stage.
Mendel’s proposition:
* Mendel proposed that something was being stably passed down, unchanged, from parent to
offspring through the gametes, over successive generations. He called these things as ‘factors’.
* Now a day we call them as genes.
* Gene is therefore are the units of inheritance.
* Genes which codes of a pair of contrasting traits are known as alleles, i.e. they are slightly different
forms of the same gene.
Terminologies used in Genetics

Genetic Definition Example
Terms
Allele Different forms of a gene, Different alleles produce different hair colors—
which producevariations in brown,blond, red, black, etc.
a genetically inherited trait.
Genes Genes are parts of DNA and Genes contain blue‐print for each individual for
carry hereditary information her orhis specific traits.
passed from parents to children.
Dominant version (allele) of a
Dominant When a child inherits dominant brown‐hair gene
gene shows itsspecific trait
form(allele) from dad, the child will have brown
even if only one parent passed
hair.
the gene to the child.
When a child inherits recessive blue‐eye gene form
Recessive Recessive gene shows its
(allele) from both mom and dad, the child will have
specific trait whenboth
blueeyes.
parents pass the gene to the
child.
Homozygous Two of the same form of a Inheriting the same blue eye gene form
gene—one frommom and from bothparents result in a homozygous
the other from dad. gene.
Heterozygous Two different forms of a gene— Inheriting different eye color gene forms from
one from mom and the other momand dad result in a heterozygous gene.
from dad are different.
Genotype Internal heredity Blue eye and brown eye have different
information that contain genotypes—oneis coded for blue and the other
genetic code. for brown.
Phenotype Both having or not having a widow’s
Outwardly expressed traits or
peak arephenotypes.
characteristics.
30
Some genetic traits follow Mendelian Inheritance,
A simple genetic rule
Mendelian whileother genetic traits follow different
where a gene onlycomes
Inheritance inheritance patterns or rules.
in dominant or recessive
forms.
31
Law of Dominance:
 Characters are controlled by discrete units called factors.
 Factors occur in pairs.
 In a dissimilar pair of factors one member of the pair dominates (dominant) the other
(recessive).
Law of Segregation:
 The alleles do not show any blending and that both the characters are recovered as such in
the F2 generation though one of these is not seen at the F1 stage.
 The parents contain two alleles during gamete formation; the factors or alleles of a pair
segregate or separate from each other such that a gamete receives only one of the two
factors.
 Homozygous parent produces all gametes that are similar i.e contain same type of allele.
 Heterozygous parents’ produces two kinds of gametes each having one allele with equal
proportion.
Incomplete dominance:
 When a cross between two pure breed is done for one contrasting character, the F1 hybrid
phenotype dose not resemble either of the two parents and was in between the two, called
incomplete dominance.
 Inheritance of flower color in the dog flower (snapdragon or Antirrhinum sp.)is a good
example of incomplete dominance.
32
 F2 generation phenotypic ratio is 1:2:1 in stead of 3:1 as Mendelian monohybrid cross.
 Genotypic ratio of F2 generation is 1:2:1.
For Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance click the following link:

https://www.youtube.com/embed/mD0Onu2ArGA
For Deviations from Mendelian Laws click the link given below.
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1OYeU7D48jbOkouen6Mc3yiNzXhB-wKVr/view?usp=sharing
Co – dominance:
* F1 resembled either of the two parents (complete dominance).
* F1 offspring was in-between of two parents (incomplete dominance).
* F1 generation resembles both parents (co-dominance).
* Best example of co-dominance is the ABO blood grouping in human.
* ABO blood group is controlled by the gene I.
* The plasma membrane of the RBC has sugar polymers (antigen) that protrude from its surface and
the kind of sugar is controlled by the gene-I.
A B
* The gene I has three alleles I ,I and i.
A B
* The alleles I and I produce a slightly different form of sugar while allele i doesn’t produce any
sugar.
* Each person possesses any two of the three I gene alleles.
A B
* I and I are completely dominant over i.
A B
* When I , and I present together they both express their own types of sugar; this because of co-
dominance. Hence red blood cells have both A and B type sugars.
33
Multiple Alleles:
* Example of ABO blood grouping produces a good example of multiple alleles.
* There are more than two alleles. i.e. three allele governing the same character.
A single gene product may produce more than one effect:

Eg. Starch synthesis in pea seeds is controlled by one gene. It has two alleles B and b. Starch is
synthesized effectively by BB homozygote and therefore, large starch grains are produced. The ‘bb’
homozygous has less efficiency hence produce smaller grains. After maturation of the seeds, BB seeds
are round and the bb seeds are wrinkle. Heterozygous (Bb) produce round seed and so B seems to be
dominant allele, but the starch grains produced are of intermediate size. If starch grain size is
considered as the phenotype, then from this angle the alleles show incomplete dominance.
INHERITANCE OF TWO GENES: (Dihybrid Cross)
Law of independent Assortment:

When two characters (dihybrid) are combined in a hybrid, segregation of one pair of traits is
independent of the other pair of traits.
CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE:
* Proposed by Walter Sutton and Theodore Bovery in 1902.

* The behavior of chromosomes was parallel to the behavior of genes and used chromosome
movement to explain Mendel’s laws.
* Sutton united the knowledge of chromosomal segregation with Mendelian principles and called it
the chromosomal theory of inheritance.
o Chromosome and genes are present in pairs in diploid cells.
o Homologous chromosomes separate during gamete formation (meiosis)
o Fertilization restores the chromosome number to diploid condition.
o The chromosomal theory of inheritance claims that, it is the chromosomes that segregate and assort
independently.
Linkage: Physical association of genes on a chromosome.

Recombination: The generation of non-parental gene combinations.
POLYGENIC INHERITANCE:
The inheritance one trait by three or more genes are called polygenic inheritance. In a
polygenic trait the phenotype reflects the contribution of each allele i.e. the effect of each
allele is additive.
Eg. Human skin colour.
Eg: Inheritance of Human skin colour-
Link for explanations as PPT-

https://drive.google.com/file/d/14SqO36KUMrNZ9wX6axUvEJDs0CCMzDPQ/view?usp=sharing
Link for Video:

https://www.youtube.com/embed/yMN_wbRb38M
34
(Darkest) AABBCC X aabbcc (Fairest) (P)
AaBbCc (Intermediate) (F1)
AaBbCc X AaBbCc
F2
PLEIOTROPY:
* A single gene can exhibit multiple phenotypic expression, such gene is called pleiotropic gene.
* The mechanism of pleiotropy in most cases is the effect of a gene on metabolic pathways which
contributes towards different phenotypes.
* Phenylketonuria a disease in human is an example of pleiotropy.
* This disease is caused due to mutation in the gene that code for the enzyme phenyl alanine
hydroxylase.
* Phenotypic expression characterized by: Mental retardation, reduction in hairs and reduction in
skin pigmentation.
SEX DETERMINATION:
Sex-determination of grass hopper:
* Sex-determination in grasshopper is XX-XO type.
* All egg bears one ‘X’ chromosome along with autosomes.
* Some sperms (50%) bear’s one ‘X’ chromosome and 50% do not.
* Egg fertilized with sperm (with ‘X’ chromosome) became female (22+XX).
* Egg fertilized with sperm (without ‘X’ chromosome) became male (22 + X0)
35
Sex determination in Human beings (XX-XY type):
* Bothe male and female has same number of chromosomes.
* Female have autosomes and a pair of X chromosomes. (AA+ XX)
* Male have autosomes and one large ‘X’ chromosome and one very small ‘Y-chromosomes.
(AA+XY)
* This is called male heterogammety and female homogamety.
Sex determination in birds:

* Female birds have two different sex chromosomes designated as Z and W.
* Male birds have two similar sex chromosomes and called ZZ.
* Such type of sex determination is called female heterogammety and male homogamety.
Sex determination in Honey bee:
* Sex determination in honey bee based on the number of sets of chromosomes an individual
receives.
* An offspring formed from the fertilization of a sperm and an egg developed into either queen
(female) or worker (female).
* An unfertilized egg develops as a male (drone), by means of parthenogenesis.
* The male have half the number of chromosome than that of female.
* The female are diploid having 32 chromosomes and males are haploid i.e. having 16 numbers of
chromosomes.
* This is called haplodiploid sex determination system.
* Male produce sperms by mitosis, they don not have father and thus cannot have sons, but have
grandsons.
36
Pedigree Analysis:
 Analysis of traits in several of generations of a family is called the pedigree analysis.
 In the pedigree analysis the inheritance of a particular trait is represented in the family tree
over generations.
GENETIC DISORDERS:
Hemophilia:
In this disease a single protein that is a part of the cascade of proteins involved in the clotting of blood is
affected. Due to this in an affected individual a simple cut will result in non-stop bleeding.
* Sex linked recessive disease.
* The diseases transmitted from unaffected carrier female to some of the male progeny.
* Female becoming hemophilic is extremely rare because mother of such a female at least carrier and
the father should be hemophilic.
* Affected transmits the disease only to the son not to the daughter.
* Daughter can receive the disease from both mother and father.
Sickle cell anaemia:
* This is an autosomes linked recessive trait.
* The defect is caused due to substitution of Glutamic acid (Glu) by Valine (Val) at the sixth position
of the beta globin chain of the haemoglobin molecule.
* Substitution of amino acid takes place due to the single base substitution at the sixth codon of the
beta globin gene from GAG to GUG.
37
* Transmitted from parents to the offspring when both the parents are carrier for the gene
(heterozygous).
* This disease is controlled by single pair of allele, HbA, and HbS.
* There are three possible genotypes (HbA HbA, HbA HbS, and HbSHbS.
* Only homozygous individuals for HbS (HbS HbS) show the diseased phenotype.
* Heterozygous (HbA HbS) individuals appear unaffected but they are carrier of the disease as there
is 50 percent probability of transmission of the mutant gene to the progeny.
Phenylketonuria:
* Autosomal recessive trait.
* Inborn error of metabolism.
* The affected individual lack one enzyme called phenyl alanine hydroxylase that converts the amino
acid phenyl alanine to tyrosine.
* In the absence of the enzyme phenyl alanine accumulated and converted into phenylpyruvic acid
and other derivatives.
* Accumulation of these results in mental retardation.
* These derivatives excreted through kidney.
Chromosomal disorders:
* Caused due to absence or excess or abnormal arrangement of one or more chromosome.
* Failure of segregation of chromatids during cell division cycle results in the gain or loss of
chromosome(s), called Aneuploidy.
* Failure of cytokinesis after telophase stage of cell division results in an increase in a whole set of
chromosome in an organism and this phenomenon is called polyploidy.
Trisomy: additional copy of a chromosome may be included in an individual (2n+1).
Monosomy: an individual may lack one of any one pair of chromosomes (2n-1)
Down syndrome:
* Caused due to presence of an additional copy of the chromosome number 21 (trisomy of 21).
* This disorder was first described by Langdon Down (1866).
o Short stature with small round head.
o Furrowed tongue
38
o Partially opened mouth
o Palm is broad with characteristic palm crease.
o Physical, psychomotor and mental development is retarded.
Klinefelter’s syndrome:
* Caused due to the presence of an additional copy of X-chromosome resulting into a
karyotype of 47, (44+XXY).
o Overall masculine development.
o Also develop feminine character (development of breast i.e. Gynaecomastia)
o Individuals are sterile.
Turner’s syndrome:
* Caused due to the absence of one of the X- chromosomes i.e. 45 (44 + X0)
* Such females are sterile as ovaries are rudimentary.
* Lack of other secondary sexual characters.
39
CHAPTER – 6
MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
THE DNA:
 DNA is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides.

 The length of the DNA depends on, number of nucleotide pair present in it.
 Characteristics of the organism depend on the length of the DNA.
Structure of polynucleotide chain:

* A nucleotide has three component:-
i) A nitrogen base
ii)A pentose sugar ( ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA)
ii)A phosphoric acid.
* There are two types of nitrogen bases:
i) Purines ( Adenine and Guanine)
ii) Pyrimidines ( Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine)
* Adenine, Guanine and Cytosine is common in RNA and DNA.
* Uracil is present in RNA and Thymine is present in DNA in place of Uracil.
* Pentose sugar is ribose in RNA and Deoxyribose in DNA.
* A nitrogen base attached to the pentose sugar at C1 of pentose sugar by N-glycosidic linkage to
form a nucleoside.
* Phosphoric acid attached to the nucleoside by Phosphodiester linkage a corresponding nucleotide
is formed. (Ribonucleotide or deoxyribonucleotides depending on the sugar unit).
40
* Two nucleotides are joined by 3’-5’ Phosphodiester linkage to form dinucleotide.
* More than two nucleotides joined to form polynucleotide chain.
* The backbone of the polynucleotide chain is sugar and phosphate.
* Nitrogen bases linked to the sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
* In RNA Uracil is found in place of thymine.
Central dogma of Molecular Biolog: Flow of genetic information.
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Packaging of DNA Helix:
Distance between two conjugative base pairs is 0.34nm, the length of the DNA in a typical mammalian
cell will be 6.6 X109 bp X 0.34 X10-9 /bp, it comes about 2.2 meters.
Packaging in prokaryotes:
* They do not have definite nucleus.
* The DNA is not scattered throughout the cell.
* DNA is held together with some proteins in a region is called ‘nucleoid’.
The DNA in nucleoid is organized in large loops held be proteins.
Packaging in Eukaryotes:
* There is a set of positively charged, basic protein called Histones.
* Histones are positively charged due to rich in basic amino acids like Lysines and arginines.
* Histones are organized to form a unit of eight molecules called histone octamer.
* Negatively charged DNA wrapped around positively charged histone octamer to form a structure
called nucleosome.
* The nucleosomes are seen as ‘beads-on-string’ structure when viewed under electron microscope.
* The chromatin is packaged to form chromatin fibers that are further coiled and condensed at
metaphase stage to form chromosome.
* Packaging at higher level required additional set of proteins called Non-histone Chromosomal
(NHC) proteins.
* In a typical nucleus some loosely coiled regions of chromatin (light stained) is called euchromatin.
* The chromatin that more densely packed and stains dark are called Heterochromatin.
* Euchromatin is transcriptionally active chromatin and heterochromatin is inactive.
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GENETIC CODE- Salient Features:
THE SEARCH OF GENETIC MATERIAL:
Transforming principle:
Experiment:
* Given by Frederick Griffith in 1928.

* His experiment based on Streptococcus pneumoniae (caused pneumonia).
* There is change in physical form of bacteria.
* There are two colonies of bacteria:
* Smooth shiny colonies called S strain.
* Rough colonies called R strain.
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Conclusion of experiment:
* R – Strain bacteria had some how been transformed by the heat killed S-Strain bacteria.
* Some ‘transforming principle’, transferred from heat killed S-Strain bacteria, had enabled the R-
Strain to synthesize smooth polysaccharide coat and become virulent (S Strain).
* The transformation of R-Strain to S-Strain is due to transfer of Geneticmaterial.
* However the biochemical nature of genetic material was not defined from his experiment.
* Protein of heat killed S-Strain is not the genetic material
* RNA of heat killed S-Strain is not the genetic material.
* DNA of heat killed S-Strain is the genetic material, because DNA digested with DNase mixed with
R-strain unable to transform R-Strain to S-Strain.
Biochemical characterization of transforming principle:

* Biochemical nature of transforming principle was discovered by Oswald Avery, Colin Macleod
and Maclyn McCarty. (1933-44)
* They purified biomolecules (proteins, DNA and RNA) from the heat killed S cells to see which one
could transform live R cells to S cells.
* Heat killed S-Strain + protease + Live R-Strain → transformation.
* Heat killed S-Strain + RNase + Live R-Strain → transformation.
* Heat killed S-Strain + DNase + Live R-Strain → transformation.
The Genetic Material is DNA:
* ‘DNA is the genetic material’ is proved by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase (1952).
* They worked on the virus that infects bacteria called bacteriophage.
* During normal infection the bacteriophage first attaches the bacteria cell wall and then inserts its
genetic material into the bacterial cell.
* The viral genetic material became integral part of the bacterial genome and subsequently
manufactures more virus particle using host machinery.
* Hershey and Chase worked to discover whether it was protein or DNA from the viruses that entered
the bacteria.
Experiment : (Blenders experiment)
* They grew some viruses on a medium having radioactive phosphorus and some others on medium
having radioactive sulfur.
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* Viruses grown in radioactive Phosphorus have radioactive DNA but not radioactive protein
because Phosphorus present in DNA not in protein.
* Viruses grown in radioactive sulfur have radioactive protein not radioactive DNA because sulfur
present in protein but not in DNA.
* Infection: radioactive phages were allowed to attach to E.coli bacteria; the phages transfer the
genetic material to the bacteria.
* Blending: the viral coats were separated from the bacteria surface by agitating them in a blender.
* Centrifugation: The virus particles were separated from the bacteria by spinning them in a
centrifuge machine.
Observation:
* Bacteria infected with viruses that had radioactive DNA were radioactive and no radioactivity in the
supernatant.
* Bacteria infected with viruses that had radioactive protein were not radioactive, but radioactivity
found in the supernatant.
Conclusion of Experiment:
* DNA is the infecting agent that made the bacteria radioactive hence DNA is the genetic
material not the protein.
Harshey and chase Experiment: Link for the video

https://www.youtube.com/embed/i45l1RslGwM
REPLICATION: THE PROCESS:

* Watson and Crick proposed a scheme for replication of DNA.
* The Original statement that “It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have
postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material (Watson
and Crick, 1953)
* The scheme suggested that the two strands would separate and act as template for the synthesis of
new complementary strands.
* New DNA molecule must have one parental strand and one new strand.
* This scheme of replication is called Semiconservative type of replication.
Experimental Proof of semiconservative nature of replication:

* It is now proved experimentally that replication is semiconservative type.
* It was first shown in Escherichia coli and subsequently in higher organism.
* Mathew Messelson and Franklin Stahl performed the following experiment in 1958.
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Link for Semiconservative mode of DNA replication video:
https://www.youtube.com/embed/4gdWOWjioBE
STEPS OF THE EXPERIMENTS:

* They grew E.coli in 15NH4Cl medium for many generations. (15N is heavy nitrogen not
radioactive element)
* The result was that 15N was incorporated into newly synthesized DNA and other nitrogen
containing compound as well.
* This heavy DNA molecule could be distinguished from normal DNA by centrifugation in a
cesium chloride (CsCl) density gradient.
* Then they transferred the E.coli into a medium with normal 14NH4Cl and let them
grow.(E.coli divides in 20 minutes)
* They took samples at definite time intervals as the cells multiplied, and extracted the DNA
that remained as double-stranded helices.
* Various samples were separated independently on CsCl gradients to measure the densities
of DNA.
* The DNA that was extracted from the culture one generation after the transfer from 15N to
14N medium had a hybrid or intermediate density.
* DNA extracted from the culture after another generation (after 40 min.) was composed of
equal amount of this hybrid DNA and of ‘light ‘DNA.
Experiment by Taylor and colleagues:
* Used radioactive thymidine to detect distribution of newly synthesized DNA in the chromosomes.
* They performed the experiment on Vicia faba (faba beans) in 1958.
* They proved the semiconservative nature of DNA replication in eukaryotes.
TRANSCRIPTION:
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‘The process of copying genetic information from one strand of the DNA into RNA is termed as
transcription’.
Transcription vs. Replication:
* Principle of complementarity governs the process of transcription except Adenosine of DNA
forms base pair with the Uracil instead of thymine. During replication Adenine pairs with thymine
instead of uracil.
* During replication once started the whole DNA is duplicated, where as transcription takes place
only a segment of DNA.
* In replication both strand acts as template, where as in transcription only one strand is acts as
template to synthesize RNA.
* In replication DNA copied from a DNA, where as in transcription RNA copied from the DNA.
* Only one strand is acting as template for transcription. If both strand of DNA acts as template, they
would code for RNA molecule with different sequences and in turn if they code for proteins, the
sequence of amino acids in the protein would be different. Hence one segment of DNA would be
coding for two different proteins.
* The two RNA molecules if produced from simultaneously would be complementary to each other,
hence will form double stranded RNA. This would prevent RNA translation into protein.
Transcription unit:
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* A transcription unit in DNA consists of three regions:
* A promoter
* The structural gene
* A terminator.
* DNA dependent RNA polymerase catalyses the polymerization in only one direction that is
5’→3’.
Process of transcription: prokaryotes.

There is a single DNA dependent RNA polymerase that catalyses transcription or synthesis of all
three types of RNAs in prokaryotes. The process of transcription completed in three steps:
Initiation, Elongation and Termination.
There are three different types of RNA polymerases in eukaryotes.
i) RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNA (28S, 18S, and 5.8S)
ii) RNA polymerase II transcribes heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA).
iii)RNA polymerase III transcribes tRNA, 5srRNA and snRNA.
 Post transcriptional processing: (occurs inside the nucleus)
(a) Splicing:
Primary transcript (hn RNA) consists of both exons (coding) and introns (non coding) and required to be
processed before translation. Therefore the introns are removed and exons are joined in a defined order.
This process is called splicing.This is catalyzed by SnRNP, introns removed as spliceosome.
(b) Capping: An unusual nucleotide called methyl guanosine triphosphate is added to the 5’ end of
hnRNA.
(c) Tailing: Adenylate residues (200-300) are added at 3’ end of hnRNA in a template independent
manner. The processed hnRNA is now called mRNA and transported out of the nucleus for translation.
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Fig. Transcription in eukaryotes
tRNA-the Adaptor molecule:

* The tRNA is called sRNA (soluble RNA)
* It acts as an adapter molecule.
* tRNA has an anticodon loop that base complementary to the codon.
* It has an amino acid accepterend to which it binds with amino acid.
* Each tRNA bind with specific amino acid i.e 61 types of tRNA found.
* One specific tRNA with anticodon UAC called initiator tRNA.
* There is no tRNA for stop codons. (UAA, UGA, UAG)
* The secondary structure is like clover-leaf.
* The actual structure of tRNA is compact, looks like inverted ‘L’.
Link for Transcription, Translation - From DNA to Protein- Video

https://www.youtube.com/embed/gG7uCskUOrA
Link for PPT- From DNA to Protein-

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/19-
d1I9DyY1VE5q0rjDVPDSR7uvWeK3n9/edit?usp=share_link&ouid=107171444976724466844&rtpof=true&sd=true
TRANSLATION:
* It refers to polymerization of amino acids to form a polypeptide.
* The number and sequence of amino acids are defined by the sequence of bases in the mRNA.
* The amino acids are joined by peptide bond.
* Amino acids are activated in the presence of ATP and linked to their specific tRNA is called
charging of tRNA or aminoacylation of tRNA.
* Ribosome is the cellular factory for protein synthesis.
* Ribosome consists of structural rRNA and 80 different proteins.
* In inactive state ribosome(70S) present in two subunits:-
* Large sub unit 50S and small sub unit 30S
.
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Initiation:
 The process of translation or protein synthesis begins with attachment of mRNA with small
subunit of ribosome.
 The ribosome binds to the mRNA at the start codon (AUG).
 AUG is recognized by the initiator tRNA.
Elongation:
 Larger subunit attached with the initiation complex.
 Larger subunit has two site ‘A’ site and ‘P’ site.
 Initiator tRNA accommodated in ‘P’ site of large subunit, the subsequent amino-acyl-tRNA
enters into the ‘A’ site.
 The sub subsequent tRNA selected according to the codon of the mRNA.
 Codon of mRNA and anticodon of tRNA are complementary to each other.
 Formation of peptide bond between two amino acids of ‘P’ and ‘A’ site, catalyzed by
ribozyme, (23S rRNA in bacteria)
 The moves from codon to codon along the mRNA called translocation.
Termination:
 Elongation continues until a stop codon arrives at ‘P’ site.
 There is no tRNA for stop codon.
 A release factor binds to the stop codon.
 Further shifting of ribosome leads to separation of polypeptide.
 An mRNA also has some additional sequences that are not translated called untranslated
regions (UTR).
Link for Transcription, Translation - From DNA to Protein- Video

https://www.youtube.com/embed/gG7uCskUOrA
Link for PPT- From DNA to Protein-

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/19-
d1I9DyY1VE5q0rjDVPDSR7uvWeK3n9/edit?usp=share_link&ouid=107171444976724466844&rtpof=true&sd=true
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REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION:
 Regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes takes place in different level:
 Transcriptional level (formation of primary transcript)
 Processing level (regulation of splicing)
 Transport of mRNA from nucleus to the cytoplasm.
 Translational level.
 In prokaryotes control of rate of transcriptional initiation is the predominant site for control
of gene expression.
 The activity of RNA polymerase at the promoter is regulated by accessory proteins, which
affects its ability to recognize the start site.
 The regulatory proteins can acts both positively (activators) or negatively (repressor)
 The regulatory proteins interact with specific region of DNA called operator, which
regulate the accessibility of RNA polymerase to promoter.
Lac operon:
 Francois Jacob and Jacque Monod first to describe a transcriptionally regulated system of
gene expression.
 A polycistronic structural gene is regulated by common promoter and regulatory genes.
Such regulation system is common in bacteria and is called operon.
 Lac operon consists of:-
o One regulator gene ( i-gene)
o Three structural genes (z,y,a)
o Operator. (binding site of repressor protein)
o Promoter.(binding site of the RNA polymerase)
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HUMAN GENOMIC PROJECT:
 Genetic make-up of an organism or an individual lies in the DNA sequences.
 Two individual differs in their DNA sequences at least in some places.
 Finding out the complete DNA sequence of human genome.
 Sequencing human genome was launched in 1990.
Goals of HGP:
 Identify all the approximately 20,000 – 25,000 genes in human DNA.
 Determine the sequence of all 3 billion chemical base pairs.
 Store this information in data bases.
 Improve tools for data analysis.
 Transfer related technologies to other sectors, such as industries.
Address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project.
Methodology:
 To identify all the genes that expressed as RNA referred as Expressed Sequence Tags
(ETSs).
 Simply sequencing the whole set of genome that contained all the coding and non-coding
sequence, and later assigning different regions in the sequence with functions called
Sequence Annotation.
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 The commonly used hosts for sequencing were bacteria and yeast and vectors were called as
BAC (bacterial artificial chromosome) and YAC (yeast artificial chromosome).
DNA FINGER PRINTING:
 DNA finger printing is a very quick way to compare the DNA sequences of any two
individuals.
 DNA fingerprinting involves identifying differences in some specific regions in DNA
called repetitive DNA, because in these sequences, a small stretch of DNA is repeated
many times.
 During centrifugation the bulk DNA forms major peak and the other small peaks are called
satellite DNA.
 Depending on base composition (A:T rich or G:C rich), length of segment, and number of
repetitive units, the satellite DNA classified into many types, such as mini –satellite and
micro – satellite.
 These sequences dose not code for any proteins.
 These sequences show high degree of polymorphism and form basis of DNA fingerprinting.
 Polymorphism in DNA sequence is the basis of genetic mapping of human genome as well
as of DNA fingerprinting.
 Polymorphism (variation at genetic level) arises due to mutations.
 If an inheritable mutation is observed in a population at high frequency it is referred as DNA
polymorphism.
The process:
 DNA fingerprinting was initially developed by Alec Jeffreys.
 He used satellite DNA as the basis of DNA fingerprinting that shows very high degree of
polymorphism. It was called as Variable Number Tandem Repeats.(VNTR)
 Different steps of DNA fingerprinting are:-
o Isolation of DNA.
o Digestion of DNA by restriction endonucleases.
o Separation of DNA fragments by gel electrophoresis.
o Transferring (blotting) of separated DNA fragments to synthetic membranes,
such as nitrocellulose or nylon.
o Double stranded DNA made single stranded.
o Hybridization using labeled VNTR probe.
o Detection of hybridized DNA fragments by autoradiography.
 The VNTR belongs to a class of satellite DNA referred to as mini-satellite.
 The size of VNTR varies from 0.1 to 20 kb.
 After hybridization with VNTR probe the autoradiogram gives many bands of different
sizes. These bands give a characteristic pattern for an individual DNA. It differs from
individual to individual.
 The DNA from a single cell is enough to perform DNA fingerprinting.
Applications:
 Test of paternity.
 Identify the criminals.
 Population diversity determination.
 Determination of genetic diversity.
***********************************************************************************************
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Chapter 7- EVOLUTION
Evolution is a process that results in heritable changes in population spread
over many generations leading to diversity of organisms on earth.
ORIGIN OF LIFE:
The Big Bang theory:

