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Uint-1
Introduction:-
Metals are shaped into usable forms through various processes. Of these, some are called non cutting
shaping processes, i.e., those in which no chip formation takes place, and the metal is shaped under the
action of heat, pressure or both. This category includes operations like forging, drawing, spinning,
rolling, extruding, etc. Against this, there are other processes in which the components are brought to
the desired shape and size by removing the unwanted material from the parent metal in the form of
chips through machining. This is termed as cutting shaping. A few of the important machining processes
falling in this category are turning, boring, milling, drilling, shaping, planning, etc.
Machining of metal involves forging cutting tool through the excess material of the work piece in the
form of small chips. This excess material progressively separated from the work piece desired shape and
size. In this theory
1. Machine tools do not require, elaborate tooling.
2. The process of machining can be employed to all engineering materials.
3. The wear of tool is not costly.
Elements of cutting process or Mechanics of metal cutting :-
1. work piece
2. Tools
3. Chip
4. Cutting fluids.
The figure shows the position of cutting tool in relation to work in order to cut metal with less effect. In
this there are 3 basic angles are important.
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1. Back angle(α)
2. Clearance angle(𝜃)
3. shear angle(∅)
METHODS OF METAL CUTTING:-
In cutting process are (1) orthogonal cutting (2) oblique cutting.
(1) Orthogonal cutting:- In orthogonal cutting the cutting edge of tool remains at right angles to the
direction of cutting velocity or work feed. This type of cutting also know as two- dimensional cutting.
The main features of two- dimensional cutting are
(i) The cutting edge of the tool remains normal to the direction of tool feed or work feed.
(ii) The direction of the chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting edge of the tool.
(iii) The cutting edge is longer then the width of the cut.
(2) Oblique cutting :- In Oblique cutting the cutting edge of tool is inclined and not perpendicular to
motion of work piece is known as oblique cutting. This type of cutting also know as three - dimensional
cutting.
The main features of three - dimensional cutting are
(i) The cutting edge of the tool always remains inclined at an acute angle to the direction of tool feed or
work feed.
(ii) The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle ‘𝛽’ with the normal to the cutting edge of the
tool. The angle is known as chip flow angle.
(iii) The cutting edge may or may not be longer than the width of cut.
In any cutting operation the following observations are can be made.
1. Metal is cut by removal of chips. Which may be in the form of continuous ribbon or discontinuous
chips. In this the chip is thicker than the depth of cut.
2. a lot of heat is generated in the process of cutting due to friction between the chip and tool.
3. There is no flow of metal at right angles to the direction of chip flow.
CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS :-
All the cutting tools used in metal cutting can be broadly classified as
1. Single point tools:- Those having only one cutting edges ; such as lathe tools, shaper tools,
planer tools, boring tools, etc.
2. Multi-point tools:- Those having more than one cutting edges; such as milling cutters, drills,
broaches, grinding wheels, etc.
IMPORTANT TERMS RELATED TO THE GEOMETRY OF THE SINGLE POINT TOOL ANGLES:-
1. Shank:- It forms the main body of a solid tool and it is this part of the tool. Which is gripped in the tool
holder.
2. Face:- it is the top surface of the tool between the shank and point of the tool.
3. Point:- It is the wedge shaped portion, where the face and flank of the tool meet. It is the cutting part
of the tool. It is also called nose.
4. Flank:- portion of the tool which faces the work is termed as flank. It is the surface adjacent to and
below the cutting edge when the tool lies in a horizontal position.
5. Heel:- it is the curved portion at the bottom of the tool where the base and flank of the tool meet.
ANGLES OF SINGLE POINT TOOLS :-
The different angles are provided on single point tools play a significant role in successful and efficient
machining of different metals. The main angles provided on these tools are shown in figure. The angles
are
1. Rake angle
2. Lip angle
3. Clearance angle
4. Relief angle
5. Cutting angle.
1. Rake angle:-
It is the angle formed between the face of the tool and a plane parallel to its base. If this inclination is
towards the shank, it is known as back rake or top rake. When it is measured towards the side of the
tool, it is called the side rake.
The rake angles guide the chips away from the cutting edge, there by reducing the chip pressure
on the face of the tool and increasing the tool life.
“ an increased rake angle will reduce the strength of the cutting edge”.
2. Lip angle :- The angle between the face and the flank of the tool is known as lip angle. Strength of the
cutting edge or point of the tool is directly effected by this angle larger lip angle stronger will be the
cutting edge and vice versa.
3. Clearance angle :-
It is the angle formed by the front or side surfaces of the tool which are adjacent and below the cutting
edge. when the tool is held in a horizontal position.
 just below the point, the angle formed is caused front clearance angle.
 when the surface below the side cutting edge is consider, the angle formed is called side clearance
angle.
The purpose of providing front clearance is to allow the tool to cut freely without rubbing against the
surface of the job, and that of the side clearance to direct the cutting thrust to metal area adjacent to
the cutting edge.
4. Relief angle :-
it is the angle formed between the flank of the tool and a perpendicular line draw from the cutting point
to the base of the tool.
5. cutting angle :-
the total cutting angle of the tool is the angle formed between the fool face and a line through the
point, which is a tangent to the machined surface of the work at that point.
Chip formation :-
Fig shows represents an orthogonal cutting. It is a schematic representation of a shaping operation in

