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Celebrity Media Influence on Body Image in Young Adults

Katherine Stanley, Makenzie Moyes, Kinnon Rockness, Sophie Lindquist

Wheaton College

Human Communication Research

Dr. Sietman

February 28, 2022

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Abstract

Similarly to many people all over the country, social media has become one of the biggest

influences in culture, along with the celebrities that post on it. Throughout this literature review,

the prevalence of body dissatisfaction, impact of social media consumption, celebrity impact on

society, and beauty standards are discussed. Each of these concepts is important in

understanding the ways that celebrity images on social media play a role in body dissatisfaction

and levels of self-esteem. This literature review concludes with a summarizing paragraph

explaining the effects that come from each component of body image and social media.

Exploring different variables of media influence and going in depth about the connections

between these aspects is valuable and important.

In order to study this topic, we will explore how the following variables impact body

image and self-esteem: overall media consumption, social media use, celebrity impact, and

internalization of beauty standards. This study will collect data on these variables surrounding

body image and self-esteem by sending out a voluntary survey to female Wheaton College

students via email. An analysis of the survey responses will indicate how celebrities and use of

social media influences body image and self-esteem. Previous research in this area provides

additional information that supports our findings about body image. The results of this study may

have been limited by various factors, including the small sample size and shortened time period

to collect results. Future research may reveal additional variables and pathways of research.

Keywords: celebrities, celebrity impact, body image, body dissatisfaction, self-esteem, media

consumption, social media

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Introduction

Over the past several decades, social media use has become highly prevalent, specifically

among young adult women. These women consume media and observe the lifestyles, behaviors,

and images of celebrities. These celebrities set a standard of beauty that is difficult to obtain, and

young adults are impacted by trying to do so. This has an impact on self-esteem and body

dissatisfaction in young women who consume social media.

Human communication research aims to achieve better insight into how humans

communicate symbolically and through different modes of communication. Celebrities are able

to influence perceptions of body image through the use of social media, and young adults process

these symbolic messages sent by celebrity influencers. Symbolic interactionism theory may be

used to explain how people interact with symbols and how these symbols shape behaviors. In the

context of social media, these behaviors may result in lowered self-esteem and body

dissatisfaction. By using a communicative lens to examine celebrities' use of social media, one

may be able to identify symbols and themes that have negative impacts on women’s perception

of body image.

As college students, specifically women, this relates to personal desires for reaching

contentment with the physical attributes of bodies that the Lord designed. As young women, it is

easy to compare one’s own body to others, especially celebrities who possess great wealth and

resources. These famous figures can afford to alter and rearrange their physical beauty in order to

reach their ideal body, setting a standard that is unobtainable for the average woman. The goal is

to help educate the future generations about the unrealistic expectations and ideals set by

celebrities. The beauty of being a human comes from the fact that each person has been made in

the image of God, who loves his creation and has created all bodies with no mistakes. As
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Christians, it is important to understand that one’s worth is in Christ and not the way that society

views a person on the outside.

Literature Review

Body Image

Body dissatisfaction, a negative term for body image, is highly prevalent among young

adult women and can lead to numerous dangerous outcomes such as dieting, unhealthy weight

control behaviors, low self-esteem, stress and depression (Bennett, Whisenhunt, Hudson,

Wagner, Latner, Stefano, & Beauchamp, 2021). Through the self-curation of content, social

media exposure may lead to an increase in social comparison. In fact, social comparison has

been suggested to be a primary component of social media (Bennett, Whisenhunt, Hudson,

Wagner, Latner, Stefano, & Beauchamp, 2021). Upward social comparison is comparing oneself

to others considered superior which generally results in lower self-regard (Bennett, Whisenhunt,

Hudson, Wagner, Latner, Stefano, & Beauchamp, 2021). Several factors lead to body image

disturbance such as media influence, personality factors, sociocultural influences, and the

prevalence of celebrity worship in the formation of identity development (Swami, Taylor &

Carvalho, 2011). Not being able to meet those standards can cause numerous consequences for

oneself, for that feeling of not “fitting in.” It is argued that the media present standards for body

slenderness, physical attractiveness, and athleticism that can cause body dissatisfaction when

they are internalized and to the extent that women feel unable to achieve those standards (Swami,

Taylor & Carvalho, 2011). Body dissatisfaction can lead to a variety of different factors

including association with media influence, celebrity worship in the formation of identity

formation, sociocultural influences, and the several Big 5 Personality Factors (Swami, Taylor &

Carvalho, 2011). The Big 5 Personality Factors are only a small percentage of how it plays a
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percentage in body dissatisfaction, but still have a role in the way people feel about their

appearance. From all that is surrounding within a society, it is actually quite easy to be

unsatisfied with your body and how one looks.