The Big Bang theory states that a huge explosion occurred, the universe expanded, temperature
came down and hydrogen and helium were formed later. The galaxies were then formed due to
condensation of gases under gravitation. A singular huge explosion unimaginable in physical
term. In the solar system of the Milky Way galaxy, earth was supposed to have been formed
about 4.5 billion years back.
Conditions prevailed in the primitive atmosphere:

* There was no atmosphere on primitive earth.
* Water vapor, methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia released from molten mass covered the surface.
* The UV rays from the sun broke up water into Hydrogen and oxygen and lighter H2 escaped.
* Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form water, CO2 and others.
* The ozone layer was formed.
* As it cooled, the water vapor fell as rain, to fill all the depressions and form oceans.
* Life appeared 500 Million years after the formation of earth.
Theories of Origin of life:
(i) Theory of special creation states that God created life by his divine act of creation.
(ii) Theory of panspermia/cosmozoic theory, given by early Greek thinkers states that the spores or
panspermia came from outer space and developed into living forms.
(iii) Theory of spontaneous generation states that life originated from decaying and rotting matter like
straw, mud, etc. (a) Louis Pasteur rejected the theory of spontaneous generation and demonstrated
that life came from pre-existing life. (b) In his experiment, he kept killed yeast cells in pre-
sterilised flask and another flask open into air. The life did not evolved in the former but new living
organisms evolved in the second flask.
(iv) Theory of chemical evolution or Oparin-Haldane theory states that life originated from pre-existing
non-living organic molecules and that formation of life was preceded by chemical evolution. The
conditions on the earth that favoured chemical evolution were very high temperature, volcanic
storms and reducing atmosphere that contained CH4,NH3, water vapour, etc.
Urey and Miller experiment:
In 1953, S.L. Miller an American Scientist created similar primitive earth conditions in a
laboratory and simulated the primitive earth.
* The conditions created for simulating the primitive erath were - High temperature, Volcanic
storms and Reducing atmosphere containing CH4, NH3 etc.
* He created electric discharge in a closed flask to raise temperature upto 800oC as it was in
primitive earth.
* Used CH4 H2, NH3 and water vapor inside the flask.
* He observed the formation of amino acids.
55
* Miller observed the synthesis of amino acids from simple inorganic chemicals in simulated
condition in the laboratory.
* In similar experiments others observed, formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigment and fats.
* Analysis of meteorite content also revealed similar compounds indicating that similar processes are
occurring elsewhere in space.
Theory of biogenesis:
* The first non-cellular forms of life could have originated 3 billion years back.
* They would have been giant molecules (RNA, proteins, Polysaccharides, etc).
* These capsules reproduced their molecules perhaps, named as coaservates.
* The first cellular form of life did not possibly originate till about 2000 millions years ago.
* The first cellular forms of life were probably unicellular.
* All life forms were in water environment only.
* This theory of biogenesis from non-living molecules was accepted by majority.
EVOLUTION OF LIFE FORMS – A THEORY:
 Conventional religious literature tells us about the theory of special creation.
 The theory of special creation has three connotations:-
o All the living organisms (species types) that we see today were created as such.
o The diversity was always the same since creation and will be same in future.
o Earth is about 4000 years old.
Challenge to special creation theory:
 Observation made during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagle round the world.
Charles Darwin concluded that existing life forms share similarities to varying degrees not
only among themselves but also with life forms that millions of years ago.
 Many such life forms exist any more. There had been extinctions of different life forms in
the years gone by just as new forms of life arose at different periods of history of earth.
 There has been gradual evolution of life forms.
 Any population has built in variation in characteristics.
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 Those characteristics which enable some to survive better in natural conditions (climate,
food, physical factors, etc) would outbreed others that are less-endowed to survive under
such natural condition.
 Survival of the fittest. The fitness according to Darwin refers ultimately and only leaves
more progeny than others.
 These, therefore, will survive more and hence are selected by nature. He called it as natural
selection.
 Alfred Wallace, a naturalist who worked in Malay Archipelago had also come to similar
conclusions around the same time.
The geological history of earth closely correlates with the biological history of earth.\
EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION
Paleontological evidence:
* Fossils are remained of hard parts of life-forms found in rocks.
* Different-aged rock sediments contain fossils of different life-forms who probably died during the
formation of the particular sediment.
* They represent the extinct organisms (e.g. Dinosaurs).
* A study of fossils in different sedimentary layers indicates the geological period in which they
existed.
* The study showed that life-forms varied over time and certain life forms are restricted to certain
geological time-span.
* Hence new lives have arisen at different times in the history of earth.
* All this called Paleontological evidence.
Comparative anatomy and morphological evidence:
* Comparative anatomy and morphology shows similarities and differences among organisms of
today and those that existed years ago.
Divergent evolution:
* Whale, bats, cheetah and human share similarities in the pattern of bones of forelimbs.
* These forelimbs perform different functions in these animals, they have similar anatomical structure
– all of them have humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges in their forelimbs.
* Hence in these animals, the same structure developed along different directions due to adaptation to
different needs.
* This is divergent evolution and these structures are homologous.
* Homology indicates common ancestry.
* Other examples of homologous organ are vertebrate hearts and brains.
* Thorn of Bougainvilleaand tendrils of Cucurbitarepresent homology.
Convergent evolution:
* Wings of butterfly and of birds look alike.
* They are anatomically similar structure though they perform similar function.
* Hence analogous structures are a result of convergent evolution.
* Eye of octopus and eye of mammals.
* Flippers of Penguins and Dolphins.
* Sweat potato (root modification) and potato (stem modification).
Biochemical evidences:
* Similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function among diverse organisms give clues
to common ancestry.
Embryological support for evolution:
* Proposed by Ernst Heckel based upon observation of certain features during embryonic stage
common to all vertebrates that are absent in adult.
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* The embryos of all vertebrates including human develop a row of vestigial gill slits just behind the
head but it is a functional organ only in fish and not found in any other adult vertebrates.
* This is disproved on careful study performed by Karl Ernst von Baer. He noted that embryos
never pass through the adult stages of other animals.
Evolution by natural selection:
* Based on observation of moth population in England made in 1850.
* Before industrialization set in, it was observed that there were more white-winged moths on trees
than dark-winged or melanised moths.
* After industrialization i.e. 1920 there were more dark-winged moths in the same area i.e. the
proportion was reversed.
Evolution by anthropogenic action:
* Excess use of herbicides, pesticides etc., has only resulted in selection of resistant varieties in a
much lesser time scale.
* This is also true for microbes against which we employ antibiotics or drugs against eukaryotic
organisms/cell.
* Hence resistance organisms/cells are appearing in a time scale of months or years and not in
centuries.
* These are the examples of evolution by anthropogenic action.
* Evolution is a stochastic process based on chance events in nature and chance mutation in the
organisms.
ADAPTIVE RADIATION
Darwin’s Finches:
Link for the Video of Adaptive Radiation:
https://www.youtube.com/embed/rMCP2n7VXH8
* In Galapagos Islands Darwin observed small black birds later called Darwin’s Finches.
* He realized that there were many varieties of finches in the same island.
* All the varieties, he came across, evolved on the island itself.
* Form the original seed-eating features, many other forms with altered beaks arose, enabling them to
become insectivorous and vegetarian finches
* This process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a point and
literally radiating to other areas of geography (habitats) is called adaptive radiation.
58
Australian marsupial:
* A number of marsupials each different from the other evolved from an ancestral stock. But all
within the Australian island continent.
* When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in an isolated geographical area
(representing different habitats), one can call this convergent evolution.
* Placental mammals in Australia also exhibit adaptive radiation in evolving into varieties of such
placental mammals each of which appears to be ‘similar’ to a corresponding marsupial (e.g.
placental wolf and Tasmanian wolf-marsupial).
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION:
* The essence of Darwinian Theory about evolution is natural selection.
* The rate of appearance of new forms is linked to the life cycle or the life span.
* There must be a genetic basis for getting selected and to evolve.
* Some organisms are better adapted to survive in an otherwise hostile environment.
* Adaptive ability is inherited.
* It has genetic basis.
* Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt and get selected by nature.
* Branching descent and natural selection are the two key concepts of Darwinian Theory of
Evolution.
Lamark theory of evolution: (theory of inheritance of acquired characters)
* French Naturalist Lamark had said that evolution of life forms had occurred but driven by use and
disuse of organs.
* He gave the example of Giraffes who in an attempt to forage leaves on tall trees had to adapt by
elongation of their necks.
* They passed on this acquired character of elongated neck to succeeding generations.
* Giraffes, slowly over the years, came to acquire long necks.
MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION:
* In the first decade of twentieth century, Hugo deVries based on his work on evening primrose
brought fourth the idea of mutations.
* Mutation is the large difference arising suddenly in a population.
How deVries theory of mutation differs from Darwin’s theory of natural selection?
* It is the mutation which causes evolution and not the minor variations that Darwin talked about.
* Mutations are random and directionless while Darwinian variations are small and directional.
* Evolution for Darwin was gradual while deVries believed mutation caused speciation and hence
called it saltation (single step large mutation).
HARDY – WEINBERG PRINCIPLE:
* In a given population one can find out the frequency of occurrence of alleles of a gene on a locus.
* This frequency is supposed to remain fixed and even remain the same through generations.
* Hardy-Weinberg principle stated it using algebraic equations.
* The principle states that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from generation
to generation.
* The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant. This is called
genetic equilibrium:
* Sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1.
2 2 2
* (p + q) = p + 2pq + q = 1.
* When frequency measured, differs from expected values, the difference (direction) indicates the
extent of evolutionary change.
* Disturbance in genetic equilibrium, or i.e. change of frequency of alleles in a population would then
be interpreted as resulting in evolution.
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* Five factors are known to affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:
i)Gene migration or gene flow.
ii)Genetic drift.
iii) Mutation.
iv) Genetic recombination.
v)Natural selection.
* Gene migration: When migrations of a section of population to another place occur, gene
frequencies change in the original as well as in the new population. New genes /alleles are added to
the new population and these are lost from the old population.
* Gene flow: Gene migration occurs many time is termed as gene flow.
* Genetic drift: change in gene frequency takes place by chance.
* Founder effect: sometimes the change in allelic frequency is so different in the new sample of
population that they became a different species. The original drifted population becomes founder
species and the effect is called founder effect.
Operation of natural selection on different trait:
 Natural selection can lead to :
o Stabilization: in which more individuals acquire mean character value.
o Directional changes i.e. more individuals acquire value other than the mean character value.
o Disruption: more individuals acquire peripheral character value at both ends of the distribution
curve.
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN:
* About 15 mya primates called Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus were existing.
* They were hairy and walked like gorillas and chimpanzees.
* Ramapithecus was more man like while Dryopithecus was more ape-like.
* Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in Ethiopia and Tanzania.
* Two mya Australopithecines probably lived in East African grasslands.
* The first human-like being the hominid and was called Homo habilis.
* Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 revealed the next stage i.e. Homo erectus about 1.5 mya.
* Neanderthal man:
* Homo sapiens: Arose in Africa and moved across continents and developed distinct races.
Evolution video:
https://www.youtube.com/embed/RTX9si5RBb0
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Chapter 8 - HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE
HEALTH :- Health is defined as the state of complete physical , mental and social well being.
DISEASE :- Disease is the condition when the functioning of one or more organs or systems of the body is
/ are adversely affected
* Factors important to maintain good health:-
Good Health can be attained by the following :-
* Balanced Diet
* Personal Hygiene
* Regular Exercise
* Good Habit
* Awareness about diseases
* Vaccination
* Proper waste disposal
* Control of vectors
* Consumption of hygienic ( clean ) food and water
Types of Diseases
SL COMMUNICABLE/INFECTIOUS NON COMMUNICABLE / NON INFECTIOUS

DISEASES DISEASES
1 These are the diseases that are easily These are the diseases that are not
transferred from diseased to a transferred from diseased to a healthy
healthy person person
2 They are caused by pathogens eg. They are caused due to genetic factors,
Bacteria,Viruses,Fungi, Helminthes , nutritional deficiencies, unhealthy life
Protozoa etc styles etc.
Some common Infectious Diseases :

* BACTERISEASES :- Pneumonia,T.B. , Cholera , Typhoid etc.
* VIRAL DISEASES :- Common Cold, AIDS ,Chikungunya ,Dengue,
Hepatitis , Polio , Measles
* FUNGAL DISEASES :- Ring worm
* PROTOZOAL DISEASES :- Amoebiasis , Malaria
* HELMINTHIC DISEASES :- Ascariasis , Filariasis , Taeniasis
* VIRAL DISEASES :-
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COMMON COLD :- Causal Organism :- Rhinoviruses
Organs Affected :- Nasal & Respiratory passages
Spreads By :-
i. Droplets released during cough & sneezing by an infected person.
ii. Contaminated objects / articles.
Symptoms :-
i. Nasal congestion & discharge
ii. Sore throat
iii. Cough
iv. Tiredness
v. Headache
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vi. Hoarseness
* DENGUE
* Causal Organism :- Dengue Virus
Organs Affected :-
Spreads By :- Bite of Aedes aegypti mosquito.
Symptoms :-
i. Fever
ii. Headache
iii. Muscle & joint Pain
iv. Characteristic skin rash (like measles )
v. In severe cases it becomes haemorrhagic fever , where the platelet count of blood decreases
Prevention :- By controlling the vector mosquito.
CHIKUNGUNYA
* Causal Organism :-Alpha Virus having ss RNA as its genome
Organs Affected :-
Spreads By :- Bite of Aedes aegypti mosquito.
Symptoms :-
i. High fever
ii. Rashes on the trunk
iii. Nausea
iv. Vomiting
v. Multiple joint pain
Prevention & Control :-
Mosquito control is the effective prevention method.
TYPHOID
* Causal Organism :- Salmonella typhi (Bacteria )
Organs Affected :- Small Intestine . Intestinal perforations leading to death may occur in severe
cases.
Spreads By :- Contaminated food and water
Symptoms :-
i. Sustained high fever ( 103 – 104 o F )
ii. Stomach Pain
iii. Loss of appetite
iv. Constipation
v. Headache
How to Confirm :- Widal Test
PNEUMONIA
* Causal Organism :- i) Streptococcus pneumoniae & ii) Haemophilus enfluenzae
Organs Affected :- Lung Alveoli . Alveoli become filled with a fluid , resulting in severe difficulty
in breathing / respiration.
Spreads By :-
i. Droplets from an infected person
ii. Sharing the contaminated articles
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Symptoms :-
i. Fever
ii. Headache
iii. Cough
iv. Chills
v. In severe cases , the lips and fingernails may turn greyish
MALARIA ( a protozoal disease )
Causal Organism :- Plasmodium species
* P. malariae
* P. vivax
* P. falciparum ( Malignant malaria )
Organs Affected :-
Spreads By :- Bite of Female Anopheles mosquito that transfers the
Sporozoits (Infectious stage ) of Plasmodium.
Symptoms :-
i. High fever and chill
Prevention & Control :-
Disease can be controlled by eradicating the mosquitoes & avoiding mosquito bite by using
mosquito repellents , mosquito nets etc.
Treatment :- Use of Chloroquins.
LIFE CYCLE OF MALARIAL PARASITE :-
1. The sporozoites enter the body at the bite of mosquito, reach the liver through blood and multiply
within the liver cells.
2. Such liver cells burst and release the parasites into blood.
3. In the blood the parasite attacks RBCs , multiply asexually and cause their rupture. The rupture of
RBC releases a toxin called Haemozoin , which is responsible for the recurring High Fever and the
Chill
4. Sexual stages (Gametocytes) develop in the red blood cells.
5. The parasite then enters the female anopheles mosquito along with the blood when it bites the
infected person.
6. Further development occurs in the stomach wall of the mosquito
7. The gametes fuse to form a zygote .
8. The zygote undergoes further development in the body of the mosquito to form sporozoites.
9. The Sporozoites are transported to and stored in the Salivary gland of the mosquitoes and are
transferred to the human body during the bite of the mosquito.
Common Diseases:
https://www.youtube.com/embed/YA9KiI7gW5Q
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PPT for Common Human Diseases :
https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1qznWGDl_9nFvPzjrV-
8o2Vv4giwvDtK_/edit?usp=sharing&ouid=107171444976724466844&rtpof=true&sd=true
AMOEBIC DYSENTRY (Protozoal Disease )
* Causal organism :- Entamoeba histolytica

* Mode of Dispersal :- Through contaminated food and water.
* House flies act as mechanical carriers and transfer the parasite from the faeces of infected person to
the food articles and water.
* Organ Affected : The parasite resides in the large intestine.
* Symptoms :
* i) Abdominal pain and cramps.
* Stool with excess mucus and blood clots.
* Constipation alternating with diarrhoea.
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RING WORM ( FUNGAL DISEASE)
* Causal Organism : Microsporum , Epidermophyton , and Trichophyton.
* Symptoms :
* i) Dry scaly lesions on skin , nails , and scalp.
* Ii) Lesions are accompanied by itching.
Ringworms are generally acquired from soil or by direct contact.
ASCARIASIS (HELMINTHIC DISEASE)
Causal Organism :- Ascaris lumbricoides (Round Worm )
Symptoms :-
i) Blockage oftheintestinal passage
ii) Anaemia
iii) Abdominal / Muscular pain
iv) Internal bleeding
v) Nausea and headache
Mode of Dispersal :
Through contaminated food and water as eggs of parasite excreted by the infected person
contaminate soil, plants and water
FILARIASIS (ELEPHANTIASIS) Protozoal Disease
* Causal Organism : Wuchereria bancrofti and W. malayi wer limbs causing them to swell like that of
an ( Filarial Worm)
* Mode of Dispersal : Through the bite of Female Culex Mosquito
* Symptoms :-
* i) They normally cause inflammation of the organs in which they live for many years.
* ii) They normally affect the lymph vessels , of the lower limbs, causing them to swell like that of an
Elephant , hence called Elephantiasis.
* iii) Genital Organs may also be affected leading to gross deformation.
PREVENTION & CONTROL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES :-
* i) Maintenance of personal hygiene.
* Maintenance of Public hygiene.
* Eradication of vectors and their breeding places.
* Vaccination and immunisation for disease like Polio , Diphtheria, tetanus etc.
* Use of antibiotics and drugs to treat the infected person.
AIDS : ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME

* Causal Organism :HIV(Human Immunodeficiency Virus) a retrovirus
* Transmission of HIV occurs in one or more of the following ways :
* i) By sexual contact with the infected person .
* ii) Transfusion of the contaminated blood and blood products.
* iii)Sharing of infected needles.
* iv) From infected mother to the developing baby (inside uterus) through placenta.
* Following individuals are at high risk of getting the disease :
* i) Those who have multiple sexual partners.
* ii) Drug addicts taking the drugs intravenously.
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* iii) Individuals who require repeated blood transfusion.
* iv) Children born to an infected woman.
* LIFE CYCLE OF HIV :-
* i) The Virus after getting into the body of a person , enters the Macrophages.
* ii) The RNA replicates and DNA is formed by Reverse Transcriptase.
* The viral DNA gets incorporated with the host cell DNA and directs the infected cell to produce the
viral particles.
* The Macrophages continue to produce Virus particles
* The virus then enters the helper T-Lymphocytes ( TH), replicates and forms the progeny viruses.
* The progeny viruses released in the blood attack other helper T- Lymphocytes and there is a
progressive decrease in the number of helper T-Lymphocytes in the body of the infected persons.
* The person becomes easily infected by bacteria like Mycobacterium , viruses and even parasites
like Toxoplasma.
* The person is unable to protect himself / herself against any infection.
* Prevention of AIDS :
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* NACO ( National AIDS Control Organisation ) and Non-governmental organisations are trying
their best to educate people about AIDS.
* WHO (World Health Organisation ) has started a number of programmes to prevent spreading of
HIV infection. Some such steps are :-
* i) Ensuring use of disposable needles & syringes.