which the work piece remains stationary and the tool advances into the work piece towards the left.
Thus the metal in front of the tool gets compressed very severely, causing shear stress. This stress is
maximum along a plane called shear plane. If the material of the work piece is ductile, the material flows
plastically along the shear plane forming the chip which flows upwards along the face of the tool.
Here the metal structure starts getting elongated along the line PQ below the shear plane and
continuous up to line RS above the shear plane, Where its deformation is complete. The complete area
represented by PQRS, within which the metal deformation occurs, is known as shear zone.
TYPES OF CHIPS :-
The chips produced during machining of various metals can be broadly classified into the following three
types.
1. Discontinuous or segmental chips

2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with built up edge.
1. Discontinuous chip :-
This type of chips are produced during machining of brittle materials like cast iron and bronze. These
chips are produced in the form of small segments, as shown in fig. in machining of such materials, as the
tool advances forward, the shear plane angle gradually reduces until the value of compressive stress
acting on the shear plane becomes too low to prevent rupture. Such chips are also some times produced
in the machining of ductile materials. When low cutting speeds are used and lubrication is not provided.
Effects :-
1. Friction between chip and tool is high

2. Chip into small segments
3. Wear of the tool is high
4. Poor surface finish
5. Smaller rake angle on the tool and too much depth of cut.
2. continuous chip :-
This type of chip is produced during the machining of ductile materials like mild steel, under favorable
cutting conditions, such as high cutting speed and minimum friction between the chip and the tool face.
If other wise, it will break and chip tool interface can be minimized by polishing the tool face and used
coolant. In this process the chip moving smoothly up the tool face.
Advantages :-
1. rake angle is high and cutting speed is high.
2. good surface finish
3. less friction between chip and tool.
3. continuous chip with built up edge :-
These chips are usually formed while machining of ductile materials, when high friction exists at the chip
tool interface. The upward flowing chip exerts pressure on the tool face. The normal reaction 𝑁𝑅 of the
chip on the tool face is quite high and is maximum at the cutting edge and nose of the tool. This gives
rise to an high temperature and the compressed metal adjacent to the tool nose gets welded to it. The
extra metal welded to the nose or point of the tool is called built up edge. This metal is highly strain
hardened and brittle with the result, as the chip flow up the tool, the built up edge is broken and carried
away with the chip.
Effects :-
1. rough surface finish on the work piece
2. vibrations in cutting tool
3. low cutting speeds
4. small rake angle.
Chip breakers:-
1.chip breakers break the produce chip in to small pieces.
2. these are provided to control the continuous ribbon type chips.
3. the chip breaker deflect the chip at a shape angle cause it to break the small pieces.
Chip breaker may be defined as the modification of the lathe tool face in order to control and break off
the chips. When HSS ( high speed tools) tools are used for cutting under low r.p.m continuous chips are
formed. In this case by using the chip breakers, long chips are broken into small pieces are formed.
Types of chip breakers are commonly used :-
1. groove type :-
It consists of grinding a groove on the face of the tool, behind the cutting edge, leaving a small land near
the tip. As shown in fig.
2. step type :-
It consists of grinding a step on the face of the tool, adjacent to the cutting edge as shown fig.
3. secondary rake type :-
it consists of providing a secondary rake on the tool through grinding, together with a small step, as
shown in fig.
4. clamp type :-
this type of chip breaker is very common with the carbide tipped tool. The chip breaker is a thin and
small plate which is either brazed to or held mechanically on the tool face, as shown in fig.
Cutting speed:-
Cutting speed of a cutting tool can be defined as the ‘ travels of a point on the cutting edge relative to
the surface of a point on the cutting edge relative to the surface of cut in unit time’. it is normally
expressed in terms of surface speed in meters per minute.
cutting speed effects the tool life and efficiency of machining. The proper cutting speed has to be
maintained. If it is too high, the tool gets over heated and its cutting edge may tail.
EX:-In lath work when the work piece of diameter ‘D’ rotates at a speed ‘N’ revolutions per minute. The
cutting speed ‘v’ is given by the
𝜋𝐷𝑁
V= m /min
1000
FEED:-
Feed of the cutting tool can be defined as the distance it travels in to the work piece for each pass of its
point through a particular position in unit time.
Ex:- In turning operation on a lathe it is equal to the advancement of the tool corresponding to each
revolution of the work.
Feed depends on depth of cut, rigidity of cutting tool.
 higher speeds are used in rough cuts
 lower speeds are used for finishing cuts.
Normally feed various form 0.1 to 1.5 mm. The maximum feed is limited by the following
factors.
1. cutting edge strength.