Mass media may define where on the continuum of body image dissatisfaction/eating

disorder pathology one follows (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004). Body dissatisfaction can go

either way for both genders, as women have a certain desire for body thinness, men have a desire

for body masculinity (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004). Most of their body dissatisfaction

thoughts and emotions come from the media they are consuming and seeing everyday. Society

regards media images as realistic representations of beauty and as appropriate comparison targets

for appearance (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004). Viewing images on social media may be more

detrimental to body image than any other social media activities (de Valle, Gallego-García,

Williamson, & Wade, 2021). Ramifications of certain contextual features on social media such

as likes, comments, and “appearance-ideal images” and how they impact body image

longitudinally (de Valle, Gallego-García, Williamson, & Wade, 2021). Social media had a small

percentage of positive correlation with body image and disturbance. The relationship between

these two variables is directed in a more negative stance (de Valle, Gallego-García, Williamson,

& Wade, 2021). Not only is body image related to the content that is posted on social media, but

it is also directly correlated to the creators who post it. The people who may be idolized or

pictured as “perfect” are a huge factor in what standards are set for each person (de Valle,

Gallego-García, Williamson, & Wade, 2021). Even if it is friends that people are jealous of, or

celebrities that are flawless, they take and post pictures and videos to make themselves more like

them– leading to greater dissatisfaction. Appearance-focussed social media use had a stronger

relationship with body dissatisfaction than general social media use (de Valle, Gallego-García,
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Williamson, & Wade, 2021). Comments, captions, and the appearance of other included images

play a huge role in how people view others and themselves. People have become more

dissatisfied not by the amount of time spent on social media, but with the different amount of

sites visited while on there (de Valle, Gallego-García, Williamson, & Wade, 2021).

Media Consumption

The amount of time spent on social media can impact the way in which an individual

views their body. Communication researchers have found that media plays a significant role in

curating “aesthetic standards,” and in “transmitting thinness-oriented norms and values,” in

modern U.S. society (Harrison & Cantor, 2007). Historically, the media has played a role in

eating disorder epidemiology over the past 30 years in correlation to the ideal body image and

representation of women (Harrison & Cantor, 2007). Although there has been very little

empirical evidence that has been produced to show that exposure to media image of thinness

directly correlates to eating disorders and body dissatisfaction, many studies have uncovered data

that highlights the direct relationship in how exposure in beauty advertisements endorse greater

importance of sex appeal and beauty than with ads that are nuetral (Harrison & Cantor, 2007).

With this, there is a compelling argument of the relationship between media and body

dissatisfaction, specifically with eating disorders. A person’s perceived body and their ideal body

are put into a vulnerable position when pressures from idealized media models found on media

platforms serve as a potent source of negative body image (Bell & Ditmar, 2011). The mass

media has presented a body that is, “...predominantly thin, yet impossibly toned and curvaceous,

accompanied by perfect skin, teeth, and hair,” (Bell & Ditmar, 2011).

There has been a steady increase in media usage throughout the generations. As of 2016,

82% of young adults visited social media websites everyday (Twenge, Martin, & Spitzberg,
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2019). Social media has replaced things such as reading books or print media and watching TV

or movies (Twenge, Martin, & Spitzberg, 2019). Technology has drastically shaped the ways in

which people behave as there is a plethora of media sources and quick access to information on

all of these platforms (Woolley & Sharif, 2021). These immersive media platforms are argued to

make consumers feel “stuck in a rabbit hole”, despite the variety and wide-spread range of

content that is represented and distributed (Woolley & Sharif, 2021). This is a result of

consumers subsequently viewing countless videos or images on the same topic and only on

occasion will consumers opt to choose to consume media on a different topic from what they

originally consume (Woolley & Sharif, 2021). The danger of this is presented in the idea that

“people will perceive themselves to be immersed in that category. This is because the consumer’s

current “state of mind” lies within the category they most recently consumed,” (Woolley &

Sharif, 2021). Consistent immersion within a category ultimately increases the experience that

one has with their engagement with the media, and decreases their attentiveness and

connectedness to the outside world (Woolley & Sharif, 2021). The category that people are

immersed into becomes crucial in the ways they view their body and the lens in which they view

their world in relation to their appearance (Bell & Ditmar, 2011).