* ii) Checking blood forHIV
* iii) Free distribution of condomes and advocating safe sex.
* iv)Controlling drug abuse.
* v) Promoting regular check-up for HIV susceptible populations etc.
* DIAGNOSIS OF AIDS :
* By ELISA Test :( Enzyme – Linked Immuno Sorbant Assay )
TREATMENT : Treatment with anti-retroviral drugs is only partially effective. They can only prolong the
life of the patient but cannot prevent death.
CANCER :- GENERAL ACCOUNT

* Transformation of normal cells into cancerous cells is induced by carcinogens.
* Carcinogens are those physical, chemical , and biological agents which bring about uncontrolled
proliferation of cells (Cancer )
Types of Carcinogens :
* i)Physical Carcinogens :Eg. U.V. Rays,X – rays , gamma rays.
* ii) Chemical Carcinogens : Eg. Aniline dyes,chemicals present in tobacco smoke.
* iii) Tumour viruses (Oncogenic Viruses)
* Difference between cancerous cells and Normal Cells )
* i) There is breakdown of the regulatory mechanism which control normal cells growth , cell
division , and differentiation.
* ii) Cancer cells do not show contact inhibition and show uncontrolled cell divisions.
* iii) Cancer cells show Metastasis i.e. they detach from the tumours and move to distant sites
through body fluids and develop secondary tumours.
TYPES OF TUMOURS :
i) Benign Tumours :- They remain confined to their original location and do not spread to other parts.
They cause little damage.
ii) Malignant Tumours :-
a) They are masses of neoplastic / proliferating cells which grow rapidly , invade and damage the
surrounding normal tissue/cells.
b) These cells compete with the normal cells for vital nutrients and disrupt the normal metabolism.
c) These cells show the property of Metastasis.
DIAGNOSIS OF CANCER
i) Biopsy and Histopathological studies of the tissue.
ii) Blood and Bone Marrow Tests for increased cell counts as in Leukaemia.
iii) Use of techniques like Radiography, MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and CT – Scan (
Computed Tomography ) for cancer of internal organs.
iv) Use of Antibodies against cancer specific antigens.
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v) Applying principles of Molecular Biology to detect gene in individuals with inherited
susceptibility to certain cancers.
TREATMENT OF CANCER
i) SURGERY :- The Tumour cells are surgically removed to reduce the load of cancerous cells.
ii) RADIOTHERAPY :- The Tumour cells are irradiated wholly but taking care of the surrounding
normal
cells.
iii) CHEMOTHERAPY :- Certain drugs are used to kill the cancerous cells , but majority of the
drugs have side effects like hair loss. Anaemia, etc.
iv) IMMUNOTHERAPY :- This involves the use of biological response modifiers like alpha
interferon , which activate the immune system and help in destroying the tumour.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
Definition of Immunity :- It refers to the overall ability of a living body to fight against diseases.
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IMMUNITY
Ability of the body's immune system to protect the body from disease
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
INNATE IMMUNITY
CHARACTERSTICS FEATURES
ACTIVE PASSIVE
1. NON SPECIFIC
2. PRESENT AT THE TIME OF BIRTH
CHARACTERSTICS FEATURES
1. SPECIFICITY
2. DIVERSITY
TYPES OF BARRIERS 3. DISTINGUISH BE
TWEEN SELF NON SELF
1. PHYSICAL BARRIER - SKIN
4.MEMORY
2. PHYSIOLOGICAL BARRIER - HCL & SALIVA
5. ACQUIRED DURING LIFETIME
3. CELLULAR BARRIER - W.B.C ,MACROPHAGE
4. CYTOKINE BARRIER - INTERFERON
CELLS OF AQUIRED IMMUNITY
(LYMPHOCYTE)
T-LYMPHOCYTES
B-LYMPHOCYTE
1. HELP B-CELLS TO PRODUCE
1.PRODUCE ANTIBODY IN
ANTIBODY RESPONSE TO
2.DIRECTLY ATTACKS PATHOGEN (ANTIGEN)
PATHOGENS
3.RETAINS MEMORY
INNATE IMMUNITY :- It refers to all the defense elements with which an individual is born and is
always available to protect the body. It is nonspecific and of four different types.
1. PHYSICAL BARIERS :
i) The Skin - main barrier : (Surface Area=1.73 m2)
ii) The mucus-coated epithelium lining of the

a) Respiratory,
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b) Gastro-intestinal,
c) Urogenital tracts,
where mucus helps in trapping the microbes.
2. PHYSIOLOGICAL BARRIERS: They prevent microbial growth : Examples:
3. CELLULAR BARRIER : They include the :
A. Leucocytes (WBC) which phagocytose and destroy the microbes.

i) PMNL - Neutrophils
ii) Monocytes
iii) Lymphocytes (Natural killers)
B. Macrophases (in the Tissues)
4. CYTOKINE BARRIER :
Interferon (Proteins) produced by viral infected cells & protect the non-infected cells from further
Viral infections.
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ACQUIRED IMMUNITY: It refers to the immunity a person acquires after birth, either by
contracting the disease or by vaccination.
Characteristic features of acquired immunity:

i) SPECIFICITY: It is pathogen specific.
ii) MEMORY: The memory cells produced during the first encounter with the pathogens evoke a
heightened immune response in the further encounters.
iii) Distinguishes between self and non self.
Types of Immunity Link for the video:

https://www.youtube.com/embed/odIdD_uwIPE
Immunity - Presentation:
https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1DdZLgJ1nNNyHY4ek9OmdvIn5q0AVDt6E/edit?
usp=sharing&ouid=107171444976724466844&rtpof=true&sd=true
TYPES OF IMMUNE RESPONSES:-
1. PRIMARY IMMUNE RESPONSE :- An Immune Response of low Intensity, when our body
encounters a pathogen for the first time
2. SECONDARY IMMUNE RESPONSE :- (Anamnestic Response) A highly intensified Immune

Response when our body encounters the same pathogen for the second time. Why ? Because our body
keeps a memory of the pathogen when encoun- tered it for the first time.
TYPES OF ACQUIRED IMMUNITY:
A) HUMORAL or ANTIBODY MEDIATED IMMUNITY :-

i) It consists of the antibodies, that are circulating in the body fluids (Humors)
ii) The antibodies produced by B- Lympho- cytes in response to the antigens are collectively called
Immunoglobins and are of various types like IgA,IgD,IgE, IgG,IgM .
ANTIBODY MOLECULE (Immunoglobins):
i) Each antibody consists of four polypeptide chains, held

together in the form of Y where the tips of two upper
arms bind to the antigens in a lock and key manner to
form antigen-antibody complex.
ii) The two polypeptide chains are long and called

heavy(H) chains , while the other two are short and
called light (L) chains. Hence, the antibody is referred to
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as H2L2.
B) CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY : CMI

It is mediated by T-Lymphocytes. There are two groups of T-Lymphocytes
i) Cytotoxic / Killer T-Cells – which kill the specific target cell by a variety of mechanisms.
ii) Helper T – cells : which activate the specific B-cells to produce antibodies.
T-Lymphocytes are responsible for graft rejection.
On the basis of Involvement of body in the production of Antibodies, immunity is of two types :
a) Active Immunity and b) Passive Immunity.
Sl Active Immunity Passive Immunity

No.
i) When the antibodies are developed When antibodies developed in other
by our own cells in response to the vertebrates in response to deliberate injection
antigens, it is called active immunity of antigen , are injected into our body, it
constitutes passive immunity.
ii) It takes time to develop It shows fast response hence it is used when
immunity(slow response) immune response has to be faster. E.g. in case
of snake bite.
iii) It stays in body for longer period. It stays in body for short period.
Example : Example :
a) Immunity developed during a) Immunity given to the infant by antibodies
natural in colostrum
exposure to pathogens b) Immunity given by Tetanus Antitoxin
b) Immunity developed by
vaccination.
VACCINATION :-
Vaccination is the process of introducing a preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogens or killed or

inactivated /attenuated pathogens into the body, to generate the immune response / antibodies.
ALLERGY :- It refers to the exaggerated / hypersensitive response of the immune system to certain
antigens in the environment.
ALLERGENS :- The substance / agent which causes the hypersensitive reaction of the immune system
to certain antigens present in the environment.
Example :- Dust , Mites , Pollen Grains , Animal Dander etc.
The antibodies produced in response to allergens are Ig E type.
COMMON SYMPTOMS OF ALLERGY :-
Under the influence of allergens certain chemicals like Histamine and Serotonin are released from mast
cells. These chemicals induce the symptoms of allergy.
i) Sneezing (ii) Watery eyes (iii) Rashes (iv) Running nose (v) Difficulty in breathing.
73
CAUSES OF ALLERGY: Somehow, modern - day life style has resulted in lowering of immunity
and more sensitivity to allergens. More & more children in metro cities of India suffer from
allergies and asthma due to sensitivity to the environment.
Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from the mast cells.
AUTOIMMUNITY :
Autoimmunity or autoimmune disorders are those disorders which are caused when the body’s
immune system goes off the track and start destroying ‘Self Cells’ and molecules.
Example : Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis, Systemic

Lupus, Rheumatoid Arthritis etc.
MAIN FUNCIONS of IMMUNE SYSTEM
To recognize the foreign molecules(Antigens),

respond to them and keep a memory of them.
COMPONENTS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM :-
1. Lymphoid Organs
2. Lymphoid Tissues
3. Lymphoid Cells
4. Soluble Molecules like Antibodies.
FUNCTIONS OF PRIMARY LYMPHOID
ORGANS :-
1. Bone Marrow :- Here all kinds of blood cells are produced
2. Thymus :- Provides a micro environment for the development and maturation of lymphocytes.
FUNCTIONS OF SECONDARY LYMPHOID ORGANS :
1. SPLEEN :-
i) It mainly contains lymphocytes and phagocytes.
ii) It acts as filter of blood by trapping blood borne microbes
iii) It also acts as a reservoir of Erythrocytes (RBCs)
2. LYMPH NODES :- They act as filters and trap the microbes that have entered the lymph.
3. MALT :- Mucosal Associated Lymphoid Tissues:- Lymphoid tissue located within the mucosal
lining of the major tracts (respiratory , digestive, urogenital tracts) is called MALT.
Different types of lymphoid organs and their functions is being summarized by the help of
following flow diagrams
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*********************************************
75
Chapter 9 - MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE
A. MICROBES IN HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS
SL NAME OF FOOD ITEM MICROBE INVOLVED
NO
01 CURD LACTOBACILLUS & other LAB
(Lactic Acid bacteria)
02 DOUGH ( For Idli & Fermented by bacteria. Dough rises due to CO2 produced
Dosa) during fermentation.
03 DOUGH (For making Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Backers Yeast )
Bread)
04 CHEESE
a) Swiss Cheese has large Propionibacterium sharmanii.
holes due to production of
CO2)
b) Roquefort Cheese Ripened by growing a specific fungus in it.
B. MICROBES IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS

SLN NAME OF PRODUCT MICROBE INVOLVED
O
1 BEEVERAGES :-
a)ETHANOL :- (By fermentation Sacharomyces cerevisiae ( Yeast )
of fruit juices & malted cereals)
Remark :- Type of alcoholic drink varies with the type of Raw material & nature of
processing.
a) With Distillation :- Whisky , Brandy & Rum.
b) Without Distillation :- Beer & Wine.
2 ANTIBIOTICS
a)Penicillin :- Penicilium notatum ( Fungi )
Remark :- Penicillin discovered by Alexander Fleming, while working on Staphylococci
bacteria, but it was established as an effective drug by Ernst Chain & Howard Florey.
The Three were awarded Nobel prize in medicine in 1945.
3 ORGANIC ACIDS
a) Citric Acid Aspergillus niger ( Fungus)
b) Acetic Acid Acetobacter aceti ( Bacterium )
c) Butyric Acid Clostridium butylicum ( Bacterium )
d) Lactic Acid Lactobacillus delbrueckii (Bacterium)
4 ENZYMES
a)Lipases Used in detergent formulations.
b)Proteases & Used to clear fruit juices.
c)Pectinases
d)Streptokinases A ‘clot buster’ produced by genetically modified
Streptococcus.
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Remark :-Streptokinase is used for removing blood clots in blood vessels of patients suffering
from Myocardial Infractions.
5 BIOACTIVE MOLECULES
a)Cyclosporin A Trichoderma polysporum. ( Fungus )
(Used as Immuno suppresant)
b)Statins (Used for lowering blood Monascus purpureous (Yeast )
cholesterol)
6 BIOGAS PRODUCTION Methanogens like Methanobacterium
Remark :- Methanogens produce Methane,CO2,H2 & H2S by acting over cellulosic compounds
present in cattle dung. They are found in i) Anaeribic sludge, ii)Rumen of cattle, iii) Flooded
Rice Fields, & iv) Marshy places.
7 MICROBES AS BIOCONTROL It refers to the use of controlling pests that relies
AGENTS on natural predators
a)Bacillus thuringiensis ---------- A bacterium whose spores are toxic to certain
insect larvae (butterfly caterpillars) & kill them.
A fungus(free living in soil &root ecosystems) is
b)Trichoderma -------------- effective against several plant pathogens.
They attack insects and other arthropods. These

c)Baculoviruses viruses are excellent candidates for species
(Genus : Nucleopolyhedroviruses) specific, narrow spectrum insecticidal
applications, Useful in IPM in ecologically
sensitive area
Used to get rid of Aphids

c)Ladybird (a beetle with red &
black markings)
Used to get rid of Mosquitoes
d)Dragonfly ------------------------
8 MICROBES AS They fix atmospheric Nitrogen, Organic matter &
BIOFERTILIZERS other soil nutrients.
a BACTERIA
(Fix Atmospheric N2)
i)Symbiotic Bacteria ---------- Rhizobium.
ii)Free Living bacteria ------- Azotobacter & Azospirillum.
b CYANOBACTERIA Nostoc,oscillatoria,Anabaena,Aulosira.
c FUNGI/MYCORRHIZAE Symbiotic association of fungi with the roots of
higher plants. e.g. Glomus
Remark :- Mycorrhizae are beneficial in the following manner :-
i)They absorb phosphorus & passes it on to the plant.
ii)Provide resistance to root borne pathogens.
iii)Tolerance to salinity.
iv)Overall increase in the plant growth & development.
Microbes in Human welfare:

https://www.youtube.com/embed/65sh_0kBuM8
77
SEWAGE TREATMENT :- Municipal waste water is called sewage which may contain large
amount of organic matter & microbes( which may be Pathogenic)Therefore Sewage is Treated in
Sewage Treatment Plant before it is released in the water bodies.
Sewage treatment consists of two steps :-
I. PRIMARY TREATMENT :- Physical process to remove insoluble large & small particles
through Filtration & Sedimentation.
Filtration :- Sewage is passed through wire mesh to remove floating insoluble objects like
polythene.
Sedimentation :- Sewage is then passed into grit chamber, where the grit(soil & small peebles
)are removed by sedimentation.
All the solids that settled , form the Primary Sludge and the supernatant forms the
effluent which is taken to another tank for secondary treatment.
II. SECONDRAY TREATMENT :- ( Biological Treatment ) Two step treatment.
AEROBIC TREATMENT :-
The primary effluent is passed into large aeration tank where it is constantly agitated
mechanically and air is pumped into it. This allows vigorous growth of useful microbes into
flocs ( Flocs = Mass of bacteria + fungal hyphae )
While growing , these microbes consume the major part of the organic matter in the
effluent. This significantly reduces the biochemical oxygen demand(BOD)
A) ANAEROBIC TREATMENT :-
i) The effluent is then passed into a tank where the bacterial flocs are allowed to
sediment. This sediment is called activated sludge.
ii) A small part of the activated sludge is pumped back into the aeration tank to serve
as the inoculum.The remaining major part of the sludge is pumped into large tanks
called anaerobic sludge digestors. Here, anaerobic bacteria grow and digest the sludge.
During this digestion bacteria produce a mixture of gases called Biogas (Methane-
75%,CO2,H2 & H2S)
BIOGAS PLANT :- Its technology was developed

in India due to the efforts of IARI & KVIC.
Models of Biogas plant :-
a) Fixed Dome Type &
b) Floating Gas Holder Type.
BIOCONTROL AGENTS :- It refers to the use of
controlling pests that relies on natural predators
**********************************************************************
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Chapter 11 - BIOTECHNOLOGY: PRINCIPLES AND
PROCESSES
Biotechnology deals with techniques of using live organisms or enzymes from organisms to produce
products and processes useful to humans.
 According to EFB, European Federation of Biotechnology -Biotechnology is defined as ‘The

integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for
products and services’.
 Current Definition:- It is used in a restricted sense today, to refer to such of those processes which
use genetically modified organisms to achieve the same on a larger scale.
Further many other processes and techniques are also included in the biotechnology :-
i) Test tube baby programme.
ii) Synthesizing a gene and using it.
iii) Developing a DNA vaccine.
iv) Correcting a defective gene(Gene Therapy).
The two core techniques that enabled the birth of modern biotechnology :-
(i) Genetic engineering : Techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material (DNA and RNA), to
introduce these into host organisms and thus change the phenotype of the host organism.
(ii) Maintenance of sterile (microbial contamination-free) ambience in chemical engineering processes

to enable growth of only the desired microbe/eukaryotic cell in large quantities for the manufacture of
biotechnological products like antibiotics,vaccines, enzymes, etc.
 Three basic steps in genetically modifying an organism —

(i) Identification of DNA with desirable genes;
(ii) Introduction of the identified DNA into the host;
(iii) Maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer of the DNA to its progeny.
 Genetic engineering :-
It involves the alteration of the genetic makeup of cell by deliberate and artificial means. It involves
transfer or replacement of genes to create recombinant DNA.
TOOLS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING:-
1. Enzymes :-
79
a) Restriction Endonuclease enzyme(Molecular scissors)
b) DNA Polymerase enzyme.
c) DNA Ligases ( Molecular glues)
2. Cloning Vectors: -
Restriction enzymes (R.E.) belong to a larger class of enzymes called nucleases. Each R.E functions by
inspecting the length of a DNA sequence. Once it finds its specific recognition sequence, it will bind to the
DNA and cut each of the two strands of the double helix at specific points in their sugar phosphate
backbone. Each restriction endonuclease enzyme recognizes a specific palindromic sequence in the DNA.
e.g. 5’- GAATTC–3’

3’- CTTAAG- 5’
R.E. cut the DNA strand a little away from the centre of the palindrome sites, but between the same
two bases on the opposite strands. This causes the production of two DNA segments with sticky ends.
https://youtu.be/pMKhOCi7X8w
Restriction enzymes are named in the following manner?

i)The first letter of the name comes from the name of the genus of the source bacteria.
ii)The second two letters come from the species of the prokaryotic cell from which they are
isolated.
iii) The letter R is derived from the name of the strain .
iv) Roman numbers following the names indicate the order in which the enzymes were isolated from
that strain of bacteria. e.g. EcoRI
80
Diagramatic representation of recombinant DNA technology :-
PROCESSES (STEPS ) OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY :-
1. Isolation of DNA
2. Fragmentation of DNA by restriction enzymes.
3. Isolation of the desired DNA fragment.
4. Amplification of the gene of interest.
5. Ligation of the DNA fragment into a vector using DNA ligase.
6. Transfer of recombinant DNA into the host.
7. Culturing the host cells on a suitable medium on a large scale.
8. Extraction of the desired product.
9. Down stream processing of the product as a finished product ready for marketing.
rDNA Technology
https://www.youtube.com/embed/xZAD11Sc-a8
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rDNA Technology at a glance
Isolation of DNA & cutting of Gel Electrophoresis to

DNA by restriction separate the DNA and PCR (Polymerase Chain
endonuclease enzyme Histone protein Reaction) of desired gene
Down streaming Insertion and ligation of alien

Obtaining of Foreign Gene DNA with Cloning Vector by
Processing product in bioreactor DNA ligase into the host
Separation & isolation, Visualisation &extraction of DNA fragments :-
DNA has to be isolated in pure form for the action of restriction enzymes.
i) DNA can be released from cells by digesting the cell envelop by the use of enzymes like lysozyme
for bacterial cells, chitinase for fungal cells, and cellulase for plant cells.
ii) Since DNA is intertwined with histone proteins and RNA, proteins are removed by proteases and
RNA are removed by ribonucleases.
iii) Other impurities bare removed by employing suitable treatments.
iv) The purified DNA is precipitated by the addition of chilled ethanol. It is seen as fine threads in
suspension.
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Gel Electrophoresis is the technique of separating DNA segment, in which the negatively charged DNA
segments are forced to move towards anode(+ve electrode) under an electric field through a medium or
matrix.(Commonly Agarose gel)
Visualisation :-The separated DNA fragments can be visualised after staining the DNA by ethidium
bromide followed by exposure to UV rays. A bright orange coloured bands of DNA is observed.
Extraction:- The separated bands of DNA are cut out from the agarose gel & extracted from the gel piece.
This process is called as elution.
CLONING VECTORS :-
 PLASMIDS AND BACTERIOPHASES ARE COMMONLY USED CLONING VECTORS.
 NOWADAYS , GENETICALLY ENGINEERED /SYNTHETIC VECTORS ARE ALSO USED

FOR EASILY LINKING THE FOREIGN DNA AND SELECTION OF RECOMBINANTS
FROM NONRECOMBINANTS.
Making of rDNA at a glance:
Plasmid or Cloning Vector
AmpRGene TetR Gene AmpR gene or tetR gene
Can be cut by Pst I or Can be cut by BamH I and

Insertion fails
Pvu I for the insertion of SalH I for the insertion of
alien DNA Alien DNA
Recombinant DNA Recombinant DNA Recombinant DNA not

produced with the produced by the foreign produced
foreign gene gene
Transformed Bacteria Transformed Bacteria Non transformed Bacteria

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FOLLOWING FEATURES ARE REQUIRED TO FACILITATE CLONING IN A VECTOR :-
I) ORIGIN OF REPLICATION :- (ori) This is a sequence of base pairs on DNA where replication
starts. Any piece of DNA linked to this sequence can be made to replicate with in the host cells.
This sequence is also responsible for controlling the copy number of linked DNA.
II) SELECTABLE MARKER :- Marker is a gene which helps in selecting the transformants (those
host cells which contain the gene of interest) and eliminating the non transformants.
Common selectable markers for E.coli include the genes encoding resistance to antibiotics such as
ampicillin, chloramphanicol, tetracycline and canamycin or gene for b-galactosidase which can be
identified by colour reaction
III) CLONING / RECOGNITION SITE :- In order to link the alien DNA , the vector needs to have
very few, preferably single recognition site for the commonly used restriction enzymes.
The ligation of alien DNA is carried out at a restriction site present in one of the two
antibiotic resistant genes. Eg. A foreign DNA is inserted at BAMHI site of tetracycline resistant
gene in the vector PBR322 ( A plasmid).
Some cloning vectors :-
a) Agrobacterium tumefaciens :- It is the bacterium that infects a number of dicot plants and
transfers a piece of its DNA known as tDNA,which transforms the normal plant cells into tumor
cells. Ti plasmid ( Tumor inducing plasmid) of this bacterium has been modified (Disarmed ) and
used as a cloning vector.
b) Retro Viruses :-They infect normal cells and transform them into cancerous cells.Such retroviruses
have been modified (Disarmed ) and used as vectors for transferring DNA into animal cells.
IV) SMALL SIZE OF THE VECTOR :-
Methods of introducing a recombinant DNA into a competent host :-

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Since DNA is hydrophilic molecule, it cannot pass through cell membranes. Four methods to introduce the
gene of interest into a host.
1. For Bacterial Cell :-(a prokaryotic cell )

a) In order to force bacteria to take up the plasmid, the bacterial cells must first be made ‘competent’ to take
up DNA. This is done by treating them with a specific divalent Cation, eg. Calcium ion, which increases
the efficiency with which DNA enters the bacterium through pores in its cell wall.
b) Recombinant DNA can then be forced into such cells by incubating the cells with recombinant DNA on
ice, followed by placing them briefly at 420C(heat Shock), and then putting them back on ice.This enables
the bacteria to take up the recombinant DNA.
2. MICROINJECTION:- (Suitable for animal cells) In this method , recombinant DNA is directly
injected into the nucleus of an animal cell.
3. BIOLISTICS or GENE GUN :- (Suitable for plants ) In this method plant cells are bombarded with
high velocity microparticles of gold or tungsten coated with DNA.
4. DISARMED PATHOGEN VECTORS :- Such vectors when allowed to infect the cell, transfer the
recombinant DNA into the host.
PCR :- polymerase chain reaction ( Discovered by K Mullis )
It is a technique by which any piece of DNA can be quickly amplified (copied many times ) without using
cells. Each cycle of PCR consists of three steps :-
1. Denaturation of DNA :- Double stranded DNA is denatured by using high temperature.

2. Primer Annealing :-Primers are chemically synthesised oligonucleotides that are complementary to
the regions of DNA segments of interest.
3. Extension of Primers :- Thermostable DNA Polymerase enzyme(Taq Polymerase) extends the
primers using the nucleotides provided in the medium and the genomic DNA as template.
PCR - Link for the video:

https://www.youtube.com/embed/09whdt6PPs0
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PCR
Polymerase Chain
Reaction
Denaturation 940c Extension Use of Taq

Annealing Use of
Separation of DNA Polymerase->
Primers Polymerisation
Strands
86
Introduction of Alien DNA in the competent host at a glance:
0
• Treatment with • Heat (42 c )&
0
divalent cation ice cooling (0 c)
++
Ca ions treatment
Compet
ent Competant
Bacterial
Bacteria Cell
l Cell
Plant Cell
Animal
Cell
• Gene • Micro-injection
Gun/Biolistic method
Method
BIOREACTORS :-
The bioreactors can be thought of as vessels in which raw materials are biologically converted into specific
products by microbes,plants and animal cells and/or their enzymes.
A bioreactor has the following components :-

i) An agitator system.
ii) An oxygen delivery system.
iii) A foam control system.
iv) A temperature control system.
v) pH control system.
vi) Sampling ports.
Downstream processing :-
The products obtained from the genetically modified microorganisms in a biorector is subjected to a series
of processes ( collectively called downstream processing) before it is made into a finished product ready
for marketing.
The two main processes are :-
a) Separation and b) Purification.
The product is then formulated with suitable preservatives. Such formulations have to undergo clinical
trials, in case of drugs.
87
Chapter 12 - BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
Critical areas of Biotechnology:
• Providing the best catalyst in the form of improved organism usually a microbe or pure enzyme.
• Creating optimal condition through engineering for a catalyst to act.
• Downstream processing technologies to purify the protein/organic compound.
BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE:

The focus have been made to increase the food production through Biotechnology in the following areas.
 Agrochemical based agriculture
 Organic Agriculture
 Genetically engineered crop- based agriculture
Plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes have been altered by manipulation are called Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMO).
Advantages of Genetic Modification in plants.

o Made crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat)
o Reduce reliance on chemical pesticides (pest resistant crop)
o Helped to reduce post harvest losses.
o Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants.
o Enhanced nutritional values of food e.g. vitamin A enriched rice.
Bt Cotton:
APPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
PRODUCTION OF PEST RESISTANT PLANTS :-

(A) Bt Cotton :-
i) The soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produces crystal proteins called Cry proteins that are toxic
to larvae of insects like tobacco budworm, armyworm, beetles and mosquitoes.
ii) The cry proteins exist as inactive protoxins and get converted into active toxin when ingested by the
insect, as the alkaline pH of the gut solubilises the crystals.
iii) The activated toxin binds to the surface of the epithelial cells of midgut and create pores.
iv) This causes swelling and lysis of cells leading to the death of the insect (larva).
v) The cry genes encoding this protein isolated from the bacterium and incorporated into several crop
plants like cotton , tomato,, corn, rice, soyabean etc.
vi) The proteins encoded by the following cry genes control the pest given against them :-
vii) Cry I Ac and Cry II Ab control cotton boll worms
viii) Cry I Ab controls corn borer.
88
Action of cry gene at a glance:
Bacteria Cry gene produces Crystal

Inactive in acidic pH
Bacillus thuringiensis protein (protoxin)
Isolation & insertion of

Eaten by insect Bt cotton
gene in cotton plant
Perforation in the
Gut of insect is alkaline Protoxin get activated
gut of insect
Hole is produced
Cotton plant protected Death of Insect in the gut of insect
(B) PROTECTION AGAINST NEMATODES

A nematode Meladogyne incognita infects tobacco plants and reduces their yield. This nematode is
controlled by a method called RNA interference :-
i) The specific genes ( in the form of cDNA ) from the parasite are introduced into the plant using
Agrobacterium as the vector.
ii) The genes are introduced in such a way that both sense/coding RNA and antisense RNA
(complementary to the sense / coding RNA) are produced.
iii) Since these two RNAs are complementary , they form a Double stranded RNA (dsRNA)
iv) This neutralises the specific RNA of the nematode by a process called RNA – interference.
89
As a result the parasite cannot live in the transgenic host and the transgenic plant is
protected from the pest.
PEST RESISTANT PLANT - TOBACCO
HOST PLANT
INSERTION OF NEMATODE SPECIFIC GENE

USING Agrobacterium tumifaciens VECTOR
TRANSCRIPTION OF GENE TO MAKE

SENSE AND ANTI- SENSE m RNA
INFECTION OF HOST PLANT BY

NEMATODE- Meloidegyne incognitia
PREVENT TRANSLATION BY MAKING

OF ds RNA.- RNA Silencing
PROTECTION OF HOST
APPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN MEDICINE

1. The rDNA technology has been used in the production of safe and more effective therapeutic drugs.
2. The recombinant therapeutics do not induce unwanted immunological responses , that are
commonly observed with similar products isolated from non – human sources.
3. At present about thirty recombinant therapeutics have been approved for human use , of which
twelve are being marketed in India.
GENETICALLY ENGINEERED INSULIN ( HUMILIN )

a) Human insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains:- Chain A and Chain B , linked by
disulphide bridges.
b) Insulin is secreted as prohormone which has to be processed before it becomes a mature and
functional hormone .
c) The prohormone contains another polypeptide called C – peptide., which is removed during
maturation.
d) In 1983 , Eli Lilly , an American company , prepared two DNA sequences coding for chains A and
B of human insulin and introduced them into the E.coli to produce insulin.
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e) The two chains produced were extracted and combined by creating disulphide bridges.
INSULIN PRODUCTION BY r-DNA TECHNOLOGY
Maturation of proinsulin to insulin
Maturation of Pro insulin to insulin:

https://www.youtube.com/embed/uST-u8flcow
HUMAN BODY
PROINSULIN – THREE POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN A,B,& C.