2. Surface finish required.
3. Tool chip space.
Feed is measured in different units
1. mm per revolutions:-
In machines tools with rotary drive motion such as lathe boring machines......etc.
2. mm per stock:-
In machines tools with reciprocating drive motion. Shaper, planer....etc.
3. mm per tooth:-
In machine tools using multiple tooth cutter such as milling machine.
Let 𝐹𝑟 = feed for revolutions
𝐹𝑚 =feed for minute
∴ 𝐹𝑚 = f× 𝑁 (∴ 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)
DEPTH OF CUT:-
it is the thickness of the layer of metal remove in one cut (or) pass measured in a direction
perpendicular to the machine surface.
The depth of cut always perpendicular to the direction of the feed motion.
𝐷−𝑑
Depth of cut =
2
Where,
D= original diameter of the stock in mm
d= diameter obtained after turning in mm.
TOOL LIFE:-
Tool life can be defined as the time interval for which the tool works satisfactorily between two
successive grindings .thus it can be basically conceived as functional life of the tool. The tool can be
effectively used as the basis to evaluated the performance of the tool material, machinability of the
work piece material and cutting conditions. There are three common uses of expressing tool life.
1. As time period in minutes between two successive grindings.

2. In terms of number of components machined between two successive grindings. This mode is
commonly used when the tool operates continuously as in case of automatic machines.
3. In terms of the volume of materials removed between two successive grinding. This mode of
expression is commonly used when the tool is primarily used for heavy stock removal.
Volume of the material removed for minute= 𝜋. 𝐷. 𝑡. 𝑓. 𝑁 𝑚𝑚2/min
Where, D= diameter of work piece in mm
t= depth of cut in mm
f= feed rate in mm/rev
n=number of revolutions of work per minute
if ‘T’ be the time in minutes to tool failure then:
Total volume of metal removed to tool failure = 𝜋. 𝐷. 𝑡. 𝑓. 𝑁. 𝑇 𝑚𝑚3 ………………………1
we know that cutting speed,
𝜋𝐷𝑁
V= m /min
1000
∴ 𝜋𝐷𝑁 = 𝑉 × 1000
By substituting this value in equation 1
= V× 1000 × 𝑡 × 𝑓 × 𝑇 𝑚𝑚3
There fore, tool life (𝑇𝐿 ) in terms of the total volume of the metal removed to tool failure is given by
𝑇𝐿 = V× 1000 × 𝑡 × 𝑓 × 𝑇 𝑚𝑚3
Factor effecting tool life:-
The life of a cutting tool is effected by the following factor:
1. cutting speed
2. feed and depth of cut
3. tool geometry
4. Tool material
5. Work material
6. Nature of cutting
7. Use of cutting fluids
TOOL METERIALS TYPES:-
The following materials are commonly used for manufacturing the cutting tools.
1. High carbon steel