RQ1: Does media consumption affect body image and self-esteem in young adult

women?

RQ2: Do young adult women who use social media more have a negative body image

and lower self-esteem?

Celebrity Impact

Celebrities have an impact in many areas. A major area where influence has been

detected is in the area of body image. Research in the field of media and body image has focused
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thoroughly on traditional media such as television and magazines (Brown, & Tiggemann, M.

2020). However, through the recent work of various researchers and across multiple studies,

there is now substantial documentation supporting the assumption that exposure to images of

celebrities and fashion models on social media contributes to women’s body dissatisfaction

(Groesz, Levine, & Murnen, 2002). According to Zoe Brown and Marika Tiggeman (2016),

“Celebrities are well known individuals who receive excessive public attention, typically for

their involvement in entertainment or sport.” In addition, they are present in all forms of media,

leading to a platform of influence for individuals who are connected via media (Brown &

Tiggemann, 2016).

Two common media platforms are Facebook and Instagram, and the recurrent

presentation of celebrities on these sites highlights the unachievable, unrealistic ideal body of

thin and tall individuals. One example that exhibits the extent of impact that celebrities hold is

that there has been evidence of people having cosmetic surgery performed in order to obtain the

jawline and eyes of celebrity Kim Kardashian, an influencer who is widely known for her

physical appearance and body (Brown & Tiggemann, 2016). This example supports other studies

that suggest “intense-personal celebrity worship” as a frightening reality.

Several studies surrounding the Celebrity Attitude Scale (McCutcheon et al. 2002;

Maltby, Houran, & McCutcheon, 2003; Maltby, McCutcheon, Ashe, & Houran, 2001) support

the notion that there are multiple levels of celebrity worship. The first level is

“entertainment-social value” which assumes that fans are attracted to certain celebrities for the

motive of entertainment. The second level is characterized by “intense-personal feelings”, and

the final level is “borderline-pathological” (Maltby, Giles, Barber, & McCutcheon, 2005). The

concerns in these studies were focused on intense-personal feelings towards celebrities, and this
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level of attachment is an indicator of body dissatisfaction (Maltby, Giles, Barber, &

McCutcheon, 2005).

In addition, celebrity worship and parasocial relationships leading to body dissatisfaction

are specifically linked to adolescents and college-aged women (Maltby, Giles, Barber, &

McCutcheon, 2005; Groesz, Levine, & Murnen, 2002; King, Touyz, & Charles, 2000). Celebrity

impact is prevalent across the media, but studies show repeatedly that young females are

impacted the most in this way. On top of that, a feared effect of celebrity impact through media is

that the glamorized models and celebrities are becoming thinner, leading to many troubling

eating disorders (Maltby, Giles, Barber, & McCutcheon, 2005). In one study conducted by

Groesz, Levine, & Murnen (2002), they observed that there are real dangers associated with

young females being impacted by celebrity models. The adolescent and young adult stage of life

is accompanied by social comparison. Therefore, they found that ages 10-25 tend to seek out

advertisements with attractive models due to their inclination to compare (Groesz, Levine, &

Murnen, 2002). For example, many women compare their bodies to the slender postpartum

bodies of celebrities, even if they have never been pregnant (Hopper, Aubrey, 2015). One result

of viewing images of slender celebrities often creates a reduced self-esteem (Wilcox & Laird,

2000).

With that being said, celebrities have the power to influence many people through social

media, especially in convincing women that their value is contingent upon their appearance and

their bodies are objects (Hopper, Aubrey, 2015). Female fans who have levels of celebrity

worship are more inclined to experience body dissatisfaction (Maltby, Giles, Barber, &

McCutcheon, 2005), reduced self-esteem (Wilcox & Laird, 2000), and be affected mentally

through heavy exposure (Hopper, Aubrey, 2015).

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RQ3: ​Does following celebrities influence body image and self-esteem in young adult

women?