(Inactive )
MATURE INSULIN- ONLY CHAIN A & B

(C polypeptide is removed during processing)
ELI LILY (an US based company) SYNTHESISED CHAIN A & B

separately in E.coli USING rDNA TECHNOLOGY AND JOINED THEM
BY DISULFIDE BRIDGE.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HSaFemVKtyc
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GENE THERAPY :
Gene Therapy is a collection of methods that allows correction of gene defect .
i) In this method , genes are inserted into the cells and tissues of an individual to correct certain
hereditary diseases.
ii) It involves the delivery of a normal gene into the individual or embryo to replace the defective
mutant allele of the gene.
iii) Viruses which attack the host and introduce their genetic material into the host are all used as
vectors.
iv) The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a four year old girl with adenosine deaminase
(ADA) deficiency.
ISOLATION AND CULTURE OF

LYMPHOCYTES
ISOLATION OF FUNCTIONAL
ADA GENE.
INSERTION OF ADA GENE USING c-DNA

IN LYMPHOCYTES.
INFUSION OF LYMPHOCYTES
IN THE BLOOD OF PATIENT
NEEDS PERIODIC INFUSION DUE TO

LIMITED LIFE SPAN OF WBC.
TREATMENT OF ADA DEFICIENCY

Traditional Method :- ADA deficiency can be cured by marrow transplantation in some children, but
it is not completely curable.
Modern Method :-
a) For gene therapy , lymphocytes were grown in a culture and functional ADA,c DNA is then
introduced into these lymphocytes. These lymphocytes are then transferred into the body of the patient .
The patient requires periodic infusion of such genetically engineered lymphocytes .
b) If a functional gene is introduced into the bone marrow cells at early embryonic stage, it would be a
permanent cure.
Molecular Diagnosis
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i) Recombinant DNA molecule and techniques like PCR are used for early diagnosis of disorders.
ii) Cloned genes when expressed to produce recombinant proteins , help in developing sensitive
diagnosis of techniques like ELISA.
iii) The cloned genes are also used as probes to detect the presence of complementary DNA strand.
A probe is a piece of a single stranded DNA that is tagged with a radioactive molecule andit
is used to find its complementary DNA by hybridisation. It is followed by detection of radioactivity by
autoradiography.
iv) Presence of normal or mutant gene can also be detected using such a method.
MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS
MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS
ELISA PCR
DETECT
ANTIGEN- ANTIBODY DETECT VERY DETECT HIV IN
MUTATION IN
ANTIBODY SYNTHESISED LOW AMOUNT OF SUSPECTED
CANCER
INTERACTION TO AGAINST THE DNA PATIENTS
PATIENTS.
DETECT HIV/ VIRAL PATHOGEN
INFESTATION
TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
Transgenic animals are those animals that have had their DNA manipulated to possess and express a
foreign gene.
Importance of Transgenic Animals :-
i) Transgenic animals can be specifically designed to allow the study of how genes are regulated and
how they affect the normal functions of the body and its developments. Eg. Information is obtained
about the biological role of insulin like growth factors.
Transgenic animals are designed to increase our understanding of how genes contribute to the
development of diseases. They are made to serve as models for human diseases.
iii) Transgenic animals that produce useful biological compounds can be created by introducing a
human protein used to treat emphysema.
eg. The first transgenic cow , Rosie ,produced the human protein enriched milk (2.4g/l).It also
contained human alpha lactalbumin, a more nutritionally balanced product for human babies.
93
iv) Transgenic are being developed for use in testing the safety of vaccines (e.g. polio vaccine )
v) Transgenic animals with more sensitivity , to toxic substances are being developed to test the
toxicity of drugs.
BENEFITS OF TRANSGENIC ANIMALS:
BENEFITS OF TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
BIOLOGICAL STUDY OF VACCINE NORMAL PHYSIOLOGY CHEMICAL

PRODUCTS DISEASES SAFETY AND DEVELOPMENT SAFETY TESTING
Working of organ Transgenic

Alpha-1 Alpha- Cystic Fibrosis, Transgenic
Lactalbumin system is studied animals
antitryps cancer, Rheumatoid mice is used
In Rosie Arthritis.
are
(cow)
Substitute for
Emphysema mother’s milk
for infants.
STEM CELL TECHNOLOGY

* Definition :- Stem cells are the undifferentiated cells, which can divide (by mitosis) and
differentiate into specialised cells.
* Location :-
a) Embryonic stem cells are found in the inner cell mass of blastocyst and adult stem cells are found
in the bone marrow , blood , adipose tissue etc.
b) Stems cells are also obtained from umblical cord blood just after birth.
Properties of Stem Cells :-
a) Self – renewal or ability to multiply.
b) Potential to differentiate into specialised cells.
Example :- Bone marrow transplantation is an example of stem cell therapy.
ETHICAL ISSUES
* Genetic modification of organisms can have unpredictable / undesirable effects, when such
organisms are introduced into the ecosystem.
* The modification and use of such organism for public service has also resulted in problems with the
granting of patents.
GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee) :-
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The Indian Govt. has set up GEAC which is authorised:-
i) To make decisions regarding the validity of genetic modifications and
ii) The safety of introducing genetically modified organisms for public services.
BIOPIRACY
Biopiracy refers to the use of bioresources by multinational companies andother organisations
without proper authorisation form the countries and people concerned or without giving proper
compensation to the people / countries concerned.
The industrialised / developed nations are rich financially , but poor in biodiversity and traditional
knowledge, while the developing and underdeveloped countries are rich in bio resources and
traditional knowledge.Such developed countries often indulge in Biopiracy.
Example :- The genome of Basmati Rice , Neem and Haldi was illegally patented by US
Multinational companies illegally, however , these crops are of Indian Origin.
*******************************************************************************
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Unit 10 - ECOLOGY
Chapter 13 - ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
Ecology: Study of interactions among organisms between organisms and their physical
environment.
Ecosystem: Biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.
Populations: A group of individual living in a well defined geographical area, share or
compete for similar resources, potentially interbreed.
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POPULATION:
Population growth: Depends on the following factors.
Population size fluctuated due to changes in four basic processes, two of which (Natality and
immigration) contribute an increase in population density and two (mortality and emigration) to a
decrease.
Representation of age pyramids for human populations:
The geometrical diagrammatic representation of different age groups in a population of any organism is
called Age of pyramids. These are of three types:-
i) Expanding pyramid:- It is a broad base, triangular pyramid which represents a population containing
large number of young people. It is rapidly expanding population with high birth rate.
ii) Stable pyramid:- It represents a moderate proportion of young to old. As the rate of growth becomes
slow & stable i.e.- pre-reproductive & reproductive age groups becomes more or less equal in size
iii) Declining Pyramid:- The type of pyramid of population decreasing in size is characterised by a
narrow base because there are fewer pre-reproductive individuals than in the other two age categories.
Natality: number of birth in given period in the population.

Mortality: number of deaths in the population in a given period of time.
Immigration: is the number of individuals of same species that have come into the habitat from elsewhere
during a given period of time.
Emigration: number of individuals of the population who left the habitat and gone elsewhere during a
given time period.
Population Density:
97
If ‘N’ is the population density at time ‘t’, then its density at time t + 1 is :
Where B = the number of births

I = the number of immigrants
D = the number of deaths
E = the number of Emigrants.
N = Population Density
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
t = Time period
K= Carrying capacity (maximum population size that an environment can sustain)
Exponential growth:
* The Exponential growth equation is Nt = N0ert
* Nt = Population density after time t
* N0 = Population density at time zero
* r = intrinsic rate of natural increase
* e = the base of natural logarithms (2.71828)
Exponential growth (‘J’ shape curve is obtained).
* When resources are not limiting the growth.
* Any species growth exponentially under unlimited resources conditions can reach
enormous population densities in a short time.
* Growth is not so realistic.
Logistic growth model
* Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Growth is described by the following equations
* dN/dt = rN (K–N / N)
* Where N = Population density at time t
* r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
* K = Carrying capacity
Logistic Growth (Sigmoid curve is obtained)
* When responses are limiting the Growth.
* Resources for growth for most animal populations are finite and become limiting.
* The logistic growth model is a more realistic one.
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POPULATION DENSITY
Increase in population density (N) due to Natality (B) + Immigration (I)
Decrease in population density (N) Due to Mortality (D) + Emigration (E)
POPULATION GROWTH CURVE

INITIAL POPULATION In presence of unlimited resources Increases infinitely
Exponential growth.
Initial population in presence of limited resources ( carrying capacity) increases till a

limit and then stabilizes Logistic growth
Population Interactions:
Predation is an interaction in which one organism, the predator, eats all or part of the body of another
organism, the prey. For plants Herbivores are predators. is a form of predation in which the prey organism
is a plant. ExampleAmerican Pacific Coast the starfish Pisaster is a predator.
Competition
A process in which the fitness of one species (measured in terms of its ‘r’ the intrinsic rate of increase) is
significantly lower in the presence of another species.
Eg. Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands became extinct after goats were
introduced on the islanddue to the greater browsing efficiency of the goats
Gause’s ‘Competitive Exclusion Principle’ states that two closely related species competing for the same
resources cannot co-exist indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be eliminated eventually
true if resources are limiting
Parasitism
Close relationship between species where one organism, the parasite, lives on or
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inside another organism, the host causing it some harm, and adapted structurally to this way of life.
Eg.The human liver fluke (a trematode parasite) depends on two intermediate hosts (a snail and a fish) to
complete its life cycle
Parasites that feed on the external surface of the host organism are called ectoparasites.
Example Cuscuta
Endoparasites are those that live inside the host body at different sites
Brood parasitism in which the parasitic bird (cuckcco) lays its eggs in the nest of its host (crow) and lets
the host incubate them
Commensalism:
Type of interaction in which one species benefit and the other is neither harmed nor benefited
Example
* An orchid growing as an epiphyte on a mango branch
* Barnacles growing on the back of a whale
* The cattle egret and grazing cattle
* sea anemone that has stinging tentacles and the clown fish that lives among them
Mutualism
Interaction that benefits both the interacting species.
* Lichens: relationship between a fungus and photosynthesising algae or cyanobacteria.
* Mycorrhizae are associations between fungi and the roots of higher plants
* Animals pollinating flowers and dispersing their seeds.
* Fig trees and pollinator species of wasp
* female wasp uses the fruit as an oviposition (egg-laying) site and for the developing seeds within
the fruit for nourishing its larvae.
* The Mediterranean orchid Ophrys employs ‘sexual deceit’ to get pollination done by a species of
bee.
Link for Population interactions- Video:
https://www.youtube.com/embed/uBSIz9mms8c
100
Chapter 14 - ECOSYSTEMS
The interaction between the living organism and the non-living environment is
called ecosystem.
ECOSYSTEM – STUCTURE AND FUNCTION:

The following components of the ecosystem functions as a unit:
i)Productivity.
ii)Decomposition.
iii)Energy flow and
iii)Nutrient cycle.
Link for Ecosystem Video

https://www.youtube.com/embed/9MBdtbe5xDQ
PRODUCTIVITY:
Primary productivity:
The amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis. The rate of biomass production is called productivity.
Gross primary productivity (GPP): The rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis.
Net primary productivity:

A considerable amount of energy is utilized by plants in respiration. Gross primary productivity
minus respiration losses (R) is the net primary productivity. GPP – R = NPP.
Net primary productivity is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs (herbivore
and decomposers.
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Secondary productivity: The rate of formation of new organic matter by the consumer.
DECOMPOSITION:
The important steps in the process of decomposition:

i) Fragmentation: Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles. This process is
called fragmentation.
ii) Leaching: Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get precipitated as
unavailable salts.
iii) Catabolism: Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances. This
process is called as catabolism.
iv) Humification: leads to accumulation of a dark coloured amorphous substance called humus that is
highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow rate. Being colloidal
in nature it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
v) Mineralisation: The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients
occur by the process known as mineralisation.
Factors affecting Decomposition:

i) The rate of decomposition is controlled by chemical composition of detritus and climatic factors.
ii) In a particular climatic condition, decomposition rate is slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin, and
quicker, if detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars.
iii) Temperature and soil moisture are the most important climatic factors that regulate decomposition
through their effects on the activities of soil microbes.
iv) Warm and moist environment favour decomposition whereas low temperature and anaerobiosis inhibit
decomposition resulting in build-up of organic materials.
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ENERGY FLOW
* Flow of energy is unidirectional from the sun to producers and then to consumers.
* The green plants in the ecosystem are called producers.
* All organisms are dependent for their food on producers, either directly or indirectly.
* In a terrestrial ecosystem, major producers are herbaceous and woody plants and in an aquatic
ecosystem major producers are phytoplankton, algae and higher plants.
* All animals depend on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food needs and they are called consumers.
Energy Flow through different Trophic Levels
103
Trophic levels in an ecosystem:
Food chain: The sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the form of food from organism
to organism forms food chain.
Grazing food chain (starts from producers through herbivore to carnivore)

Food chain
Detritus food chain (starts from dead organic matter (detritus) and pass through
detritus feeding organism in soil to organisms feeding on detritus-feeders).
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:
* The base of the pyramid is broad and it narrows down at the apex. The similar shape is obtained
when food or energy relationship between organisms at different trophic level.
* The relationship can be expressed in terms of number, energy or biomass.
* The base of the pyramid represented by producer and apex is the top consumer; other trophic levels
are in between.
* In most ecosystems, all the pyramids, of number, of energy and biomass are upright.
* The pyramid of number in a tree ecosystem is inverted.
* The pyramid of biomass in sea also inverted because the biomass of fishes is far exceeds that of
phytoplankton.
Pyramid of energy is always upright, can never be inverted, because when energy flows from a particular
trophic level to the next, some energy is always lost as heat at each step.
104
Pyramid of numbers in a grass land ecosystem:
Inverted pyramid
An ideal pyramid of energy
105
Ecological Succession:
The gradual and fairly predictable change in the species composition of a given area is called Ecological
Succession.
All the changes lead finally to a community that is in near equilibrium with the environment and that is
called climax community. The first community from which the ecological succession started is called
pioneer community.
The entire sequences of communities that successively change in a given area are called sere.
The individual transitional communities are termed as seral stages.
Video link for Ecological Succession:

https://www.youtube.com/embed/ewJ96jiwHn0
Differences between Primary & Secondary Succession

Properties Primary Succession Secondary Succession
It is a type of succession that starts from It is the type of succession which occurs in a
Meaning
barren or uninhabited land. habitat where life existed previously.
It occurs in recently denuded or previously

Occurs It occurs in lifeless or barren areas.
inhabited areas.
Time to Takes around 1000 years, which may be

It takes place in 50 to 200 years.
complete more.
Conditions are least suitable for the As life once existed. There is the presence of
Physica l
Condition s survival of life. Soil is devoid of soil and may also even some nutrients in the
nutrients or there is no soil at all. soil.
Humus is present due to the presence of

Humus Humus is absent.
previous inhabitants.
Seral There are several intermediary sera l Few intermediary seral communities are
community communities. present, compared to the primary succession.
It begins with an unfavourable The environment is more or less favourable

Environment
environment. right from the beginning.
The areas that are affected by natural

Bare rock, ponds, desert, lava-filled
Examples calamities, covered under deforestation, or
lands, etc.
devastated by human interactions, etc.
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Primary succession:
Phytoplankton
Submerged plant stage
Submerged free floating plant
Reed-swamp stage
Marsh meadow stage
Scrub stage
Forest
Hydrarch succession is a form of plant succession that starts in a shallow water and eventually culminates
in a forest.
Xerarch succession is a form of plant succession, which starts from a very dry place and eventually
culminates in the mature forest.
Differences between Hydrarch succession and Xerarch succession

Hydrarch succession Xerarch succession
1.This succession begins in the water first and then 1.This succession begins in a dry area and then
results into a forest. results into a forest.
2.This progresses from hydric to mesic condition. 2.This progresses from xeric to mesic condition..
3.It begins from the phytoplankton stage. 3.It begins from bare rocks.
4.Usually they start growing on shallow ponds, 4.It usually start growing on rock deserts and sand
lakes and other water bodies. dunes.
NUTRIENT CYCLING:
The movement of nutrient elements through the various component of an ecosystem is called
nutrient cycling or biogeochemical cycle.
Standing state: The amount nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium etc. present in soil
at any given time.
Nutrient cycles are of two types: Gaseous cycle and Sedimentary cycle.
The reservoir for gaseous type of nutrient cycle (nitrogen, carbon) exists in the atmosphere.
The reservoir for sedimentary cycle (sulphur, phosphorus) is Earth’s crust.
107
Carbon cycle:
* Carbon constitutes 49 percent of dry weight of

organism.
* Large amount of carbon returned to the atmosphere as
CO2 through respiration of producers and consumers.
* Decomposers also return CO2 to reservoir during
decomposition process.
* Some amount of Carbon is lost to sediments and
removed from circulation.
* Burning wood, forest fire, combustion of organic
matter, fossil fuel, volcanic activities are additional
sources for releasing CO2 to atmosphere.
Phosphorus cycle:
* Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological
membranes, nucleic acids and cellular energy transfer
system(ATP)
* Animals need phosphorus to make shell, bones and
teeth.
* Reservoir pool of phosphorus is the rock, which
contain phosphorus in the form of phosphates.
* During weathering of rock small amount of
phosphates dissolved in soil solution and are
absorbed by the roots of the plants.
* Herbivore and other animals obtain organic form of
phosphorus from plants.
* The waste product and dead organisms are
decomposed by phosphate-solubilising bacteria
releasing phosphorus.
Differences between phosphorus cycle and carbon cycle
* There is no respiratory release of phosphorus into atmosphere.

* Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are much smaller.
* Gaseous exchange of phosphorus between organism and environment are negligible.
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES:
* The products of ecosystem processes are named as ecosystem services.
* Healthy forest ecosystems purify air and water.
* Mitigate droughts and flood.
* Cycle nutrients and generates fertile soil.
* Provide wildlife habitat, maintain biodiversity and pollinate crops.
* Provide storage site for carbon
* Provides aesthetic, cultural and spiritual values
108
Chapter 15 - BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Biodiversity: the term biodiversity refers to the totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region.
Types of biodiversity described by Edward Wilson:
Genetic diversity Species diversity Ecological diversity

A single species might show high The diversity at the species Diversity in the ecosystem
diversity at the genetic level over its level. level like desert, rain
distributional range. Eg. The Western Ghats ahave a forest, mangroves, coral
Eg. Medicinal plant Rauwolfia vomitoria greater amphibian species reef, wetlands, estuaries
of Himalayan range produces active diversity than Eastern Ghats. etc.
chemical reserpine shows genetic
variation.
India has more than 50000 different
strain of rice.
1000 varieties of mango.
Global Biodiversity: Proportionate number of species of major taxa of plants, invertebrates and vertebrates.
Pattern of Biodiversity:
Latitudinal gradients:
* Species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards the pole.
* Tropic (23.5o N to 23.5o S) harbors more species than temperate and pole
* The largely tropical Amazonian rain forest in South America has the greatest biodiversity on
earth:
* 40,000 species of plants, .3000 species of fishes, 1300 of birds, 427 amphibians, 378 reptiles and
more than 1, 25,000 invertebrates.
109
* Unlike temperate regions subjected to frequent glaciations in the past, tropical latitudes have
remained relatively undisturbed for millions of years and thus, had a long evolutionary time for
species diversification.
* Tropical environments. Unlike temperate ones, are less seasonal, relatively more constant and
predictable, promotes niche specialization and lead to greater species diversity.
* There is more solar energy available in the tropics, which contribute to higher productivity.
Species area relationship:
* ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT observed within a region species richness increased with
increasing explored area but only up to a limit.
* The relation between species richness and area for a wide variety of taxa turns out to be a
rectangular hyperbola.
* On a logarithmic scale the relationship is a straight line describe by the equation LogS = logC +Z
log A
Where S= species richness, A = Area, Z = slope of the line (regression coefficient), C =
Y- intercept.
Species area relationship:
ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT observed within a
region species richness increased with increasing expl
ored area but only up to a limit.
The relation between species richness and area for a wide
variety of taxa turns out to be a rectangular hyperbola.
On a logarithmic scale the relationship is a straight line
describe by the equation
LogS = logC +Z log A
Where S= species richness, A = Area, Z = slope of the line

(regression coefficient), C = Y- intercept.
It has been noted that regardless of the taxonomic group or
region the slope of the regression line are amazingly
similar. However, for a very large area like the entire
continent the slope of the line is steeper.
David Tillman’s long-term field experiment finds that:

* Plots with more species showed less year to year variation in biomass
* Increased diversity contributed to higher productivity.
The rivet popper hypothesis:

* In an airplane (ecosystem) all parts are joined together by thousands of rivets (species).
* If every passenger starts popping a rivet to take home (species extinct), it may not affect
flight safety initially but as more and more rivets are removed the plane becomes
dangerously weak.
* Further more which rivet is removed may also be critical.
* Loss of rivets on the wings (key species) is obviously a more serious threat to flight safety
than loss of a few rivets on the seats or windows inside the plane.
Loss of Biodiversity:
* The IUCN Red List (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species.
* Recent extinction includes: Dodo (Mauritius), Quake (Africa), Thylacine (Australia), Stiller’s cow
(Russia), Three subspecies of tiger (Bali, Java, Caspian).
110
* Since the origin and diversification of life on earth there were five episodes of mass extinction of
species.
The sixth mass Extinctions in progress now.
The Sixth Extinction is different from the previous five extinctions because the current extinction
rate is 100 to 1000 times fasterdue to this one is anthropogenic influence.
Effects of biodiversity loss:

* Decline in plant production.
* Lowered resistance to environmental perturbations such as drought.
* Increased variability in certain ecosystem processes such as plant productivity, water use, and pest
and disease cycle.
Causes of biodiversity loss:

The present loss is all due to human activity (anthropogenic)
There are four major causes known as “The Evil Quartet” are as follows:
* Habitat loss and fragmentation:
* Over-exploitation:
* Alien species invasion:
Eg. i) Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa led to extinction of 200 species of cichlid
fish in the lake.
ii) Parthenium, (carrot grass), Lantana, and water hyacinth (Eichornia) posed a thread to indigenous
species.
iii) African cat fish Clarias gariepinus for aquaculture purposed is posing a threat to indigenous
catfishes in our rivers.
Co-extinction:
When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it an obligatory way also
become extinct. Extinction of Host species leads to extinction of the parasite also. Co-evolved plant-
pollinator mutualism where extinction of one invariably lead to the extinction of the other.
Conservation of Biodiversity:
Reason for conservation biodiversity is grouped into three categories.
i) Narrowly utilitarian.
ii)Broadly utilitarian
iii)Ethical
Narrowly utilitarian:
* Human derive countless direct economic benefits from nature-
* Food (cereals, pulses, fruits), firewood, fiber, construction material.
* Industrial products (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes)
* Products of medicinal importance.
* Bioprospecting: exploring molecular genetic and species-level diversity for products of economic
importance.
Broadly Utilitarian
* Amazonian forest along produce 20% of oxygen during photosynthesis.
* Pollinator layer: bees, bumblebees, birds and bat that pollinate the plant without which seed cannot
be produced by plants.
* Aesthetic pleasure we get from the biodiversity.
111
Two types of conservation of biodiversity: In situ and Ex situ conservation.
In situ conservation:
* When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all level is protected – we
save the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in situ (on site) conservation.
* Biodiversity hot spot: regions with very high levels of species richness and high degree of
endemism.(species confined to that region and not found anywhere else)
* Hot spot in biodiversity is also regions of accelerated habitat loss.
* Out of 34 hot spot in the world, three hot spot located in India:
o Western Ghats and Srilanka.
o Indo-Burma.
o Himalaya.
* Other protected area under in situ conservations are:
o 14 biosphere reserve
o 90 national park
o 448 wild life sanctuary
* Sacred groves: tract of forest were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife within were venerated
and given total protection.
Ex situ conservation: threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat and placed
in special setting where they can be protected and given special care.
* Zoological Park.
* Botanical garden
* Wildlife safari.
* Conservation of gamete by cryopreservation.
* Genetic strains are preserved in seed bank.
* Convention on Biodiversity:
* “The earth Summit” held in Rio de Jeneiro in 1992 called upon all nations to take appropriate
measures for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilization of its benefits.
* World Summit on Sustainable development held in 2002 in Johannesburg, South Africa, 190
countries pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction in the current rate of
biodiversity loss at global, regional and local level.
**************************************************************
112
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN, ZIET GWALIOR
Interactive Study Material
CLASS - XII (2022-23)
ECONOMICS
Shri. Joseph K.A.
Training Associate (Economics),

KVS- ZIET, Gwalior
CONTENTS
SL. DETAILS/UNITS PAGE NUMBER

NO
.
1 National Income and Related Aggregates 4 to 11
2 Money and Banking 12 to 14
3 Determination of Income and Employment 15 to 18
7 Government Budget and the Economy 19 to 22
8 Balance of Payments 23 to 36
9 Development Experience (1947-1990) and 37 to 50

Economic Reforms since 1991
10 Current Challenges Facing Indian Economy 51 to 64
11 Development Experience of India- Comparison with 65 to 69

Neighbours
12 CBSE syllabus
Economics_SrSec_20
22-23.pdf
3
Unit: 1- NATIONAL INCOME AND RELATED AGGREGATES
GIST OF THE LESSON:

CONCEPTS OF STOCK AND FLOW
BASIS STOCK FLOW

Meaning It refers to that variable which It refers to that variable which
is measured at a particular is measured over a period of
point of time time
Time dimension It does not have time It has time dimension as its
dimension magnitude can be measured
over a period of time.(a week,
a month, a year)
Concept Static concept Dynamic concept
Examples  Money supply  Transaction in money
 National wealth  National income
 Capital stock  Investment
 Quantity of wheat  Quantity of wheat
stored produced
 Total population as on  Number of births in the
31.03.2019 year 2018
 Total number of  Total number of houses
houses as on constructed
31.03.2019
TYPES OF CIRCULAR FLOW
Real flow
 It refers to flow of factor services from households to firms and the corresponding flow
of goods and services from firms to households
 The household provides factor services to the firms which in turn provide goods and
services to them as reward for their productive services.
 It determines the magnitude of growth process in an economy
Money flow
 It refers to flow of factor payments from firms to households for the factor services
rendered by households and the corresponding flow of consumption expenditure from
households to firms for the purchase of goods and services
 It involves exchange of money
 It is known as Nominal flow
4
FACTOR PAYMENTS
FACTOR SERVICES R
REAL FLOW
HOUSEHOLD FIRM
GOODS AND SERVICES

M
MONEY FLOW
CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE
BASIC CONCEPTS
1. Normal Resident – it refers to an individual or an institution who resides in a country for more
than one year and whose economic interest lies in that country
Following are not included in “Normal resident”:
a. Foreign tourists who visit for recreation, holiday, medical treatment, study
b. Foreign staff of embassies, diplomats and members of armed forces of a foreign country
located in the given country etc
c. International organisations like UNO, WHO.- they are treated as residents of
international area
d. Employees of international organisation are considered as residents of the countries to
which they belong and not of the international area. But if the employees work for more
than one year in such international institutions, then they become the normal residents of
the country in which such institutions are located.
e. Crew members of foreign vessels provided their stay is less than one year
f. Border workers who live near international border and cross the border on a regular basis
to work in the other country. They are treated as normal resident of the country where
they live.
5
2. Factor Income and Transfer Income
Factor Income/ Factor payments Transfer Income / Transfer payments
It refers to income earned by the factors of It refers to income received without rendering any
production for rendering factor services productive services
It is included in National and Domestic income It is not included in National and domestic income
It is bilateral It is unilateral transfers
It is received by factors of production It is received by household, firm and government
sector
Rent, interest, wages, profits Scholarships, unemployment allowance, Old age
pension, subsidy, taxes
3. Final Goods and Intermediate goods
Final Goods Intermediate goods
These are those goods which are used for final These are those goods which are either used for
consumption or for investment resale or for further production in the same year
Included in National and domestic income Not Included in National and domestic income
They cross the production boundary They are within the production boundary
Ready to use by their final users and no value has Not ready for use by their final users and value has
to be added to final goods to be added to intermediate goods
Milk purchased by households Milk used in sweets shop for preparation of sweets
4. Consumption goods and Capital goods
Consumption goods Capital goods
These goods satisfy human wants directly These goods satisfy human wants indirectly
They have direct demand They have derived demand
They donot raise production capacity They raise production capacity
6
Most consumption goods (except durable goods) Capital goods ) has expected limited life of more
has limited life than one year.
5. Gross investment, Net investment and Depreciation
a. Gross Investment – addition to stock of capital before making allowance for capital.
(Gross investment = Expenditure on purchase of fixed assets + Unsold stock)
b. Net investment – actual addition made to the capital stock during a given period of time.
(Net investment = Gross investment – Depreciation)
c. Depreciation – Fall in the value of fixed assets due to normal wear and tear, passage of
time or expected obsolescence (change in technology)
6. Net Factor Income from Abroad (NFIA) = Factor income Received from Abroad minus
Factor income Paid to Abroad
NATIONAL INCOME FORMULAE
1. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT at market price – it is the money value of all final goods and
services produced within the domestic territory by residents and non-residents during a given
period of time including depreciation
2. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT at factor cost – it is the sum of all factor income earned by
the factors of production within the domestic territory by residents and non-residents during a
given period of time including depreciation
GDP fc = GDP mp – Net Indirect Tax
3. NET DOMESTIC PRODUCT at market price – it is the money value of all final goods and
services produced within the domestic territory by residents and non-residents during a given
period of time excluding depreciation
NDP mp = GDP mp - depreciation
4. NET DOMESTIC PRODUCT at factor cost – it is the sum of all factor income earned by the
factors of production within the domestic territory by residents and non-residents during a given
period of time excluding depreciation
7
NDP fc = GDP mp - depreciation– Net Indirect Tax
Domestic factor income (NDP fc) = Compensation of Employees (wages and salary
+employer’s contribution to social security+ bonus +
pension of retired person)
+ Operating Surplus ( rent + interest + royalty+ profit)
+ Mixed income of self employed
5. GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT at market price – it is the money value of all final goods and
services produced by residents within the domestic territory and abroad during a given period of
time including depreciation
GNP mp = GDP mp + Net factor income from abroad
6. GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT at factor cost – it is the sum of all factor income earned by
the factors of production by residents within the domestic territory and abroad during a given
period of time including depreciation
GNP fc = GDP mp + Net factor income from abroad – Net indirect tax
OR
GNP fc = GNP mp - Net indirect tax
7. NET NATIONAL PRODUCT at market price – it is the money value of all final goods and
services produced within the domestic territory and abroad by residents during a given period of
time excluding depreciation
8. NET NATIONAL PRODUCT at factor cost – it is the sum of all factor income earned by the
factors of production within the domestic territory and abroad by residents during a given period
of time excluding depreciation
NNP fc = GDP mp - depreciation– Net Indirect Tax +Net factor income from abroad
OR
NNP fc = NDP fc (DFI) +Net factor income from abroad
Methods of Measuring National Income

I. INCOME METHOD
Step 1 - Classification of Production Units into primary, secondary and

Tertiary sectors.
Step 2. Calculation of Domestic Factor Income (NDP at FC)
NDPfc = Compensation of Employees (wages and salary+ employer’s

contribution to social security schemes + pension of retired person)
8
+ Operating Surplus ( rent + interest + royalty+ profit)
+ Mixed income of self employed
Step 3. NDP fc + NFIA = NNP fc (National Income)
II. VALUE ADDED METHOD
Step 1 - Classification of Production Sectors-
All the production units will be classified into primary, secondary and tertiary
sectors
Step 2- Calculation of Net Value Added at FC=
(NDP at FC)
= Value of output (Sales + change in stock) – intermediate consumption–

depreciation – Net indirect tax.
Step 3- Adding NFIA to get NNP at FC
NDP at FC + NFIA = NNP at FC
III. EXPENDITURE METHOD
Step 1 – Classification of Sectors Incurring Expenditure on GDP- Household

Sector, Investment Sector (Production Sector), Government Sector, Foreign
Sector (Rest of the World Sector).
9
Step 2- Calculation of expenditure from all the Four sectors of the economy
GDP mp = Private final consumption expenditure
+ government final consumption expenditure
+ gross domestic capital formation ( gross domestic fixed capital

formation + change in stock)
+ Net Exports ( Export – Import)
Step 3 – Calculation of National Income
GDP mp – depreciation – Net indirect tax + NFIA = NNP fc
E-Material
1. Basic Concepts of National Income Accounting (pdf):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1HqYbBd3gOLtXgABtyQitpV5YtDNLh4Pd/view?usp=share_li
nk
3. National Income - Income Method (Video Lesson):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQ0sHBg_W_M&t=21s
COMPONENTS OF DOMESTIC FACTOR INCOME
10
Domestic Factor Income=
NDP at FC
Operating Surplus Mixed Income of

Compensation of
Self-Employed
Employees
Income From Income From
Property Entrepreneur
Wages Employers ship (Profit)
and Contributi
Ren Roy
on to Inter
Salaries t alty
Social est
Cor
Security Divi por
den atio
In In Undistri
d n
Cas Kin buted
Tax
h d Profit
4. Value Added Method (Video Lesson):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Dq35J_UrG37G96dEXVCJAgllxvl6M34u/view?usp=sharing
7. National Income- Expenditure method:
(Video Lesson):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/10Vmm5oEX2JvRJ8EmNVBxY7B7Ijusij9c/vie
w?usp=sharing
8. GDP and Welfare: ( Audio Explanation)-
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1URkrx726SHuzhtOpDfz5TwZ6QTKRwcWp/view?usp=sharing
11
Unit-2: MONEY AND BANKING
GIST OF THE LESSON:

Barter Exchange: Direct exchange of goods for goods without use of money. For example
exchanging rice for wheat.
Difficulties involved in the Barter Exchange:

1. Lack of a common measure of value.
2. Lack of double coincidence of wants
3. Difficulty in store of value.
4 Lack of divisibility
Money: Money is anything which is generally acceptable as a medium of exchange and at the
same time acts as a measure of value, store of value and standard of deferred payment.
Functions of Money:
1. Primary Functions
a. Medium of exchange
b. Common measure of value or unit of account
2. Secondary Functions
a. Standard of deferred payment
b. Store of value
c. Transfer of value
Supply of Money: Total stock of money (currency notes, coins and demand deposit of banks) in
circulation are held by the public at a given point of time.
Measures of Money Supply
M1 = C + DD + OD
C = Currency and coins with the public
DD = Demand deposits of the public with the banks
OD = Other deposits
M2 = M1+ Post office savings deposits
M3 = M1+ Time deposits of commercial banks
M4= M3+ Total deposits with the post office saving organisation excluding NSC
Banking :
Commercial Banks: Commercial Banks are financial institutions which accept deposits from
the public and provide loans facilities for investment with the aim of earning profit.
12
Functions of Commercial Banks
(a) Accepting deposits
(b) Advancing loans
(c) Discounting bill of exchange.
(d) Transfer of fund
(e) Collection of funds
(f) Purchase and sale of shares and securities on behalf of the customers
MONEY CREATION OR CREDIT CREATION BY COMMERCIAL BANKS

CREDIT is defined as finance made available by one party to another party on a certain rate of
exchange.
“Commercial Banks are not only dealers of money, but manufacturers of money and credit also”.
The capacity of banks to create money or credit depends on (i) Amount of primary deposits and
(ii) Legal reserve ratio(LRR).
Total credit created = Credit Multiplier x Primary deposits
Credit Multiplier = 1/ LRR
Central Banks: The central Bank is the apex institution of monetary and financial system of a
country. It makes monetary policy of the country in public interest. It manages, supervises and
facilitates the banking system of the country.
Functions of Central Banks
1. Bank of Issue
2. Banker , Agent and Advisor to the Government
3. Banker’s Bank
4. Controller of credit.
5. Lender of last resort
Credit Control Measures by Central Bank:-
I. Quantitative Measures:
1- Bank Rate Policy:- Rate charged by centreal bank from commercial banks for providing
loans to them.
13
Repo rate : Repo rate is the rate at which the central bank of a country (Reserve Bank of India in
case of India) lends money to commercial banks in the event of any shortfall of funds
Reverse repo rate : Reverse repo rate is the rate at which commercial banks can park their
surplus funds with central bank
2. Open Market Operations: It means the purchase and sale of securities in the Open Market by
Central Bank.
3- Legal Reserve Ratio(LRR):- is fixed by the central bank of a country and it is the sum of
CRR and SLR.
(a) Cash Reserve Ratio(CRR):- It is a part of LRR which is to be kept with the central bank in
the form of cash.
(b) Statutory Liquidity Ratio(SLR):- It is a part of LRR which is to be kept with the bank
themselves in the form of liquid assets.
II. Qualitative Measures:

1. Moral Suasion:
2. Margin Requirements:
3. Credit Rationing (Selective Credit):
4. Direct Action:
E- MATERIAL
1. Money- Functions and Money Supply (Video Lesson):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1JMwoPU_NXDGHw1LRCsKGFMvBzCBdZhZu/view?usp=sharing
2. Important Terms: (pdf)

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1fgzer0g2jgwnv8nxYN_e5zSxFGLZfUgz/view?usp=sharing
BANKING:
3. Credit/Money Creation and Functions of Central Bank (Video Lesson):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-kq1PbRPubAe3WOCBH7Xy_I667xSpmXq/view?usp=sharing
14
Unit 3: DETERMINATION OF INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT
GIST OF THE LESSON:

 Determination of income, output and employment is the core of the subject matter of
macroeconomics.
 AD and AS together determine the level of income, output and employment.
 Aggregate demand (AD): is the total demand of goods and service in the economy.
AD represents the total expenditure on goods and services in an economy
 The main components of AD are-
1. House hold consumption demand(C).

2. Investment demand (I).
3. Government demand (G).
4. Net export (X-M).
AD = C + I + G + X-M
 Household consumption expenditure (C), is the expenditure incurred by the household
on the purchase of goods and services to satisfy their wants.
 Investment expenditure (I) refers to the expenditure incurred by the private firms and
government on the purchase of capital goods such as plant, machinery and equipment.
 Government consumption expenditure (G) refers to the expenditure incurred by the
general government on the purchase of goods and services, to provide to the people either
freely or at a nominal price.
 Net export (X-M), refers to the difference between export and import.
Hence, AD=C+I+G+(X-M).
In a two sector economy AD =C + I.
 Aggregate supply (AS): is the total supply of goods and services in the economy.
It is also the value of total output available is an economy during a given period of
time.
It is the sum total of consumption expenditure and saving.
AS = C + S
Aggregate supply represents the national income of the country.
AS = Y (National Income)
CONSUMPTION FUNCTION AND PROPENSITY TO CONSUME

 The relationship between consumption and income is called propensity to consume or
consumption function.
1. C=f(Y).
 Consumption function may be represented by an equation C= C₀ + b(Y)
C =consumption, C₀ =consumption at zero level of income b=MPC (slope of
the consumption curve) Y=income. The consumption equation shows the level of
consumption for various level of income.
 Propensity to consume has two aspects:
A) Average propensity to consume (APC)
B) Marginal propensity to consume (MPC).
 APC= ratio of total consumption to total income.
APC=C/Y.
15
 MPC=∆C/∆Y.
 Propensity to save indicates the tendency of the households to save at a given level of
income. It shows the relation between saving and income.
 Propensity to save has two apects:
A. Average propensity to save (APS)= S/Y.
B. Marginal propensity to save.(MPS) = ∆S/∆Y.
 Average propensity to save is the ratio of saving to income .
 M arginal propensity to save is the ratio of change in saving to change in income
MPS=∆S/∆Y.
 There is relationship between APC and APS.
APC+APS=1
APC=1-APS.
 There is relationship between MPC and MPS.
MPC+MPS=1
1-MPC=MPS.
Meaning of involuntary unemployment and full employment.
 Involuntary unemployment refers to a situation in which people are ready to work at
prevailing wage rate, but do not find work.
 Full employment refers to a situation in which no one is unemployed i.e.…there is no
involuntary unemployment.
 According to Keynes, full employment signifies a level of employment where increase in
aggregate demand does not lead to an increase in the level of output and employment.
Increase in demand beyond full employment causes prices to go up.
DETERMINATION OF EQUILIBRIUM LEVEL OF INCOME AND

EMPLOYMENT.
 The determination of income and employment in the Keynesian theory depends on the
level of AD and AS.
 Equilibrium level of income and output is determined where,
1) AD=AS 2) Planned saving =planned investment(S=I).
 In a two sector economy AD=C+I, AS=C+S, Y=C+I.
 Suppose that C=40+0.75Y(CONSUMPTION FUNCTION) and I =Rs.60 (investment
function),then the equilibrium level of income is obtained as:
Y=C+I
Y=40+0.75Y+60 Y-
0.75Y=100
0.25Y=100
Y=10000/25
Y=400crores.
 Investment multipliers and its working.
 Investment multiplier explains the relationship between increase in investment and the
resultant increase in income.
 Investment multiplier is the ratio of change in income to change in investment.
16
Multiplier (k) =∆y/∆I.
 The value of multiplier depends on the value of marginal propensity to consume
(MPC).
 There is direct relationship between k and MPC.
 Multiplier also depends on the marginal propensity to save
 There is inverse relationship between multiplier and MPS.
IMPORTANT FORMULAE.
 AD=C+I (two sector economy).
 APC=C/Y.
 APS=S/Y.
 APC+APS=1
 MPC=∆C/∆Y
 MPS=∆S/∆Y
 MPS+MPC=1 AND 1-MPC=MPS
 Multiplier K=∆Y/∆I or K=1/MPS or K=1/1-MPC
 C= C₀ +b(Y)
 S= - C₀ +(1-b)Y
C₀ = autonomous consumption
b= MPC
- C₀ = negative saving
(1-b) = MPS
 EXCESS DEMAND AND DEFICIENT DEMAND

 When AD is more than AS at full employment level, the situation is called excess demand.
The difference between AD and AS at full employment level in a situation of excess
demand is called inflationary gap.
 When AD is less than AS at full employment level, the situation is termed as deficient
demand. The difference between AD and AS at full employment level in a situation of
deficient demand is termed as deflationary gap.
E-MATERIAL
1. Determination of Income- AD=AS (Video Lesson):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1BUG4HxHkB1RO3SNXIIUt6iC1QQRQHoZ_/vie
w?usp=sharing
17
2. Meaning of Excess Demand and Deficient Demand (Video Lesson):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1xYGhcNV5pTit-5iCNP-dIl9m8-
4SSgeC/view?usp=sharing
3. Measures to correct Excess Demand and Deficient Demand (Video Lesson):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/18EWZIOoNz2XEAZ5LiyfokQd-
HvfbuSLL/view?usp=sharing
18
Unit 4: GOVERNMENT BUDGET AND THE ECONOMY
GIST OF THE LESSON:

BUDGET –
It is an annual financial statement containing an estimate of all anticipated (expected) revenue

and proposed expenditure of the government for the coming financial year/Fiscal year.
Features of the budget-
 It is the statement of expected revenue and proposed expenditure for the coming financial
year.
 There must be a sanctioning authority
 Has periodicity
 It shows procedure to collect revenue and administer expenditure.
Objectives of government budget-
1. Reallocation of resources –
Many a times the market forces are not able to reallocate the resources. The government has to
reallocate resources based on social and economic aspect. For example consumption of harmful
consumer goods can be discouraged by imposing high taxes and production of socially useful
goods such as food grains, medicine, housing etc can be encouraged through subsidies and tax
concessions.
2. Redistribution of income and wealth –

Government through its budget reduces the inequalities in income and wealth through use of
various instruments of taxation and increasing expenditure on social welfare, subsidies, public
works etc. Thus the government taxes the rich and the revenue received is used in the welfare of
poor people like providing basic facilities of infrastructure, schools, health facility etc. The welfare
programs include MNREGA, Mid Day Meal Scheme, AAY etc. This is done to ensure there is no
concentration of wealth in the hands of few people. The gap between the rich and the poor can be
narrowed down.
3. Economic stability-
The government budget is used to prevent economic fluctuations. Economics fluctuations refer to
the situation of inflation and deflation. Inflation means continuous rise in prices. This happens
when demand is more than supply. Deflation refers to situation when prices keep falling
continuously. This happens when demand is less than supply. It uses various fiscal policy
measures to reduce these fluctuations. Economic stability increases the rate of investment and in
turn increases the rate of economic growth and development
.
4. Management of Public enterprises-
19
Government undertakes commercial activity through its public enterprise. The management and
operation of these enterprises is the responsibility of the government as these enterprises promote
social welfare. Example railways, electricity, oil exploration etc.
COMPONENETS OF BUDGET
A. BUDGET RECEPITS
Budget Receipts are Revenue Receipts and Capital receipts:
Revenue receipts Capital receipts

 Does not create liability  Creates liability
 Does not cause reduction in  Cause reduction in assets
assets
 These are –  These include
Tax revenue – 1. Small savings(deposits in post office,
(includes direct and indirect tax) NSC,saving accounts and public
Non- tax revenue – provident fund )
(commercial revenue and 2. Loans taken by the government from
administrative revenue) public, RBI and other parties through
sale of treasury bills
3. Loans taken by the government from
foreign countries and IMF and world
bank
4. Recoveries of loan
5. Disinvestment proceeds
B. BUDGET EXPENDITURES:
Budget expenditures are revenue expenditure and capital expenditure:
I. Revenue Expenditure:
 Expenditure incurred for the normal functioning of the government.

 Does not create any asset
 Does not cause reduction in liability of the government
 It is recurring type
 Also called non- development expenditure.
 Eg. Expenditure on Civil administration, defence, post and telegraph, salaries of
administrators, judges etc.
II. Capital Expenditure:
 Expenditure on the acquisitions of the asset and increases productive capacity.