2. High speed steel
3. Cemented carbides
4. Cemented oxides or ceramics
5. Diamond and
6. Stellite.
1. high carbon steel :-
Plain carbon steels having a carbon percentage as high as 1.5% are in common use as tool materials for
general class of work. Usually the required hardness is lost by them as soon as the temperature rises to
about 200-300 c. They are also not highly wear resistant. They are used mainly for hand tools. They are,
however less costly, easily forgeable and easy to heat treat.
2. high speed steel :-
it is a special alloy- steel which may contain the alloying elements like tungsten, chromium, vanadium,
cobalt and MO etc. Up to 25 %. These alloying elements increase its strength, toughness, wear
resistance, cutting ability. The temp range of 550 c to 600 c. High speed steel tools are capable of
operating safety at 2 to 3 times higher cutting speeds than those of high carbon steel tools.
The most commonly used high speed steel is an elements 18-4-1, i.e., that contains 18% w, 4% cr and
1% V.
3. cemented carbides :- the every day growing demand of higher productivity has given rise to the
production of cemented or sintered carbides. These are formed by the mixture of tungsten,titanium
with carbon. The temperatures over 1500c is shaped into desire formes of tips.
4. cemented oxides :- the introduction of ceramic material as a useful cutting tool material is, rathier a
latest development in the field of tool metallurgy. It mainly consists of aluminum oxide, which is
comparatively much cheaper than any of the chief congtituents of cemented cavbides.
5. diamond :- diamond is the hardest material known and used as cutting tool material. It is brittle and
offers a low resistance to shock, but is highly wear resistant. The above factors diamonds are employed
for only light cuts on materials. Like carbon, plastics, Al and brass...etc. because of their low co efficient
of friction they produced a high grade of surface finish.
6. stellite :- it is a non-ferrous alloy consisting mainly of cobalt, tungsten and cr. A stellite may contain
40-50% co, 15-35 % cr, 12-25% w, and 1-4% carbon.
Coolants :-
The coolants are used to cool the tool, work piece and cutting elements. The following coolants are
1. water
2. soluble oils
3. straight oils
4. mixed oils
5. chemical additive oils
6. chemical compounds
1. water :- water either plane or containing an alkaline, salt or water soluble additives. But little or no oil
or soap or some times used only as a coolants. But water alone is in most cases objectionable for its
corrosiveness.
2. soluble oils :- soluble oils are emulsions composed of around 80% or more water, soap and mineral
oils. The soap act as an emulsifying agent which brake the oil into particles to dispose through out the
water.
3. straight oils :- the straight oils may be
(i). straight mineral oils (petroleum, kerocine, low viscosity petroleum fractions)
(ii). straight mixed oils or fatty oils consisting animal, vegetables etc. They have both cooling and
lubricating properties and are used in lite machining.
4. mixed oil :- This is a combination of straight mineral and straight fatty oils. This blend makes an
excellent lubricate and coolant for automatic screw machining work and other lite machining operations
when accuracy and good finish are of prime important.
5. chemical additive oils :- Straight oil or mixed oil. When mixed up with sulphur or chorine is known as
chemical additive oil sulphur and chlorine are used to increase both the lubricating and cooling particles.
6. chemical compounds :- These compounds consists mainly of a rust inhabit or such as sodium, nitrate,
mixed with high percentage of water chemical compounds have a good coolant particularly in grinding
on machining surface. Where formation of rust is to avoided.
Cutting forces in othogonal cutting :-
Fig shows that a number of forces on the chip during metal cutting. The relation ships among these
forces were established by merchant with the following assumptions.
1) Cutting velocity always remains constant.