Beauty Standards

Women and girls are expected to learn and internalize beauty standards from the media,

which sets the standard for how they are supposed to present themselves (Vandenbosch &

Eggermont, 2012). Beauty standards are social constructs that may look different based upon

time, gender, and geographical location. Specifically, women are more pressured not to deviate

from beauty standards, regardless of what those standards look like (De Lima Bastos & Pessoa,

2019). These standards are often objectifying, as there is a heightened awareness of how the

body looks. The cognitive process of internalization, in addition to the behavioral process of

body surveillance, are related to exposure to objectification in music, television, fashion, and

social media (Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2012). The internalization of beauty standards has led

to direct effects, such as self-objectification, and indirect effects, such as eating disorders

(Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2012). The beauty standards that are set by images in the media

may be harmful to the mental well-being of women and adolescents.

Instagram, a popular social media site among women, has played a role in promoting and

enhancing beauty standards in US culture. Instagram-photo activity is related to the drive for

thinness and body dissatisfaction, primarily through image-related comparisons and

internalization of beauty standards (Piccoli, Carnaghi, Grassi, & Bianchi, 2021). Women who

have more intense Instagram-photo usage are more likely to engage in appearance-based

comparisons stemming from the ideals that they are exposed to. These comparisons lead to

harmful effects, including body concerns and clinically disordered eating behaviors (Piccoli,

Carnaghi, Grassi, and Bianchi, 2021). Women are also inclined to follow hashtags that follow
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body positive content. The images containing these hashtags set a standard for what is deemed as

healthy and acceptable for a woman’s body. Steps have been taken to interrupt the unrealistic

representation of women on Instagram, such as campaigns to inform influencers of the harmful

effects of posting and sharing images of idealized women’s bodies (Piccoli, Carnaghi, Grassi,

and Bianchi, 2021).

Additionally, fat acceptance movements have been formed in Canada and the United

States to combat beauty standards of thinness. Media discourses on the healthy, ideal body

encourage strict dieting and intense exercise. These discourses place pressure on larger women to

conform to the standards of physicality, which are “constituted as natural”(Afful & Ricciardelli,

2015). Women who take part in fat acceptance movements report three benefits of taking part in

such groups: a feeling of empowerment about their bodies, a heightened sense of being

connected on a social level, and better mental and physical health as well as well-being (Afful &

Ricciardelli, 2015). “Fat stigma” and body ideals are most commonly seen in the media, but they

are perpetuated by health professionals and medical institutions. Those who do not meet the

standard of having a healthy body are often associated with morbidity, mortality, ill health, and

unattractiveness (Afful & Ricciardelli, 2015).

Furthermore, beauty standards that have been set and normalized by American society

have not been traditionally prevalent in third world countries. In these countries, media and

technology are less accessible and many cultures remain “relatively unexposed to images of

unrealistically thin women” (Kong, 2007). Body ideals and standards of these cultures vary

greatly from Western ideals and standards. However, in the past 20 years, research has shown

that third-world countries are now being influenced by technological and media advancements.
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With the emergence of a dominant body ideal, many women feel inadequate and are consumed

by their appearance in ways that they have not previously experienced (Kong, 2007).

RQ4: Does internalization of the thin ideal affect body image and self-esteem in young

adult women?

Summary

From this literature review the components of body dissatisfaction, media consumption,

celebrity impact and beauty standards in American culture have been discussed. Body

dissatisfaction is often controlled by negative behaviors, for instance; dieting, unhealthy weight

control behaviors, stress, depression, self esteem, and an overload and consistent intake of media

consumption (Bennett, Whisenhunt, Hudson, Wagner, Latner, Stefano, & Beauchamp, 2021).

Specifically, celebrity impact is prevalent across the media. From various research studies, it has

been found that female adolescents and young adult women are the most at risk of being

negatively impacted by these glamorized models and with the trend of celebrities becoming

thinner (Maltby, Giles, Barber, & McCutcheon, 2005). Supporting this, communication

researchers have found that media plays a significant role in curating “aesthetic standards,” and

in “transmitting thinness-oriented norms and values,” in modern U.S. society (Harrison &

Cantor, 2007). This study will be conducted for the purpose of showing the direct effects of

social media to the young adult women. This study will also show the impact and influence

celebrities have on social media and the people who see the type of feed they post. Humans

idolize celebrities more than what may be assumed. In this research, there will be the exploration

of the specific variables of the relationship between social media of celebrities and body

dissatisfaction, as well as the relationship between social media of celebrities and self-esteem. In

several of the sources used, it is stated that there isn’t a large amount of empirical research on
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this specific topic. With this, there is large space for more research covering this topic and there

is a lot of content to discover and analyze as this is an increasingly important phenomenon today.