 Creates assets
 Cause reduction in liability
20
 It is non- recurring
 Also called development expenditure
 Construction of land and building, roads, loans and advances granted by central
government to state government.
MEASURES OF BUDGET DEFICIT
1. Revenue deficit – it refers to excess of Revenue expenditure over Revenue receipts
REVENUE DEFICIT = REVENUE EXPENDITURE – REVENUE RECEIPTS
Implications / Significance
1. It indicates dissavings on government account

2. It gives information on what the government is borrowing for
3. Capital receipts are used by the government to finance its consumption expenditure
which leads to inflation in the economy.
4. It leads to repayment burden in the future.
How to reduce Revenue deficit
1. Increase Revenue receipts

2. Decrease revenue expenditure
2. Fiscal deficit – it is the excess of total expenditure (revenue expenditure and capital
expenditure) over total receipts ( revenue receipts and capital receipts excluding borrowings)
FISCAL DEFICIT = total expenditure (revenue expenditure + capital expenditure) –total receipts
(revenue receipts and capital receipts excluding borrowings)
FISCAL DEFICIT = BORROWINGS
Implications / Significance of Fiscal Deficit:
1. Debt trap – Borrowing creates problem of not only paying the interest but repayment of
loans. As government borrowing increases, its future liability to repay the loan amount
along with interest also increases. Increase in interest payments increases the revenue
expenditure of the government, leading to high revenue deficit and the government has to borrow
more to repay the past loans. Thus there is a cycle of debt trap.
2. Inflation – as government borrows from RBI, it results in printing of new currency notes and
coins. If the loan is used by the government for unproductive purpose then it may result in
inflation as the money supply increases due to increase in employment, hence demand increases
without corresponding increase in output/ supply in the economy. Unproductive purpose means
which does not result in the production of goods and services.
Foreign Dependence- if the government borrows money from other countries or financial institutions
then these countries and institutions will try to interfere in the economic policies of the government
21
3. Retards economic growth- borrowings put a financial burden on the future generation to repay
the past loan and its interest thereon. This retards the growth of the economy.
How to reduce Fiscal deficit
1. Reduce revenue expenditure like subsidies and government spending on unproductive

purpose
2. Reduce non-development expenditure
3. Tax base must be broadened
4. Tax evasion must be reduced
5. Restructuring and sale of public sector shares.
6. Borrowings must be done from domestic sources only like commercial banks or deficit
financing from RBI.
3. Primary Deficit – it is fiscal deficit minus interest payments on previous borrowings

PRIMARY DEFICIT = FISCAL DEFICIT – INTEREST PAYMENTS
Implications / Significance:
1. It shows how much government borrowing is able to meet other expenses other than the
interest payments
2. If primary deficit is zero it means the whole borrowings is used to cover the interest
payments of previous borrowings. It is not adding to the existing loans.
BALANCED BUDGET :– It is where estimated revenue equals estimated expenditure
BUDGETORY DEFICIT = TOTAL EXPENDITURE (revenue expenditure+ capital

expenditure) - TOTAL RECEIPTS (revenue receipts+ capital receipts)
E-MATERIAL:
1. Video Lesson:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rL42cPr3HQw (Video Lesson)
2. Gist of the Lesson (pdf):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1BwIwvE79E3ZpmGAt0YetKtMKs26Un57Z/view?
usp=sharing
22
UNIT-5: BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
Gist of the Lesson:
Balance of payments (BoP)
Balance of payments is a systematic record which shows all international transactions of
a country with the rest of the world during a year.
Balance of payments takes into account the exchange of both visible and invisible
items. Hence the balance of payment represents a better picture of a country’s economic
transactions with the rest of the world than the balance of trade.
Meaning of Balance of Trade (BoT)
Trade account of the balance of the payments includes exports and imports of only goods in a
year. The difference between the value of exports of goods and value of imports of goods is
called balance of trade.
Balance of payments accounting is an accounting system used to measure international

flows of money and products (goods, services, and resources) during an accounting year.
Each exchange is assigned both a positive and a negative value:
Generally, a positive value (+) is assigned to exports—and that includes exports of money or
other financial assets as well as exports of products.
Generally, a negative value (-) is assigned to imports—and that includes imports of money and
other financial assets as well as imports of products
The actual accounting simply records the flows as they are measured over any specified time
period.
The balance of trade is a part of balance of payment. Balance of trade simply deals with the
export and import of goods. Balance of trade doesn’t include any services (not even the import
and export of services; we have a different name for that).
Balance of payment, on the other hand, is a much broader concept. It includes the balance of
trade, the balance of services, balance of unilateral transfers, and balance of payment on capital
account.
23
The idea behind the balance of payment is to see whether both sides match. In other words, we
will see whether the total of both sides (debit and credit) will equal to zero (we will see the
examples in later sections).
In this article, discuss head to head differences between balance of trade vs balance of payments.
Balance of Trade vs Balance of Payments Infographics
Balance of trade is just a smaller part of balance of payments. Let’s look at the differences
between balance of trade and balance of payments below –
Here are the key differences between balance of trade and balance of payments –
Balance of trade can be calculated by deducting the value of imports of goods from the value of
exports of goods. Balance of payments, on the other hand, can be calculated by adding balance
of payments at current account and balance of payments at capital account or by finding out the
net balance between inflow of foreign exchange and outflow of foreign exchange.
Balance of trade portrays a partial picture of foreign exchange. Balance of payments, on the
other hand, provides a holistic picture.
The net effect of balance of trade can be positive, negative, or zero. The net effect of balance of
payments would always be zero.
Capital and unilateral transfers are not included in the balance of trade. Capital and unilateral
transfers are major parts of balance of payments.
Balance of trade is a sub-set of balance of payments. Without computing balance of trade, we

would not be able to see the net effect of export and import in the balance of payments.
Balance of Trade vs Balance of Payments:
Basis for Comparison between Balance of Trade Balance of Payments

balance of trade vs balance of
payments
Meaning Balance of trade can be Balance of payments is the
defined as the net balance sum total of balance of
of the export of goods and trade, balance of services,
the import of goods in a balance of unilateral
given period of time. transfers, and capital
account
What it’s all about? Balance of trade helps a Balance of payment helps to
country look at the net see whether everything is
profit or net loss incurred properly accounted for.
by the export and the import
24
of goods
Difference Balance of trade is the Balance of payments is the
difference between exports difference between inflow
of goods and imports of of foreign exchange and
goods. outflow of foreign
exchange.
Net effect The net effect of balance of The net effect of balance of
trade is either positive, payments is always zero.
negative or zero
Type of transactions The entries in balance of Transactions related to
trade are related to goods. goods, services, transfers
are included in balance of
payments.
Capital and unilateral transfers Capital and unilateral Capital and unilateral
transfers are not included in transfers are included in the
the balance of trade. balance of payments.
Holistic picture Does only provide partial Provides the whole picture.
picture.
Structure (or components) of BOP
(A) CURRENT ACCOUNT

(B) CAPITAL ACCOUNT
(A) CURRENT ACCOUNT: Current account is that account of BOP which records imports
and exports of goods and services and unilateral transfers. It , thus, records the following
three items
(i) Visible items of trade
(ii) Invisible items and
(iii) Unilateral transfers
Current account deals with currently produced goods and services. Current account
transactions are called account by actual transactions, because all the items included
in it are actually transacted.
Items of current account:
(i) Exports and Imports of Visible Items: Exports and imports of goods are also called
transactions of visible items or merchandise. Therefore balance of trade is also called
balance on visible.
If exports are greater than imports of goods, the balance of trade account is said surplus.
Export of Goods > Imports of Goods = Surplus Balance of Trade
25
If exports are less than the imports of goods, the balance of trade account is said deficit.
Export of Goods < Imports of Goods = Deficit Balance of Trade
(ii) Balance on Account of Invisible :
Non-factor services are a part of invisible. This includes shipping, banking, insurance and
consultancy services, foreign travels, investment, transfer payment etc.
(a) Services-banking, insurance, shipping etc.: When a country gets such services from
other countries, it is called import of services for which payments in foreign currencies
are made. Similarly when a country provides these services to the other countries it is
called exports of services for which it gets payments in foreign currencies?
(b) Foreign Travel (Tourism): When foreign tourists visit a country, in receipts foreign
currencies which they spend during their stay. Similarly when people of a country visit
other countries, they require foreign currencies for their spending in those countries. This
is outflow of foreign currencies.
(c) Investment Income: a country may receive interest on given loans to other countries.
These receipts are also foreign currencies. Similarly payment of interest and dividends
on loans and investment by people of other countries results in outflow of foreign
currencies.
(iii) Unilateral Transfers(Transfer Payment): People of a country may receive gifts

from friends and relatives living abroad, remittances sent by emigrants to relatives.
Such transfer payment results in inflow and outflow of foreign currencies.
The difference between total receipts and total payments of foreign currencies on account
of invisibles is called balance of an account of invisibles.
(B) CAPITAL ACCOUNT

The Capital Account records all international transactions that involve a resident of the
domestic country changing his assets with a foreign resident or his liabilities to a foreign
resident.
The various forms of capital account transactions are given below:
26
(i) Private Transactions: These are transactions that are effecting assets or liabilities
by individuals, businesses etc.
(ii) Official Transactions: Transactions affecting assets and liabilities by the
government and its agencies.
(iii) Direct Investment: It is the act of purchasing an asset and at the same time
acquiring control of it. An example is the acquisition of a firm in one country by a
firm in another country.
Similarly transaction by individuals could be the purchase of a house abroad etc.
(iv) Portfolio Investment : It is the acquisition of an asset that does not given the
purchase control on the asset
Ex-such investment is the purchase of shares in a foreign company or bonds
issued by a foreign government, or loans made to foreign forms or government.
The capital outflow is awarded a negative sign and capital inflows are awarded a
positive sign. The net value of the balances of direct and portfolio investment is
called the balance on capital account.
Structure of balance of payment accounting:
The transactions are recorded in the balance of payments account in double-entry book
keeping.
Each international transaction undertaken by the country will result in a credit entry and
debit entry of equal size. As international transactions are recorded in double entry
accounting, the BOP accounting must always balance: that is total amount of debits must
equal total amount of credits. Of course, the balancing item. Errors and Omissions must
be added to ‘balance’ the BOP accounts.
Transactions in BOP are classified into five major categories as given below :
(1) Goods and Services account
(2) Unilateral transfers account
(3) Long-term capital account
(4) Short-term private capital account
(5) Short-term official capital account
Autonomous and Accommodating Items of BOP
27
Autonomous items in the BOP : Autonomous items or transactions in the BOP refer to
international economic transactions that take place due to some economic motive such as
profit maximization. These transactions are independent of the state of the country’s
balance of payments. These transactions take place both on current account and capital
account.
Example; Export of tea to England, Imports of crude oil, Loan raised by Tata Motors
from abroad
These items are often called above the line items in the BOP as first item before
calculating surplus or deficit in BOP.
The balance of payments is in deficit if the autonomous receipts are less than autonomous
payments. This means that the foreign country has some net claims against the foreign
country.
Autonomous receipts > Autonomous payments = Surplus in BOP
Autonomous receipts <Autonomous payments = Deficit in BOP
Accommodating Items of BOP; Accommodating Items or transactions refer to those
transactions which are done to cover the deficit or surplus in BOP. These items take place
only in the capital account.
Example;-
Loan taken by India from IMF to cover BOP deficit.
Reducing foreign exchange reserves.
These transactions are related to establish BOP identity.
These items are also called below the line items’ in the BOP as secondary item after
calculating surplus or deficit in BOP.
Disequilibrium In Balance of Payments

There are number of factors that cause disequilibrium in the balance of payments
showing either a surplus or a deficit.
Activity: all the students to be divided into groups and find out what reason can cause
disequilibrium in BOP
After the activity, we all will find out that all factors can be categorized into 3 parts:
(a) Economic factors
(b) Political factors
28
(c) Social factors
(a) Economic Factors :
 Large scale development expenditure that may cause large imports
 Cyclical fluctuations in business can cause recession or depression
 High domestic prices may result in imports
 New sources of supply.
 New and better substitutes to existing products.
 Change in costs.
 Change in trade flows and hence change over a period of time.
(b) Political Factors
Political instability may cause large capital. Outflows and damper the inflows of foreign
capital.
(c) Social Factors
Changes in tastes, preference and fashions may affect imports and exports.
BOP disequilibrium is a serious issue for policy makers. A chronic BOP deficit leads to
downgrading the economy in the world community. Hence the monetary authority of the
country of the country concerned and the IMF undertake certain corrective measures to
deal with the disequilibrium in the BOP.
A country’s balance of payment position is assessed by its balance on current account. In
an accounting sense, the balance of payment account always balances which means that
the total credits and total debits of the balance of payment account are always equal. The
sum of the balances on current account and autonomous capital transactions measures the
deficit or the surplus. The sum of the accommodating capital transactions will just equal
to this deficit or surplus with reverse signs. The balancing factors are the accommodating
capital transactions which includes external assistance, transactions with IMF and
increase/ decrease in foreign exchange resources.
(1) Balance of Trade is calculated on the basis of exports and imports of goods only.
(2) If the value of exports > value of imports of goods, the balance of trade shows a surplus.
29
(3) If the value of exports of goods < value of imports of goods, the balance of trade shows a
deficit.
(4) The balance of trade of our country has always been in deficit because our imports of
goods have increased at a faster rate than the exports of goods.
(5) The current account includes both trade account and invisible account. So the sum of
trade balance and invisible balance is called balance on current account.
(6) Capital account includes 2 types of transactions (i) accommodating (ii) autonomous.
(7) Autonomous transactions are not undertaken on account of deficit or surplus in the BOP.
(8) Accommodating transactions are taken on account of deficit or surplus in BOP.
(9) Balance of payments always balances because total receipts are always equal to
payments. It is made possible by the accommodating transactions.
Foreign Exchange Rate

Definition: Foreign exchange rate is the price of the domestic currency stated in terms of
another currency. In other words, a foreign exchange rate compares one currency with another to
show their relative values.
Foreign exchange rate is the rate at which one currency is exchanged for another. Thus, an
exchange rate can be regarded as the price of one currency in terms of another. An exchange rate
is a ratio between two monies. If 5 UK pounds or 5 US dollars buy Indian goods worth ₹ 400
and ₹ 250 then pound- rupee or dollar-rupee exchange rate becomes ₹ 80 = £1 or ₹ . 50 = $1,
respectively.
Exchange rate is usually quoted in terms of rupees per unit of foreign currencies. Thus, an
exchange rate indicates external purchasing power of money. For example, at present , Rs.82 =
1 US$
A fall in the external purchasing power or external value of rupee (i.e., a fall in exchange rate,
say from ₹ 80 = £1 to ₹ 90 = £1) amounts to depreciation of the Indian rupee. Consequently, an
appreciation of the Indian rupee occurs when there occurs an increase in the exchange rate from
the existing level to ₹ 78 = £1.
In other words, external value of the rupee rises. This indicates strengthening of the Indian rupee.
Conversely, the weakening of the Indian rupee occurs if external value of rupee in terms of
pound falls. Remember that each currency has a rate of exchange with every other currency.
Not all exchange rates but about 150 currencies are quoted, since no significant foreign exchange
market exists for all currencies. That is why exchange rate of these national currencies are quoted
usually in terms of US dollars and euros.
30
2. Exchange Rate Determination:
Now two pertinent questions that usually arise in the foreign exchange market are to be answered
now. Firstly, how is equilibrium exchange rate determined and, secondly, why exchange rate
moves up and down?
There are two methods of foreign exchange rate determination. One method falls under the
classical gold standard mechanism and another method falls under the classical paper currency
system. Today, gold standard mechanism does not operate since no standard monetary unit is
now exchanged for gold.
All countries now have paper currencies not convertible to gold. Under inconvertible paper
currency system, there are two methods of exchange rate determination. The first is known as the
purchasing power parity theory and the second is known as the demand-supply theory or balance
of payments theory. Since today there is no believer of purchasing power parity theory, we
consider only demand-supply approach to foreign exchange rate determination.
a) Demand-Supply Approach of Foreign Exchange, Or BOP Theory of Foreign Exchange:
Since the foreign exchange rate is a price, economists apply supply-demand conditions of price
theory in the foreign exchange market. A simple explanation is that the rate of foreign exchange
equals its supply. For simplicity, we assume that there are two countries: India and the USA. Let
the domestic currency be rupee. US dollar stands for foreign exchange and the value of rupee in
terms of dollar (or conversely value of dollar in terms of rupee) stands for foreign exchange rate.
Now the value of one currency in terms of another currency depends upon demand for and
supply of foreign exchange.
(i) Demand for foreign exchange:
Import of goods & services; investment in other countries; gifts & grants to abroad; direct
purchase made in abroad; other payments involved in international transactions etc. The demand
for foreign exchange is made for the purpose of payments of foreign loans, import ofproducts,
making investments & giving loans to other countries, tour & travel in abroad etc. The demand
for foreign exchange is inversely related to the exchange rate.
When Indian people and business firms want to make payments to the US nationals for buying
US goods and services or to make gifts to the US citizens or to buy assets there, the demand for
foreign exchange (here dollar) is generated. In other words, Indians demand or buy dollars by
paying rupee in the foreign exchange market.
A country releases its foreign currency for buying imports. Thus, what appears in the debit side
of the BOP account is the sources of demand for foreign exchange. The larger the volume of
imports the greater is the demand for foreign exchange.
The demand curve for foreign exchange is negative sloping. A fall in the price of foreign
exchange or a fall in the price of dollar in terms of rupee (i.e., dollar depreciates) means that
foreign goods are now more cheaper.
31
Thus, an Indian could buy more American goods at a low price. Consequently, imports from the
USA would increase resulting in an increase in the demand for foreign exchange, i.e., dollar.
Conversely, if the price of foreign exchange or price of dollar rises (i.e., dollar appreciates) then
foreign goods will be expensive leading to a fall in import demand and, hence, fall in the demand
for foreign exchange.
Since price of foreign exchange and demand for foreign exchange move in opposite direction,
the importing country’s demand curve for foreign exchange is downward sloping from left to
right.
Fig. 1. Equilibrium Exchange Rate
In Fig. 1, DD1 is the demand curve for foreign exchange. In this figure, we measure exchange
rate expressed in terms of domestic currency that costs 1 unit of foreign currency (i.e., dollar per
rupee) on the vertical axis. This makes demand curve for foreign exchange negative sloping.
(b) Supply of foreign exchange:
In a similar fashion, we can determine supply of foreign exchange. Supply of foreign currency
comes from its receipts for its exports. If the foreign nationals and firms intend to purchase
Indian goods or buy Indian assets or give grants to the Government of India, the supply of
foreign exchange is generated.
In other words, what the Indian exports (both goods and invisibles) to the rest of the world is the
source of foreign exchange. To be more specific, all the transactions that appear on the credit
side of the BOP account are the sources of supply of foreign exchange.
A rise in the rupee-per-dollar exchange rate means that Indian goods are cheaper to foreigners in
terms of dollars. This will induce India to export more. Foreigners will also find that investment
is now more profitable. Thus, a high price or exchange rate ensures larger supply of foreign
exchange. Conversely, a low exchange rate causes exchange rate to fall. Thus, the supply curve
of foreign exchange, SS1, is positive sloping.
Now we can bring both demand and supply curves together to determine foreign exchange rate.
The equilibrium exchange rate is determined at that point where demand for foreign exchange
equals supply of foreign exchange. In Fig. 5.4, DD1 and SS1 curves intersect at point E. The
foreign exchange rate thus determined is OP. At this rate, quantities of foreign exchange
32
demanded (OM) equals quantity supplied (OM). The market is cleared and there is no incentive
on the part of the players to change the rate determined.
Suppose that at the rate OP, ₹ 50 = $1, demand for foreign exchange is matched by the supply of
foreign exchange. If the current exchange rate OP1 exceeds the equilibrium rate of exchange
(OP) there occurs an excess supply of dollar by the amount ‘ab’. Now the bank and other
institutions dealing with foreign exchange—wishing to make money by exchanging currency—
would lower the exchange rate to reduce excess supply.
Thus, exchange rate will tend to fall until OP is reached. Similarly, an excess demand for foreign
exchange by the amount ‘cd’ arises if the exchange rate falls below OP, i.e., OP 2. Thus, banks
would experience a shortage of dollars to meet the demand. Rate of foreign exchange will rise
till demand equals supply.
The exchange rate that we have determined is called a floating or flexible exchange rate. (Under
this exchange rate system, the government does not intervene in the foreign exchange market.) A
floating exchange rate, by definition, results in an equilibrium rate of exchange that will move up
and down according to a change in

demand and supply forces. The process by which currencies float up and down following a
change in demand or change in supply forces is, thus, illustrated in Fig. 2.
Let us assume that national income rises. This results in an increase in the demand for imports of
goods and services and, hence, demand for dollar rises. This results in a shift in the demand
curve from DD1 to DD2. Consequently, exchange rate rises as from OP1 to OP2 determined by
the intersection of new demand curve and supply curve. Note that dollar appreciates from ₹ 50 =
$1 to ₹ 53 = $1, while rupee depreciates from $1 = ₹ 50 to $1 = ₹ 53.
Similarly, if supply curve shifts from SS1 to SS2, as shown in Fig. 3, new exchange rate thus
determined would be OP2. If Indian goods are exported more, following an increase in national
income of the USA, the supply curve would then shift rightward. Consequently, dollar
depreciates and rupee appreciates. New exchange rate is settled at that point where the new
supply curve (SS2) intersects the demand curve at E2.
33
This is the balance of payments theory of exchange rate determination. Wherever government
does not intervene in the market, a floating or a flexible exchange rate prevails. Such system may
not necessarily be ideal since frequent changes in demand and supply forces cause frequent as
well as violent changes in exchange rate. Consequently, an air of uncertainty in trade and
business would prevail.
Such uncertainty may be damaging for the smooth flow of trade. To prevent this situation,
government intervenes in the foreign exchange rate. It may keep the exchange rate fixed. This
exchange rate is called a fixed exchange rate system where both demand and supply forces are
manipulated or calibrated by the central bank in such a way that the exchange rate is kept pegged
at the old level.
Often managed exchange rate is suggested. Under this system, exchange rate, as usual, is
determined by demand for and supply of foreign exchange. But the central bank intervenes in the
foreign exchange market when the situation demands to stabilise or influence the rate of foreign
exchange. If rupee depreciates in terms of dollar, the RBI would then sell dollars and buy rupee
in order to reduce the downward pressure in the exchange rate.
Flexible & Fixed Exchange Rate System

There may be variety of exchange rate systems (types) in the foreign exchange market. Its two
broad types or systems are Fixed Exchange Rate and Flexible Exchange Rate as explained
below.
In between these two extreme rates, there are some hybrid systems like Crawling Peg, Managed
Floating.
Broadly when government decides the conversion rate, it is called fixed exchange rate. On the
other hand, when market forces determine the rate, it is called floating exchange rate.
34
(a) Fixed Exchange Rate System:
Fixed exchange rate is the rate which is officially fixed by the government or monetary authority
and not determined by market forces. Only a very small deviation from this fixed value is
possible. In this system, foreign central banks stand ready to buy and sell their currencies at a
fixed price. A typical kind of this system was used under Gold Standard System in which each
country committed itself to convert freely its currency into gold at a fixed price.
In other words, value of each currency was defined in terms of gold and, therefore, exchange rate
was fixed according to the gold value of currencies that have to be exchanged. This was called
mint par value of exchange. Later on Fixed Exchange Rate System prevailed in the world under
an agreement reached in July 1994.
The advantages and disadvantages of this system are as under:
Merits:
(i) It ensures stability in exchange rate which encourages foreign trade, (ii) It contributes to the
coordination of macro policies of countries in an interdependent world economy, (iii) Fixed
exchange rate ensures that major economic disturbances in the member countries do not occur,
(iv) It prevents capital outflow, (v) Fixed exchange rates are more conducive to expansion of
world trade because it prevents risk and uncertainty in transactions, (vi) It prevents speculation in
foreign exchange market.
Demerits:
(i) Fear of devaluation. In a situation of excess demand, central bank uses its reserves to maintain
foreign exchange rate. But when reserves are exhausted and excess demand still persists,
government is compelled to devalue domestic currency. If speculators believe that exchange rate
cannot be held for long, they buy foreign exchange in massive amount causing deficit in balance
of payment. This may lead to larger devaluation. This is the main flaw or demerit of fixed
exchange rate system, (ii) Benefits of free markets are deprived; (iii) There is always possibility
of under-valuation or over-valuation.
(b) Flexible (Floating) Exchange Rate System:
The system of exchange rate in which rate of exchange is determined by forces of demand and
supply of foreign exchange market is called Flexible Exchange Rate System. Here, value of
currency is allowed to fluctuate or adjust freely according to change in demand and supply of
foreign exchange.
There is no official intervention in foreign exchange market. Under this system, the central bank,
without intervention, allows the exchange rate to adjust so as to equate the supply and demand
for foreign currency In India, it is flexible exchange rate which is being determined. The foreign
exchange market is busy at all times by changes in the exchange rate. Advantages and
disadvantages of this system are listed below:
35
Merits:
(i) Deficit or surplus in BOP is automatically corrected, (ii) There is no need for government to
hold any foreign exchange reserve, (iii) It helps in optimum resource allocation, (iv) It frees the
government from problem of BOP
Demerits:
(i) It encourages speculation leading to fluctuations in foreign exchange rate, (ii) Wide
fluctuation in exchange rate hampers foreign trade and capital movement between countries,
(iii) It generates inflationary pressure when prices of imports go up due to depreciation of
currency.
Distinction between Fixed Exchange Rate and Flexible Exchange Rate
Fixed exchange rate is the rate which is officially fixed in terms of gold or any other currency
by the government. It does not change with change in demand and supply of foreign
currency. As against it, flexible exchange rate is the rate which, like price of a commodity, is
determined by forces of demand and supply in the foreign exchange market. It changes
according to change in demand and supply of foreign currency. There is no government
intervention.
Managed Floating:
This refers to a system of gradual adjustments in the exchange rate deliberately made by a central
bank to influence the value of its own currency in relation to other currencies. This is done to
save its own currency from short-term volatility in exchange rate caused by economic shocks and
speculation. Thus, central bank intervenes to smoothen out ups and downs in the exchange rate
of home currency to its own advantage.
E-MATERIAL
FOREIGN EXCHANGE RATE (Video Lesson):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1fVy0c77ThcAE4rnJO0KHSySmrDq0P2uL/view?usp=shari
ng
36
SECTION- B
Unit 6: DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCE (1950-1990) AND
ECONOMIC REFORMS SINCE 1991
Gist of the Lesson:
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES (1947-1990)

KEY CONCEPTS:
1. Economy: Economy of a country includes all production, distribution or economic

activities that relate with people and determines the standard of living.
2. Indian Economy on the eve of independence: On the eve of independence, Indian
Economy was in a very bad condition due to the exploitative policies of British colonial rule.
3. State/Features of Agriculture Sector: Agriculture was the main source of livelihood for
most of the people of India, and about 75% Of the country's population lived mostly in
villages and derived livelihood directly or indirectly from agriculture.
Indian agriculture at the time of independence was marked with the following features
(i) Low level of productivity