2) Cutting edge of the tool remains sharp through out cutting and there is no contact between work
piece and tool flank.
3) There is no sideways flow of chip
4) Only continuous chip is produced.
5) There is no built-up edge.
6) The behavior of the chip is like that of a free body which is in the state of a stable equilibrium due to
the action of two resultant forces which are equal, opposite and collinear.
Fig shows the forces acting on a chip in orthogonal cutting. The forces represented are the following:
𝐹𝑠 = metal resistance to shear in chip formation acting along the shear plane.
𝐹𝑛 = backing up force excepted by the work piece on the chip, acting normal to the shear plane.
𝑁 = force excepted by the tool on the chip, acting normal to the tool face.
F=𝜇𝑁 = frictional resistance of the tool against the chip flow, acting along the tool face.
Here 𝜇 = coefficient of friction between the tool face and chip.
𝐹
𝜇=
𝑁
These forces are represented in the free body diagram shown in the right side hand in above figure.
It will be observed that forces 𝐹𝑠 and 𝐹𝑛 can be easily replaced by their resultant R.
The forces F and N can be easily replaced by their resultant R’.
Thus all these forces are resolved to only two forces R and R’.
For equilibrium these forces R and R’ should be equal, act opposite to each other and should be
collinear.
∴ 𝑅′ = 𝑅
Merchant’s circle :-
The two triangles of forces of the above free body diagram have been combined is called the
merchant’s circle diagram for cutting forces, in which the following new components has shown in fig.
Here
𝐹𝑐 = horizontal cutting forces excepted by the tool on the work piece.
𝐹𝑡 = vertical or tangential force, which helps in holding the tool in position and acts on the tool nose.
These two forces can easily be found out with the help of strain gauges or force dynamometer. The
angle 𝛼 is a known quality, being the rake angle of the tool.
F=AQ+QB
F= AQ+DC
F=𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼…………………………………….(i)
N =QD=PQ-PD
N= 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛼 - 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛼…………………………………..(ii)
𝐹𝑠 = AH-Hk
𝐹𝑠 = AH-PE
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑐 cos ∅ - 𝐹𝑡 sin ∅………………………………….(iii)
𝐹𝑛 = 𝐶𝐾 = 𝐶𝐸 + 𝐸𝐾
𝐹𝑛 = CE+PH
𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑡 cos ∅ + 𝐹𝑐 sin ∅……………………………….(iv)
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐴𝐶 cos (𝜏 − 𝛼)
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑅 cos (𝜏 − 𝛼)
𝐹𝑠 = 𝑅 cos (∅ + 𝜏 − 𝛼)
𝐹𝑐 𝑅 cos (𝜏 − 𝛼) cos (𝜏 − 𝛼)
= =
𝐹𝑠 𝑅 cos (∅ + 𝜏 − 𝛼) cos (∅ + 𝜏 − 𝛼)
cos (𝜏 − 𝛼)
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑠 .
cos (∅ + 𝜏 − 𝛼)
𝐹 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼
= = 𝜇
𝑁 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛼 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛼
Dividing the numerator and denominator both by cos 𝛼
𝐹𝑡 + 𝐹𝑐 tan 𝛼
= 𝜇
𝐹𝑐 − 𝐹𝑡 tan 𝛼
Triangle ABC,
𝐹
= tan 𝜏 = 𝜇
𝑁
𝜇 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
𝜏 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜏 = tan−1 ( 𝜇)
𝐹
𝜏 = tan−1 ( )
𝑁
𝐶𝑝
Further, = tan 𝑃𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝑃
By substituting the values of Cp, Ap and angle PAC, we get :
𝐹𝑡
= tan( 𝜏 − 𝛼)
𝐹𝑐
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1. Machine tools do not require, elaborate tooling.

2. The process of machining can be employed to all engineering materials.

3. The wear of tool is not costly.

Elements of cutting process or Mechanics of metal cutting :-

METHODS OF METAL CUTTING:-

In cutting process are (1) orthogonal cutting (2) oblique cutting.

The main features of two- dimensional cutting are

The main features of three - dimensional cutting are

In any cutting operation the following observations are can be made.

3. There is no flow of metal at right angles to the direction of chip flow.

CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS :-

ANGLES OF SINGLE POINT TOOLS :-

Fig shows represents an orthogonal cutting. It is a schematic representation of a shaping operation in

1. Discontinuous or segmental chips

1. Friction between chip and tool is high

1. rake angle is high and cutting speed is high.

2. good surface finish

3. less friction between chip and tool.

3. continuous chip with built up edge :-

1. rough surface finish on the work piece

2. vibrations in cutting tool

3. low cutting speeds

4. small rake angle.

1.chip breakers break the produce chip in to small pieces.

2. these are provided to control the continuous ribbon type chips.

Types of chip breakers are commonly used :-

3. secondary rake type :-

Feed depends on depth of cut, rigidity of cutting tool.

 higher speeds are used in rough cuts

 lower speeds are used for finishing cuts.

1. cutting edge strength.

Feed is measured in different units

In machines tools with reciprocating drive motion. Shaper, planer....etc.

In machine tools using multiple tooth cutter such as milling machine.

Let 𝐹𝑟 = feed for revolutions

𝐹𝑚 =feed for minute

D= original diameter of the stock in mm

d= diameter obtained after turning in mm.

1. As time period in minutes between two successive grindings.

Volume of the material removed for minute= 𝜋. 𝐷. 𝑡. 𝑓. 𝑁 𝑚𝑚2/min

Where, D= diameter of work piece in mm

f= feed rate in mm/rev

n=number of revolutions of work per minute

if ‘T’ be the time in minutes to tool failure then:

Total volume of metal removed to tool failure = 𝜋. 𝐷. 𝑡. 𝑓. 𝑁. 𝑇 𝑚𝑚3 ………………………1

we know that cutting speed,

By substituting this value in equation 1

Factor effecting tool life:-

The life of a cutting tool is effected by the following factor:

TOOL METERIALS TYPES:-

1. High carbon steel

1. high carbon steel :-

2. high speed steel :-

5. chemical additive oils

3. straight oils :- the straight oils may be

Cutting forces in othogonal cutting :-

1) Cutting velocity always remains constant.

**ALL THE BEST