(ii) High degree of vulnerability
4. State/Features of Industrial Sector: Britishers followed a policy of systematic de-
industrialisation by creating circumstances conducive to the decay of handicraft industry and
not taking any steps to promote modern industry and reduced India to a mere exporter of raw
material and importer of finished goods. The following points bring forward the state of the
industrial sector at the eve of independence:
(i) Decay Of handicraft industry
(ii) Slow growth of modern industry
5. State/Features of Foreign Trade: India has been an important trading nation, since
ancient times. But when the restrictive policies of commodity production, trade and tariff
were imposed by the colonial government, it adversely affected the structure, composition and
volume of India's foreign trade.
Following were the reasons behind the poor growth of foreign trade
(i) Exporter of primary products and importer of finished goods.
(ii) Britain's monopoly control over foreign trade.
6. State of Occupational Structure: During the colonial period, the occupational structure
of India exhibited backwardness.
37
The agricultural sector accounted for the largest share of the workforce which remained at a
high of 70-75% Of the workforce and the manufacturing and service sectors accounted for
only 10 and 15-20%, respectively.
7. State of Infrastructure: Infrastructure comprises of such industries which help in the
growth of other industries.
Under the colonial period, basic infrastructure such as railways, ports, water, air transport,
post and telegraphs were developed.
8. Demographic Condition: Various details about the population of British India were first
collected through a census in 1881. Before 1921, India was in the first stage of demographic
transition. The second stage began after 1921.
9. Positive contribution of British rule – (i) Commercial Outlook of the Farmers (ii)
Better means of transportation, (iii) Control on famines, (iv) Shift to monetary economy, and
(v) Effective administration set up.
10. Economic System: It is defined as an arrangement by which the central problems of an
economy are solved.
The three basic central problems of an economic system are
(i) Choice of goods to be produced
(ii) Choice of technology of production
(iii) Distribution of goods and services
11. Types of Economic Systems:
(i) Socialist Economy: It is an economic system in which all economic decisions are
taken by the government.
In this system, the government decides what goods are to be produced in accordance
with the needs of society, how goods are to be produced and how they should be
distributed. Socialist economy promotes equitable distribution of income. However, it
also suffers from the drawbacks of a bureaucratic set-up in the form of red-tapism and
corruption. In Cuba and China, most of the economic activities are governed by the
socialistic principles.
(ii) Capitalist Economy: It depends upon the market forces of demand and supply.
In this type of economy, only those consumer goods will be produced that have good
demand in the market and yield profit to the producers. In this economy, the goods and
services produced are distributed among people not on
the basis of what people need but on the basis of
purchasing power.
Capitalist economy is also called laissez faire or free market economy. It exists in North
America, Japan, Australia, Western Europe, etc.
(iii) Mixed Economy: It is an economic system in which public sector and private
sector exist side by side. In this economy, the market will provide whatever goods and
services it can produce well and the government will provide essential goods and
services which the market fails to provide. India follows this economic system.
38
12. Economic Planning: It is a process by which a central authority of a country defines a
set of goals to be achieved within a specified period, sets out a plan to achieve those goals,
keeping in view the country’s resources.
13. Five Year Plans: In India, planning was launched in 1951, as a five yearly exercise,
therefore it came to be popularly known as ‘five Year Plans’.
14. Common Goals Of Five Year Plans: All the Five Year Plans were formulated keeping
the below objectives in mind:
(i) Growth (ii) Modernisation

(iii) Self-reliance (iv) Equity
15. Agriculture: Equity in agriculture called for (a) land reforms which primarily refer to
change in the ownership of landholdings (b) Land ceiling which means fixing the maximum
size of land which could be owned by an individual.
Green revolution refers to the large increase in production of food grains, resulting from the
use of high yielding variety (HYV) seeds especially for wheat and rice. The spread of green
revolution technology enabled India to achieve self-sufficiency in food grains, the price of
food grains declined, shifts from subsistence to commercial farming, increase in crop
productivity.
The portion of agricultural produce which is sold in the market by the farmers is called
marketed surplus.
The Debate Over Subsidies:
Points in favour of agricultural subsidy:
1) It provides an incentive for adoption of the new HYV technology by farmers in general
and small farmers in particular.
2) Eliminating subsidies will increase the inequality between rich and poor farmers.
16. Need for public sector units:
1) Indian industrialists did not have the capital to undertake investment in industrial
ventures.
2) The market was not big enough to encourage industrialists to undertake major projects.
3) To develop the Indian economy on socialist lines led to the policy of the government
controlling the commanding heights of the economy.
17. Industrial Policy Resolution 1956 (IPR 1956):
Main features:
Industries were classified into three categories:
The first category comprised industries which would be exclusively owned by the
government; the second category consisted of industries in which the private sector could
supplement the efforts of the public sector, the third category consisted of the remaining
industries which were to be in the private sector.
The private sector was kept under state control through a system of licenses. This was to
promote regional equality.
The production of a number of products was reserved for the small-scale industry
In 1955, the Village and Small-Scale Industries Committee, also called the Karve Committee,
noted the possibility of using small-scale industries for promoting rural development. In 1950
39
a small -scale industrial unit was one which invested a maximum of rupees five lakh; at
present the maximum investment allowed is rupees one crore.
Small-scale industries are more labour intensive, has locational flexibility, requires less
investment.
ECONOMIC REFORMS SINCE 1991
Before 1991, the Indian economy and Indian companies were living under a shelter of
protection that was created by the Indian government to protect the domestic companies from
outside or international competition. The economy was not ready to step out in the international
market and compete with big established companies and organisations. But, during 1991, the
government agreed to the reforms that were advised by the foreign banks and hence announced
New Economic Policy (NEP) in order to develop the Indian economy and also for its future
growth. We can broadly categorise or classify the measures into two groups:
 Structural reforms
 Stabilization measures
Stabilization Measures
Stabilization measures were taken and accepted by the Indian government to revamp the Indian
economy. These measures were undertaken in order to correct the inherent and carried forward
40
weaknesses that had been developed in BOPs (Balance of Payments) and also to control
inflation. These were mainly short term measures, unlike the structural reforms.
Structural Reforms
From a long-term perspective and in order to strengthen international competitiveness, reforms

have been put in place to eliminate rigidity in various segments of the Indian economy. Hence
these are long term measures and policies. The structural reforms that were adopted by the
Indian government were as follows:
 Liberalization
 Privatization
 Globalization
Factors Responsible for Economic Reforms Since 1991
The major factors that were responsible and let the government came up with the economic
reforms since 1991 were:
1. A decrease in foreign exchange reserves: imports grew faster than exports

41
2. The unfavourable balance of payments gave rise to a repayment crisis
3. The budget deficit worsened as public expenditure increased faster than receipts
4. Prices increased, with a negative impact on investment
5. Failure of state-owned enterprises: – very small high return on investment
6. The Gulf crisis has led to a rise in crude oil prices, which has had a negative impact on
the balance of payments.
7. High ratio of deficit funding
8. The collapse of the soviet block
I. Liberalization
Liberalization was one of the three structural reforms that were adopted by the Indian
government. It was adopted to put an end to various restrictions and reforms which later on
became a hindrance in the development and the growth of the Indian economy. The government
decided to loosen up its influence and let private sector organisations and companies enter the
Indian economy and start working without or with fewer government restrictions. This allowed
the economy to become liberal and grow eventually.
Objectives Of Liberalization Policy
There were many reasons due to which the structural reform of liberalization was undertaken by
the government. They are mentioned below.
 Increase competitiveness between domestic industries

 Encourage foreign trade with other countries whose imports or exports are regulated
 Foreign capital and technological improvements
 Expand the borders of the country’s global marketplace
 A reduction in the country’s debt burden
Major Economic Reforms Since 1991 Under Liberalisation
1. Industrial sector reforms- these included factors and reforms like:

o Contraction off Public Sector
o Abolition of Industrial Licensing
o Freedom to Import capital goods
2. Financial sector reforms- these included factors and reforms like:
o De-regulation of interest rates
o Reducing various Ratios like SLR and CRR
o Change in the role of the central bank or the RBI from the regulator to facilitator
of the economy and banks.
2. Foreign exchange reforms- these included factors and reforms like:
o Devaluation of rupee
3. Trade and investment reforms
4. Fiscal reforms
42
5. Tax reforms
II. Privatization
Moving further, Class 12 Economic Reform Since 1991 talks about Privatization. This was the
second policy among the three policies of LPG that were adopted by the government.
Privatization policy has been used to enhance the dominant role of private sector enterprises
and the diminished role of public sector enterprises. In other words, it’s reducing the ownership
of the management of a government-owned company. Now these State-owned enterprises can be
turned into private enterprises in two ways:
 By disinvestment
 By withdrawal of governmental ownership or stakes from these public sector companies
Objectives Of Privatization
Class 12 Economic Reform Since 1991 also talks about the various objective of privatization as a
policy. They are mentioned below.
 Improve the government’s fiscal situation.

 Reduce the workload on public sector firms.
 Raise capital through divestment.
 Increase the effectiveness of governmental agencies.
 Provide the consumer with higher quality and improved goods and services.
 Develop healthy competition in society.
 Encouragement of foreign direct investment (FDI) in India.
Policies Adopted for Privatisation
As per the unit of class 12 on Economic Reforms Since 1991, the policies that were adopted for
privatisation by the government of India are as follows:
1. Contraction of the public sector

2. Abolishing the ownership of the Government in the management of public enterprises
3. Sale of shares of public enterprises
3. Globalization
43
Globalisation refers to the integration of the economy of the nation with the global economy.
During globalization, the emphasis is placed on foreign trade and private and institutional foreign
investment. It was the final LPG policy to be implemented in India. Having said that,
globalization as a term is a very complicated phenomenon. The main objective is to transform
the world into an independent and integrated world by defining various strategic policies.
Globalisation tries to create a world without borders, where the needs of a country can come
from all over the world and become a great economy.
The most important outcome of globalisation in the Indian economy is the concept of
outsourcing model. Outsourcing refers to when a company of a country hires professionals from
other countries to get their work done at cheap prices. The best part about outsourcing is that the
work can be done at a low cost and from the top source and human resources available
throughout the world. Services such as legal advice, marketing, technical assistance, etc were
being outsourced from companies based in the US, UK, and other parts of Europe. As
information technology or IT was also developing in recent years, outsourcing of contract work
from one country to another increased considerably due to globalisation. As a means of
communication has broadened their reach, all economic activities have increased around the
world.
Having said that, various business process outsourcing (BPOs) companies or call centers, which
have their voice business process model, are being developed in India. Activities such
as accounting and bookkeeping services, clinical counselling, banking or even education were
being outsourced from developed countries to India.
Benefits Of Globalization
44
Towards the end, Class 11 Liberalization, Privatization and Globalisation talks about the many
benefits of Globalization. You can have a look here:
 The biggest advantage of globalisation and its outcome outsourcing is that large
multinational corporations or even small businesses can benefit from good services at a
lower rate than their country’s standards.
 The skill set and the availability of the human resource capital in abundance in India is
regarded as the most dynamic and effective throughout the world.
 The professionals in India are the best at what they do.
 The low wage rate and highly skilled personnel have made India the most favourable
global outsourcing destination in the subsequent phase of the reform.
 It has helped in the growth and development of the tertiary sector of the economy and
creation of more jobs and employment for the people.
Policies Promoting Globalisation
As per the unit of Class 12 of Economic Reforms since 1991, the main policies that were adopted
by the government of India to promote and implement globalisation were:
1. Increase in the equity limit for foreign investments

2. Partial convertibility
3. Long-term business and trade policy
4. Reduction of tariffs
Positive and Negative Impacts of LPG Policies
Positive Impacts Negative Impacts

Increase in foreign investment and/or foreign direct The agriculture sector of the Indian economy was som eho
45
investments in the Indian economy. neglected in the economic reforms since 1991.
Increase in foreign exchange reserves Jobless growth
A decrease in the Inflation rates A rise in the income inequalities in the country
Increase in the national income Adverse effects of the disinvestment policies could be see
Increase in the exports of the country Spread of consumerism
Consumer sovereignty Encouragement of economic colonialism
Cultural erosion
World Trade Organisation
The last topic of the class 12 unit on Economic Reforms Since 1991 is about the World Trade
Organisation. Also known as WTO, this institution or organisation was established in 1995. It
successfully replaced the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) which was in place
since 1946. The overarching goal of the World Trade Organization or WTO is to always
contribute to smooth, free, fair and predictable trade. To meet this objective, they perform these
functions:
1. Monitoring and revising domestic trade policies

2. Support the member in the development of trade policies through technical assistance and
training programs.
3. Administration of World Trade Agreements
4. Serve as the forum for trade negotiations
5. Settlement and Management of Trade Disputes
6. Technical assistance and training for developing nations
7. Cooperation with other International Organizations
46
8.
KEY CONCEPTS ECONOMICREFORMSSINCE1991
1. Economic crisis: A situation wherein the expenditures are much more than the revenues
and there is no source (such as world Bank) to lend (as the borrower already has a large
outstanding loan to repay with interest)
2. Public sector undertakings (PSU’s): Government-owned enterprises that produce and

sell various goods in the market, to earn profit.
3. Remittances: These are foreign currencies transferred by those working outside the
country to their families and friends in their own countries.
4. Delicensing: Removal of controls, especially on industries.
5. Dereservation: Taking off certain industries from the sole domain of public sector by
allowing Private capital investment, such as in coal, medicine etc.
6. Devaluation: It is the fall in the value of domestic currency with respect to foreign
currency under the fixed exchange system (Presently, the synonymous term is
depreciation-under flexible exchange system).
47
7. Outsourcing: Contracting another agency to conduct a process during production of
services Foreg. Contract for maintaining software, customer services etc.
8. Quantitative restrictions: Restrictions in the form of total quantities or quotas
imposed on imports to reduce Balance of Payments (BoP)deficit and protect domestic
industry.
9. Import Licensing: Permission required from the government to import goods into a
country.
10. Foreign Direct investment(FDI) : refers to the investment of foreign assets into
domestic structures,
equipment and organizations. It does not include investment into the stock markets.
IMPORTANT POINTS: -
• • Meaning: Economic reforms refer to a set of economic policies directed to accelerate
the pace of 'growth and development'
• • Economic reforms or structural adjustment is a long term multi-dimensional package of
various policies (Liberalisation, privatisation, and globalisation) and programme for the speedy
growth, efficiency in production and make a competitive environment. Economic reforms are
adopted by Indian Govt. in1991.
• • Factors responsible or Need for Economic reforms:-
• • Fall in foreign exchange reserve.
• • Adverse balance of payments
• • Mounting fiscal deficit.
• • Rise in prices
• • Failure of public enterprises.
• • Gulf crisis.
• 1.• Stabilization measures: These are short run measured introduced by Govt. to control
rise in price, adverse balance of payment and fall in foreign exchange reserve.
• 2• Structural adjustment: These are long-run policies the goal of structural reforms is to
abolish controls, eliminate bureaucratic hurdles. and red tapism and make the decision-making
process efficient and transparent.
• • In the new economic policy 1991, Structural reforms can be seen with respect to: 1.
Liberalisation. 2. Privatisation 3. Globalisation.
• I• Liberalization: Liberalization means removing all unnecessary control and

restriction like permits licenses. Protectionist duties, quotas etc.
• • Economic reforms under liberalization:

• • Industrial sector reforms
• • Financial sector reforms.
• • Fiscal reforms. Fiscal reforms relate to revenue and expenditure of the government. Tax
reforms are the principal component of fiscal reforms.
Broadly, taxes are classified as: (a) direct taxes, and (b) indirect taxes. Direct taxes are those
taxes, the burden of which cannot be shifted onto others. (Examples: Income tax, wealth tax.)
Indirect taxes (levied on goods and services) are those taxes, the burden of which can be shifted
onto others. [Examples: GST (Goods and Services Tax), custom duty.]
48
• Foreign exchange reforms: -External sector reforms include: (i) foreign exchange reforms, and
(ii) foreign trade policy reforms.
• II• Privatisation: Privatisation is the general process of involving the private

sector in the ownership or operation of state-owned enterprises.
• • Policies adopted for privatization:
• • Contraction of public sector.
• • Abolish the ownership of Govt. in the management of public enterprises.
• • Sale of shares of public enterprises.
• III• Globalization: Globalization may be defined as a process associated with
increasing openness growing economic interdependence and deepening economic integration in
the world economy.
• Policy promoting globalization:
• • Increase in equity limit of foreign investment.
• • Partial convertibility.
• • Long term trade policy.
• • Reduction in tariff.
• • An Appraisal of LPG Policies: - Positive Impact:
• • Increase in foreign investment
• • Increase in foreign exchange reserves
DEMONETISATION IN INDIA
“Demonetisation is the act of stripping a currency unit of its status as legal tender”.
The current form or forms of money is pulled from circulation and retired, and replaced
with new notes or coins.
Objectives of Demonetisation:
1. To discourage cash system and promote digital transactions.
• 2. To combat corruption and thereby eliminate black money.
• 3. To eradicate counterfeit currency .
• 4. To reduce tax evasion.
• 5. To arrest the flow of money for terrorism, radical groups, and insurgency.
• 6. To expand the tax base.
• 7. To integrate the formal and informal economies of India.
• Demonetisation on 08th November 2016:
• Currency notes of Rs. 500 and Rs.1000 were demonetised.
• These notes accounted for 86% of the country’s currency supply
• The Specified Bank Notes (Cessation of Liabilities) Ordinance, 2016, was issued on 28
December 2016, ending the liability of the government for the demonetised banknotes.
•
• Benefits of Demonetisation:
• 1. Reduction of Black Money

49
• 2. Increase in Liquidity position of Banks.
• 3. Increase in cashless and digital transactions
• 4. More tax-revenue.
E-MATERIAL
1. Economic Reforms Since 1991 (Video Lesson):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1yf1yrdkGW_XhSqHEbI4v2Tq7nXETqw8j/vie
w?usp=sharing
2. Development Experience of India (1950-1990)- pdf:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1BlXW0S9qcGs0vL1LCzieq7AwO1p45uju/vie
w?usp=sharing
3. Economic Reforms since 1991 (pdf)
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1AcsJY0VryEfoWKDWxZ-
rTJvM2cY2_R17/view?usp=sharing
4. Demonetisation in India (Video Lesson):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1wqXzJbuAyOEO18skOYcAv5PcUyaercXb/vi
ew?usp=sharing
5. GST (Video Lesson):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1BnERUW1tLTJblet58IVf6zwmwTM-
rQP5/view?usp=sharing
50
Unit 7: CURRENT CHALLENGES FACING INDIAN ECONOMY
1. HUMAN CAPITAL FORMATION: Gist of the Lesson:
COMPARISON BETWEEN ‘PHYSICAL CAPITAL’ AND ‘HUMAN

CAPITAL’.
Physical Capital Human Capital

Physical capital is tangible and can be Human capital is intangible and cannot be
easily sold in the market. sold in the market.
It depreciates with the passage of time. Depreciation in human capital (due to
again) can be reduced by making
continuous investment in education &
health.
It is more mobile between countries Human capital is less mobile between
countries as compared to physical capital.
Physical capital (like machinery) Human capital (like skills of a person)
separated from its owners. cannot be separated from the own.
Physical capital is the outcome of the Formation of human capital is partly a
conscious decision of the owner and is social process by partly a conscious
mainly an economic and technical decision of the possessor of the human
process. capital.
Human Capital formation: Human capital formation means the development of abilities
and skills among the population of the country.
Sources of Human Capital Formation:
1. Expenditure on education:
(It is one of the most important sources of human capital formation) proper utility of man
power depends on the system of education, training and industrial experience of the people.
Spending on education by individuals is similar to spending on capital goods by companies
with the objective of increasing future profits once a period of time. This increases the
income of the people and their standard of living. Investment in education is not only highly
productive but also it is yields increasing return and accelerates economic growth of all the
resources education receives most importance because it gives maximum contribution to the
development of the country.
2. Expenditure on Health:
Health is an important input for a development of a nation. Expenditure on health is needed
in the following areas.
A preventive medicine known as vaccination curative medicines, i.e., medical intervention
during the time of illness is very important. Provision of clean drinking water and good
sanitation is very important for improvement of health. Health expenditure directly
51
increases the physical capacity of human being and it raises the supply of healthy labor
force.
3. On-the-job training:
Productivity of physical capital is substantially increased with the improvement in human
capital. Due to this reason many firms provide on the job training to their workers. Such
training has the advantage that it can be provided fast and without much cost. It increases
the skill and efficiency of the workers and leads to an increase in production by
productivity. Expenditure regarding on-the-job training is the source of human capital
formation because it increases labor productivity than its cost.
4. Expenditure on migration: -
People migrate to one place to another that gives them higher salaries. Unemployment
people from rural migrate to urban areas technically qualified people migrate to other
countries for higher salaries. Though it results in cost of migration and higher cost of living
due to migration in migrated place it enhances earning that their cost of migration. Hence it
is a source of human capital formation.
5. Expenditure on Information: -
Expenditure is incurred to acquire information relating to labour market and other market.
It involves amount spent on seeking information about educational institutions, education
standard their educational needs and cost of education. This information is necessary to
make decisions regarding investment in human capital as well as for efficient utilization of
the acquired human capital stock.
Importance of Human capital formation
Human Capital formation is very important for the growth of an economy.

1.. Effective use of physical capital: Its growth and productivity depend on human capital
formation. Human capital formation raises the productivity and production as
knowledgeable and skilled worker makes the better (use of the resources). Increase in
productivity and quality production depends on technical skill of the people which can be
acquired only by education or training and maintaining health of the people.
Inventions, innovations and technological improvement are all due to the extra knowledge
acquired during education which provides lot of innovations and inventions. The
knowledgeable, skilled and physically fit people help in the human capital formation.
2.. Increases life expectancy: Formation of human capital raises life expectancy of the
people. Health facilities and availability of nutritive food enable people to live a healthy and
long life. This in turn, adds to the quality of life.
3.. Improves Quality of life: The quality of population depends upon the level of education
health of a person and skill formation acquired by the people. Human capital formation not
only makes people productive and creative but also transforms the lives of the people.
4. Control of population growth: It has been observed that educated persons have smaller
families as compared to illiterate families, So, spread of education is necessary to control
the population growth rate.
Reasons for poor Human Capital formations are:

1. Insufficient Resources: - The resources allocated to the formation of human capital have
been much less than the resources required for meeting the educational & health needs of
the country. Due to this reason, the facilities for the formation of human capital have
remained grossly inadequate.
2.. Serious Inefficiencies: There are a lot of wastages of society’s resources as capabilities
52
of educated people are either not made use of (in case of unemployment or are underutilized
in case of unemployment). Massive literacy, non-education of many children, poor health
facilities are other inefficiencies, which have not been attended to adequately& properly.
3.. High Growth of population: The continuous rise in population has adversely affected
the quality of human capital.
4.. Lack of proper manpower planning: There is an imbalance between the demands for
the supply of human resources of various categories, especially in case of highly skilled
personnel. The absence of such balancing has resulted in the wastage of resources.
Human Capital & Human Development
1. Human Capital consider education & health as a means to increase labour productivity.
Human Development is leased on the Idea that education & health are integral to human
well-being.
2. In Human capital, investment in education and health is considered to be unproductive, if

it does not increase output of goods &services In case of human development, investments
in education and health are taken to be productive, even if it does not lead to higher output.
3. Human capital treats human beings as a means to an end; the end being the increase in
productivity In the human development perspective, human welfare should be increased
through investment in education & health as every individual & health as every individual
has a right to be literate &lead a healthy life
Growth of Education Sector in India
There has been considered growth in the field of Education. The number of schools
increased from 230.7 thousand (1950-51) to 1,215.8 thousand (2005-06). The no. of
teachers in the same period increased from 751 thousand to 6010 thousands & no of
students from 23,800 thousand to 2, 22,700 thousand.
Gross Enrollment Ratio

Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) is the total enrolment of pupil in grade or cycle or level of
education, regardless of age, expressed as percentage of the corresponding eligible official
age group population in a given school year. GER in elementary education increased
steadily from 82% in 1950-51 to 94.85% in 2005-06.
Literacy Rate
The literacy rate has increased from 18.33% to in 1951 to 64.84% in 2001
Elementary Education in India

Elementary Education in India means eight years of schooling from the age of six i.e.,
primary& middle school education together, is called Elementary Education. Elementary
Education, therefore is the foundation on which the development of every citizen and the
nation as a whole hinge. The government has made elementary education compulsory and
free. But, the goal of universal elementary education in India has been very difficult to
achieve till now. In December 2002, the government of India made free and compulsory
education, a fundamental right of all children in the age group of 6-14 years.
53
I. Primary Education Schemes
Government has made number of schemes to make “Education for all” The following are
the few schemes
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA):
It was launched in 2001 to universalize & improve the quality of Elementary Education in
India through community ownership of Elementary Education. The SSA is being
implemented in partnership with states to address the needs of children in age group of 6-14
years. The achievements under SSA up to September 30, 2007, include constructions of 7,
13,179 additional classrooms, 1, 72,381 drinking water facilities, construction of 2, 18,075
toilets. Supply of free textbooks of 6.64 crore children & appointment of 8.10 lakh teachers
besides opening of 1, 86,985 (till 31.3.07) new schools.
National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Education (NPEGEL):

The programme is aimed at enhancing girl’s education by providing additional support for
development of a model girl child friendly school. In every cluster with more intense
community mobilization and supervision of girl’s enrolment in schools. Under NPEGEL,
35,252 models schools have been opened. In addition to supporting 25,537 Early Childhood
Care & Education (ECCE) centers. Besides, 24,837 additional classrooms have been
constructed and 18.75 lakh teachers have been given training on gender sensitization.
Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV)

The Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) scheme was launched in July 2004 for
setting up residential schools at upper primary level, for girls belonging predominantly to
the SC, ST, OBC & minority community. The scheme ran as separate scheme for two years
but was merged with Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan w.e.f April 1, 2007.
II. Secondary Education

Secondary Education, which starts with classes IX and X leads to senior secondary classes
XI and XII aims to in cooperate basic skills & analytical abilities. It provides a stepping
stone to higher professional and technical education.
III. Higher Education

The Higher Education System comprises both general and technical education. The higher
education has undergone a manifold expansion since Independence. The no. of universities
in the country has increased from 27 in 1950-51 to 350 in 2005-06 University Grants
Commission (UGC) takes measures for promotion and coordination of university education
and determination and maintenance of standards in teaching, examination and research in
universities and allocation and disbursement of grants to them.
IV. Technical Education

Technical Education plays a vital role in human resources development of the country by
creating skilled manpower, enhancing Industrial productivity and improving the quality of
life. Since independence, there has been a phenomenal expansion of Technical Education
Sector in the country. All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) is the apex body
in the field of Technical Education.
54
Weakness of the Education Sector
High Illiteracy: According to 2001 census, the literacy rate of 64.8 percent is still far off
the 100 percent mark.
Gender Bias: Education in India is gender biased. The enrolment of girls in both primary
and upper primary classes is much below the boys.
Low Quality Education: The quality of the education is fairly low.
Lack of Vocational and Technical Training: Too much emphasis on general education
neglecting the Vocational and Technical Education.
Low Level of Government Expenditure: Actual level of expenditure is only 3.46%
compared to the desired level of 6%
E-MATERIAL
1. Video Lesson:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1fCn-Tw61pDXtpZUp0pdNyL7yZ-
HJb1o0/view?usp=sharing
2. Gist of the Lesson (pdf):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1l-
jLl3QaBNd4HBNncuz48zjHqs4ccE6R/view?usp=sharing
55
2. RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Rural Development: It is a continuous comprehensive socio-economic process, attempting

to improve all aspects of rural life.
Rural Credit: Rural Credit means provision of loans especially in production for
agriculture and non- agricultural sectors. Credit facilities in the rural areas have contributed
a large increase in agricultural productivity and employment facilities in non-agricultural
sectors. The loans have provided in rural areas to the frames in order to purchase
machineries agricultural implements etc. The government had also provided long term loans
which can be repaved in 15to 20 years for improvement of the land, digging tube well,
purchase of tractors etc.
Unproductive Lone: There are some loans which are provided to farmers to celebrate
religious ceremonies, marriages for settlements of old loans and to support the family in
case of a crop failure. These loans are called as unproductive loans.
Sources of Rural Credit

Non-institution Sources: - These are the traditional sources of agricultural credit in India.
They include money lenders, relatives, traders, commission agents and land lords.
Institutional Sources: - They are cooperative credit, land development banks, commercial
banks, regional rural banks, govt., national bank for agricultural and rural development
(NABARD) and also self-help groups.
Micro finance: is a credit scheme extended to the poor through Self Help Groups (SGHs)
The Self-Help Groups (SGHs) have been set up to promote thrift in small proportions by a
minimum contribution from each member. From the pooled money, credit is given to the
needy numbers to be repayable in small instalments at reasonable interest rates.
Agricultural Marketing System: Agricultural marketing is a process which involves

assembling, storage, processing, transportation, packaging, grading and distribution of
different agricultural commodities across the country.
Measures to Improve Agricultural Marketing
After Independent govt. has adopted various measures to improve of the system of
agricultural marketing in the country. It has brought about following measures in order to
regulate the markets.
Regulated Markets: - The first measure was regulation of markets, to create orderly and
transparent marketing condition. This is organized in order to protect farmers from
malpractices of sellers and brokers.
Cooperative Marketing: Marketing societies are formed by farmers to sell the output
collectively and to take advantages of collective bargaining, for obtaining a better price.
Cooperatives are not functioning properly in a recent past due to inadequate coverage of
56
farmer members and processing cooperatives and also inefficient management.
Infrastructural facilities: - Govt. had also provided infrastructural facilities like roads,
railways, warehousing, old storage and processing units.
Standardization and Grading: - Grading And quality control helps farmers to get good
price for quality products produced by them.
Minimum Support Price: - To safeguard the Interest of the farmers government fixes the
minimum support price for agricultural products like wheat, rice, maize, cotton, sugarcane,
pulses etc. the government willingly will buy any amount of grains from the farmers at a
price higher than the market price in order to help them recover their loss. This is normally
done by good cooperation of India & the Government in turn will supply these products in
public distribution system against BPL & APL card.
Defects of Agricultural Market in India: The existing system of Agricultural marketing

has no. of defects the following are some of the defects due to which the marketing system
is not properly organized.
Lack of storage facility: Food grain and crops has damaged the products either by rats or
insects or due to rain.
Distress Sale: Most Indian farmers are poor and they have no capacity to wait for better
price. They sell the commodities at whatever the price available immediately. As a result,
they go for distress sale of their output, to the village money lenders or traders at low price.
Lack of transportation: as a result, farmer cannot reach nearly mandis to sell their produce
at a fair price.
Long chain of middleman: Intermediaries between the cultivator and the consumer will
also reduce the profit of the farmers.
There are also other defects like lack of institutional finance, lack of guiding etc. This makes
Indian marketing system disorganized.
Remedial measures for improvement of agricultural marketing
1. Extension of storage facilities at the farm level and storage and warehousing facilities in
the markets and consumption centers.
2. Establishments of regulated markets.
3. Improvement of transport facilities between the village and the mandis.
4. Establishment of cooperation marketing societies.
5. Provision of cheap credit, especially from institutional sources.
6. Provision for grading of the produce to ensure good quality to the consumers and better
prices for the producers.
7. Prompt supply of marketing information.
Diversification of Agricultural Activity: This means the excess of people in agriculture

can be given gainful employment in some other allied activities in agriculture and non-farm
activities. This is done in order to overcome poverty, improve employment and make rural
agricultural people fully employed.
Diversification includes 2 aspects.
Diversification of crop production: - This involves shift from single cropping system to
multiple cropping system. This also involves shifting cropping pattern from food grains to
cash crops. The main aim is to promote shift from subsistence farming to commercial
57
farming.
Diversification of Productive Activities: - As agricultural is already overcrowded the
major portion of the increasing labour force needs to find alternate employment
opportunities in other non-farm sectors. This will provide alternate sustainable livelihood
and would raise the level of income.
Some of the non- farm activities are animal husbandry, dairy farming, fishers, horticulture,
agro processing industries, food processing industries leather industry, tourism etc. These
sectors have the potential but they lack infrastructure and other financial support.
Operation flood is a system, whereby all the farmers can pool their milk produce according
to different grading and the same is processed and marketed to urban centers through
cooperatives.
The period of 1991-2003 is known as Golden Revolution because during this period, the
planned investment in horticulture became highly productive and the sector emerged as a
sustainable livelihood option.
Role of IT Industries in the development of agriculture

Information Technology has revolutionized many sectors in Indian economy. There is a
broad agreement that IT will play critical role in achieving sustainable development and
food security in the 20th century. Through proper information and software tools, govt has
been able to predict area of food insecurity and vulnerability to prevent or reduce the
livelihood of an emergency.
It also has a posture impact on the agricultural sector as it circulates information regarding
technologies and its application prices, weather and soil condition for growing different
crops.
This has increased the knowledge about agriculture.
The aim for increasing the role of information technology is to make ever village a
knowledge Centre, where IT provides a sustainable option of employment and livelihood.
Sustainable Development: It is the development which aims to develop the present
generation without affecting the quality of life of future generation.
Sustainable development does not prohibit the use of any resources, but aims to restrict their
use in such a way it is left for the future generation.
Organic Farming
Organic farming is the process of producing food naturally.
This method avoids the use of synthetic chemical fertilizers and genetically modified
organisms.
It is very eco-friendly and very essential for sustainable development. It has a zero impact
on environment.
Advantages of Organic Farming

It substitutes costlier agricultural inputs such as HYV seed, Chemical fertilizers, pesticides
etc. locally produced organic inputs, which are cheaper and thereby generate good returns
on Investments.
It generates income through export as the demand, for organically grown crops are on the
raise.
It provides healthy food as organically grown food has more nutritional value than food
grown through chemical farming.
58
It can provide more employment opportunities in India as it requires more laborer for
production than chemically produced goods.
Organic food is a pesticide free and is produced in an environmentally sustainable way.
Disadvantages of Organic Farming

Organic farming needs to be popularized by creating awareness and willingness on the part
of the farmers for adoption of new methods.
There is no proper infrastructure and marketing facilities for these products alone. An
appropriate agricultural policy should be brought in for organic farming.
The fields from organic farming are less than modern agricultural farming in the initial
years. Therefore, small and marginal farmers may find it difficult to adapt to large scale
production.
E-Material
Video Lesson:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1SSH2yaoxdjqUsFzznpR5yc2eWvLeGmJA/vie
w?usp=sharing
(pdf)
https://drive.google.com/file/d/11XEtNln579kyCVl0ncPEb8dP0D3Pe8w1/view?us
p=sharing
59
3. Employment:
Employment: Growth, Informalisation and Other Issues

Worker: A worker is an individual who is involved in some productive activities to earn a
living.
People included in workers: It is not only people those who are paid workers also includes
self-employed people like shopkeepers, barbers, cobblers etc. Workers include all those
people who are engaged in work whether for others (paid workers or self-employed)
Labour Force: All persons, who are working (who have a job) and though not working, are
seeking and are available for work, are dram to be in the labour force.
Work force: The number of persons, who are actually employed at a particular time are
known as work force.
Worker – population ratio: Worker- population ration is the percentage of total population
engaged in work.
WPR = Total number of workers in India X 100 No. of work population In India
Labour force participation rate: The ratio of labour force to total participation is called
labour force participation rate.
Informalisation of workforce: refers to a situation whereby the proportion of workforce in

the informal sector to total workforce increases.
Characteristics of workforce:
 More rural women are found working because of their poor economic condition as
compared to urban women.
 People in rural areas are engaged mostly in agriculture, which is a seasonal activity. So,
rural workforce migrates to urban areas during some part of the year.
 Regular salaried employees are more in urban areas as considerable section of urban
people are able to study in various educational institution and it enables them to look for
an appropriate job to suit their qualifications and skills. However, in rural areas, most of
the people are illiterate and lack skills, which are needed for regular employment.
Casual Wage Labourer: Workers who are not hired by their Employers on a regular or
permanent basis (i.e., do not have job security) and do not get social security benefits, are
termed as casual wage labour.
Jobless growth refers to a situation when the Economy is able to produce more goods and
service without a proportionate increase in Employment opportunities.
Regular workers: Workers who are hired by their employers on a permanent basis and also
get social security benefits (like pension, provident fund, etc.) are higher in regular workers.
Casualisation of work force: The process of moving from Self- Employment and regular
salaried employment to casual wage work is known as Casualisation of Workforce.
60
Types of urban unemployment:
Industrial unemployment: It refers to the unemployment among the illiterates who wish to
work in industrial establishment
Educated unemployment: Educated unemployment refers to the unemployment among the

educated people.
Wage employment: An arrangement in which a worker sells his labour and earns wages in
return
Types of rural unemployment:
Disguised unemployment: Disguised unemployment refers to a state in which more people

are engaged in work than are really needed.
Seasonal unemployment: Unemployment that occurs at certain seasons of the year is

known as Seasonal unemployment.
Full employment: Full employment refers to a situation in which all the workers who are
capable of working and willing to work get an Employment in prevailing wage rates.
Self-employment: An arrangement in which a worker used his own resources, to make a

living is known as self-employment.
Formal sector: All the public enterprises and private establishments, which Employ 10 or
more hired workers are called formal sector establishments.
Informal sector: All those private enterprises which hire less than 10 workers are called
Informal sectors.
Ex: Workers who work in farms, owners of Small Enterprises, Agriculture laborer. Here
they do not get regular income. No protection or regulation by government can be dismissed
at any time. Live in slums, use outdated technology and do not maintain accounts.
Frictional unemployment: Temporary unemployment, which exists during the period,

wherein. Workers leave one role and join some other, are called frictional unemployment.
Labour Force: Number of people who are able and willing to work at the existing wage
rate.
People those who are not working and are neither seeking nor available for work are
considered to be outside the labour force.
Labour force = Person’s working + Persons seeking & available for work.
 After 66 years & below 15 years not included labour force. A handicapped person not
included. People those who are not interested not included. People are not available not
included.
 Unemployed people = Labour force – Work force
61
E-Material:
Video Lesson:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1NotYUAkLxp4_zVNzLRAS5HnFKzB1ZKAw
/view?usp=sharing
(pdf):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Vcwv-ldVXGATage47azxR-
Tf2SdWXtg1/view?usp=sharing
62
4. SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Environment and Sustainable Economic Development

Environment: Environment is defined as the total planetary inheritance and the totality of
all resources.
Functions of Environment
1. Supplier of raw-material: Resources such as renewable and non- renewable are

supplied by the environment.
2. Environment is the sink of wastage: Environment assimilates wastes.
3. Life Support services: It sustains life by providing essential elements like sun, soil, air,
water etc.
4. Provider of aesthetic services: It includes land, forest, water bodies, rainfall, mountain
etc., with this people enjoy the beauty of hill station and to improve the quality of life.
Carrying Capacity of Environment

It includes two things-
 1. Resources extraction should remain below the rate of resource generations.
 2. Generation of wastes should remain within the absorption capacity of the environment.
If these two conditions are not fulfilled, then environment fails to perform its vital
functions of life sustenance and it leads to the situations of environmental crises.
Reason for Environmental Crises

 Population explosion and Industrial revolution has increased the demand for
environmental resources, but their supply is limited due to misuse and overuse.
 The intensive and extensive extraction of both renewable and non-renewable resources
has exhausted some of the vital resources.
 Extinction of many resources and continuous rising population has also resulted in
environmental crisis.
 Due to affluent consumption and production standard of developed world, the waste
generated is beyond the absorptive capacity of the environment.
 The development process has polluted environment, water and atmosphere and there is
decline in air and water quality. It has resulted in increased incidence of respiratory and
water borne diseases.
 The expenditure on health is also rising. Global environmental issues such as global
warming. Ozone depletion also contributes to the increased financial commitments of
government.
Pollution
 Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an Environment that causes instability,
disorder, harm and or discomfort in the ecosystem.
 Pollution is substances, chemicals or factors which cause adverse effect on natural quality
of any constituent of environment.
63
STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The following strategies should be adhered to, for sustainable development.
1. Use of Non-conventional source of Energy – India is mostly dependent on thermal and
hydropower plants which have adverse environmental impact. Non-conventional sources
like wind and solar says are cleaner and greener technologies, which can be effectively
used to replace thermal and hydropower.
2. Use of Cleaner fuels – Use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is being promoted to be
used as fuel. In Delhi, the use of CNG as fuel in public transport system has lowered air
pollution and the air has become cleaner. The use of LPG and Gobar Gas is being
promoted which reduces air pollution.
3. Establishment of Mini-Hydel plants – Mountain regions and streams are used to
generate electricity through mini-Hydel plants. These are environment friendly.
4. Traditional Knowledge and Practices – Traditionally all practices relating to
agriculture system, health care system, housing, transport etc. used to be environment
friendly. The shift from the traditional system has caused large scale damage to the
environment as our social heritage.
5. Use of Bio-Compost – The use of chemical fertilizers to increase the Agricultural

production has not only adversely affected the large areas of productive land but also
contaminate the water bodies. Increases in demand for organic food demand for dung are
in increased use which is an important fertilizer and soil conditioner.
6. Use of bio pest
Change in unsustainable patterns of consumption and production – India has taken large
number of steps for sustainable development.
E-MATERIAL
Video Lesson:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1qmvOJ7aTRy5RfZ_xSemx3qleKJVXAVvh/vi
ew?usp=sharing
(pdf)
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ioASNBRbschcCZfO6B2jTyPXN7ctHQjs/view?u
sp=sharing
64
Unit 8: DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCE OF INDIA- A COMPARISON
WITH NEIGHBOURS
GIST OF THE LESSON:
Development Path of India, China, and Pakistan:
• 1. India and Pakistan got independence in 1947 and, PRC was established in 1949.
• 2. India announced its Five Year Plan in 1951, China in 1953 and Pakistan in 1956.
• 3. India and Pakistan have made slow and irregular progress as compared to China, which
has made a miraculous progress.
Development History of China
• 1. The Great Leap Forward campaign of 1958.
• 2. Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution of 1965.
• 3. Economic Reforms- 1978
• 4. Dual Pricing
• 5. Special Economic Zones
• 6. Socialist economic model.
Development History of Pakistan
• 1. Mixed economic system.
• 2. Protectionism of tariffs and quotas.
• 3. Green Revolution of 1960s .
• 4. Denationalisation and privatisation of industries in the late 1970s.
• 5. Economic Reforms- 1988
Per Capita Income of India and Pakistan:
65
With a per capita income of US $ 1627 in nominal terms (2018), India is ahead of Pakistan
whose per capita income was US $ 1343 in nominal terms , in 2018. In PPP terms, India’s PCI
is US $ 5855 and that of Pakistan is US $ 4736 in 2018.
China’s PCI in 2018-19 is US $ 10,153 in nominal terms and US $ 19,520 in PPP terms.
Comparison based on Economic Growth Rate (in %)
Country 1980-1990 1991-2010 2011-2015 2016-2019
INDIA 5.7 6.6 6.7 6.8
CHINA 10.3 7.2 7.9 6.6
PAKISTAN 6.3 4.7 4.0 5.5
Population
• India today is the second largest populous country (133.92 crores in 2017)in the world
after China (142.06 crores).
Pakistan has a population of 21.70 crores people in 2017
66
Demographic Facts (2015)
Annual Pop. Pop. Density Fertility

Country Sex Ratio
Growth (%) (Per Sq.km) Rate
India 1.2 441 929 2.3
China 0.5 146 941 1.6
Pakistan 2.1 245 947 3.7
Sectoral Share of GDP and Employment (%) in 2014-15
Contribution to GDP Distribution of Workforce

Sector
India China Pakistan India China Pakistan
Primary 17 9 25 50 28 43
Secondary 30 43 21 21 29 23
Tertiary 53 48 54 29 43 34
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
67
Human Development Indicators
No. Items Year India China Pak.
1 HDI Value 2017 0.640 0.752 0.562
HDI Rank (Out of 189

2 2017 130 86 150
countries)
3 Literacy Rate (%) 2011 74.04 95.12 62.3
Life Expectancy at Birth

4 2011 68.3 76 66.4
(Years)
5 Mean Years of Schooling (%) 2011 6.3 7.6 5.1
6 GDP Per Capita (US $ PPP) 2018 5855 10,153 4736
Population BPL (%)- (US $

7 2011 37 32 44
1.9 a day)
8 IMR (per 1000 live births) 2017 33 08 61.2
9 MMR (per 1 Lakh births) 2017 130 19.6 178
Population with Improved

10 2015 39.6 76.5 63.5
Sanitation (%)
Population with Improved

11 2015 92.6 95.5 91
Water (%)
12 GER in Higher education (%) 2017 25.2 48 9.9
68
E-MATERIAL
1. Video Lesson:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1essEZ5bpGIpoxl3kg993JqvGE-A_oAjh/view?usp=sharing
2. Gist of Chapter (pdf):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1RxeoPCI4P1e1PSH2dwezFticaDnlHWA5/view?usp=sharing
69
Disclaimer: This study material is to be used for free educational purpose only.
Use for commercial purpose, if any, is prohibited as per applicable laws.
Compiled by: JOSEPH K.A., Training Associate (Economics), KVS-ZIET,
Gwalior
© Kendriya Vidyalaya sangathan- Zonal institute of Education and Training,

Gwalior
70
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
ZONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION AND

TRAINING, GWALIOR
INTERACTIVE STUDY
MATERIAL
HINDI
CLASS XII 2022-23
Sh. Upendra Singh Tomar

Training Associate (Hindi)
KVS ZIET GWALIOR

कें िीय डवद्ालय सगां ठन
आच
ां डलक डशक्षा एवां प्रडशक्षण सस्ां थान, ग्वाडलयि
अध्ययन सामग्री 2022-23 कक्षा 12 (डहांदी के डन्िक)
1 आत्मपरिचय (आिोह) वीडिओ पाठ कडवता - साि पीपीटी पद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
1.1 एक गीत वीडिओ पाठ कडवता - साि पीपीटी पद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
2 पतांग वीडिओ पाठ कडवता - साि पीपीटी पद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
3 कडवता के बहाने वीडिओ पाठ कडवता - साि पीपीटी पद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
3.1 बात सीधी थी पि वीडिओ पाठ कडवता - साि पीपीटी पद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
4 कै मिे में बांद अपाडहज वीडिओ पाठ कडवता - साि पीपीटी पद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
6 उषा वीडिओ पाठ कडवता - साि पीपीटी पद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
7 बादल िाग वीडिओ पाठ कडवता - साि पीपीटी पद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
8 कडवतावली (उत्ति काांि से) वीडिओ पाठ कडवता - साि पीपीटी पद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
8.1 लक्ष्मण मर्चू ्ाा औि िाम का डवलाप वीडिओ पाठ कडवता - साि पीपीटी1 पीपीटी2 पद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
9 रूबाईयाां वीडिओ पाठ कडवता - साि पीपीटी पद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
10 ्ोटा मेिा खेत वीडिओ पाठ कडवता - साि पीपीटी पद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
10.1 बगुलों के पांख वीडिओ पाठ कडवता - साि पीपीटी पद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
11 भडिन वीडिओ पाठ पाठ - साि पीपीटी गद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
12 बाजाि दशान वीडिओ पाठ पाठ - साि पीपीटी गद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
13 काले मेघा पानी दे वीडिओ पाठ पाठ - साि पीपीटी गद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
14 पहलवान की ढोलक वीडिओ पाठ पाठ - साि पीपीटी गद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
17 डशिीष के फूल वीडिओ पाठ पाठ - साि पीपीटी गद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
18 1.(श्रम डवभाजन औि जाडत-प्रथा) 2.(मेिी कल्पना का आदशा समाज) वीडिओ पाठ 1 2 पाठ - साि पीपीटी गद्ाांश आधारित प्रश्न सब्जेडटटव प्रश्न
1 डसल्वि वेडिगां (डवतान भाग 2) वीडिओ पाठ पाठ साि पीपीटी MCQs
2 जूझ वीडिओ पाठ पाठ साि पीपीटी MCQs
3 अतीत में दबे पााँव वीडिओ पाठ पाठ साि पीपीटी MCQs
3 डवडभन्न माध्यमों के डलए लेखन (अडभव्यडि औि माध्यम) वीडिओ पाठ पाठ नोट्स MCQs
4 पत्रकािीय लेखन के डवडभन्न रूप औि लेखन प्रडिया वीडिओ पाठ पाठ नोट्स MCQs
5 डवशेष लेखन स्वरूप औि प्रकाि वीडिओ पाठ पाठ नोट्स / प्रश्न MCQs
11 कै से किें कहानी का नाट्य रूपाांतिण वीडिओ पाठ पाठ नोट्स / प्रश्न
12 कै से बनता है िेडियो नाटक वीडिओ पाठ पाठ नोट्स / प्रश्न
13 नए औि अप्रत्याडशत डवषयों पि लेखन वीडिओ पाठ पाठ नोट्स / प्रश्न
1 CBSE प्रश्न पत्र प्रारूप डहदां ी के डन्िक SQP डहदां ी के डन्िक MS

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INTERACTIVE STUDY MATERIAL

KVS ZIET GWALIOR

COMPILED BY: TEAM OF TRAINING ASSOCIATES, KVS ZIET GWALIOR

KVS ZIET GWALIOR

Interactive Resource Material for Class XII English

1.1. About the Author 7

1.3. Link for the Audio Lesson 7

1.4. Images & Video on the Cause of the War 8

1.6. Synopsis of the Lesson 10

2.1. About the Author 11

2.2. Link for the Text Book Lesson 11

2.3. Link for the Audio Lesson 11

2.4. Images & Audio on the Effects of Poverty 12

2.5. Mind Map 13

2.6. Synopsis of the Lesson 14

3.1. About the Author 15

3.2. Link for the Text Book Lesson 15

3.5. Mind Map & Video - Swimming at River & Pool 17

4.2. Link for the Text Book Lesson 19

4.4. Images & Video – Rattrap as a Symbol 20

4.5. Mind Map 21

5.1. About the Author 23

5.2. Link for the Text Book Lesson 23

5.3. Link for the Audio Lesson 23

5.4. Images & Video – First Civil Disobedience 24

5.5. Mind Map 25

5.6. Synopsis of the Lesson 26

6 Poets And Pancakes 27

6.2. Link for the Text Book Lesson 27

6.5. Mind Map 29

6.6. Synopsis of the Lesson 30

7.1. About the Author 31

7.3. Link for the Audio Lesson 31

7.6. Synopsis of the Lesson 34

8.2. Link for the Text Book Lesson 35

8.3. Link for the Audio Lesson 35

8.5. Mind Map 37

8.6. Synopsis of the Lesson 38

1.1. About the Poet 40

1.4. Link for the Audio 41

2.1. About the Poet 43

2.2. Link for the Text 43

2.5. Critical Appreciation 45

3.1. About the Poet 46

3.2. Link for the Text 46

3.4. Link for the Audio 47

3.5. Critical Appreciation 48

4.2. Link for the Text 49

4.5. Critical Appreciation 51

5 Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers 52

5.2. Link for the Text 52

5.5. Critical Appreciation 54

Supplementary Reader (Vistas) 56

1.1. About the Author 57

2.1. About the Author 60

2.2. Link for the Text Book Lesson 60

2.3. Link for the Audio Lesson 60

3.1. About the Author 62

3.3. Link for the Audio Lesson 62

3.4. Gist of the Lesson 63