RQ1: Does media consumption affect body image and self-esteem in young adult

women?

RQ2: Do young adult women who use social media more have a negative body image

and lower self-esteem?

RQ3: ​Does following celebrities influence body image and self-esteem in young adult

women?

RQ4: Does internalization of the thin ideal affect body image and self-esteem in young

adult women?

Methods

Participants and Procedures

For our procedure, we created a survey that included questions from existing research to

measure the concepts of body image, internalization of beauty standards, self-esteem, media

consumption and celebrity impact. After formulating these questions, we put our compilation

into Qualtrics, an online survey website, in order to make it accessible for our peers. This

website ensures the anonymity of the surveyees and collects the data in an organized manner for

our analysis. We attempted to get the list of all women at Wheaton, but because of certain

circumstances such as a reduced time frame, we emailed the survey link to about 100 female

students at Wheaton, and we collected answers from 66 women across the various grades. The

first questions addressed demographics such as sex, age, ethnicity, and year in school. Obviously,

everyone was female because that was our area of study. In addition, 100% of the respondents

stated that they were older than 18. Out of our 66 participants, 31 of the women were juniors
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which is 48.44%. This was most likely due to the fact that all of us who conducted the survey are

juniors. There were 15 seniors (23.44%) and 14 sophomores (21.88%) that took the survey. Only

4 freshmen (6.25%) participated. Interestingly, over 75% of our survey takers were white, and

the second largest ethnicity was Asian at 14.49%. The remaining questions asked about current

self-esteem, body image, media consumption, and levels of celebrity impact. Please reference the

appendix for the exact survey.

Once our data was collected, we analyzed the results through entering our data into SPSS.

From there, we were able to test whether or not our hypothesis was correct. We used the method

of multiple linear regression to model the relationship between the independent variables and the

dependent variables of body image and self-esteem.

Body Image

To measure body image, we used a scale adapted from the Body Image States Scale used

in Cash (2002). This scale included six statements beginning with, “Right now I feel…” and

participants selected how satisfied or dissatisfied they were with their body image, how attractive

they felt, and how they felt about their looks in comparison to others. Higher satisfaction would

indicate an increased view of body image, and higher dissatisfaction would indicate a lower view

of body image. Items 4 and 6 were reverse coded so that higher scores would indicate greater

levels of dissatisfaction.

Internalization of Beauty Standards

Internalization of beauty standards was measured with a six-item scale adapted from

Stice (2001). Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with

six statements about beauty standards such as, “Slender women are more attractive” and
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“Women who are in shape are more attractive.” Higher levels of agreement would indicate an

internalization of beauty standards.

Self-Esteem

In measuring self-esteem, we included 8 statements into our survey from Heartherton and

Polivy’s scale for measuring self-esteem (Heatherton, & Polivy, J, 1991). For each statement

(e.g. I feel self-conscious.), young adult women specified their agreement with each statement in

answering from a selection of 5 different choices from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”.

Each statement addressed varying facets of pin-pointing an individual’s self esteem through how

one feels about their outer appearance, their character, and their abilities. Questions that were

negatively worded (questions 3, 5, 6, 7, 8) were reverse coded so that higher scores would

indicate higher levels of self-esteem.

Media consumption

To measure media consumption, we added 10 questions into our survey regarding

different types of media as a whole. We included numerous outlets of media, for instance;

newspapers, radio, podcasts, television, streaming services, magazines and social media. These

questions dived deeper not only into the aspects of how people view these media outlets, but how

much attention they may put towards media displayed in front of them. Our questions mainly

measure and focus on the aspect of fitness being shown through media and how intrigued people

become to listen to it. The choices let you choose from a spectrum of “not at all” for viewing

fitness, to “a great deal.”

Celebrity Impact

We measured celebrity impact on female young adults by using a 5-point scale adapted

from McCutcheon, Lange, and Houran’s study for measuring the levels of celebrity impact and
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worship (McCutcheon, Lange, & Houran, 2002). Specifically, these survey questions evaluated

the extent to which an individual places value on their favorite celebrity. For example, “Keeping

up with news about my favorite celebrity is an entertaining pastime” was one of the statements,

and the scale ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree”. Those who chose “Strongly

Agree” or “Agree” indicated stronger celebrity worship and stronger inclinations to be impacted

by a favorite celebrity.

Quantitative Results

Overall Media Consumption and Body Image

A multiple linear regression was calculated to predict body image based on overall media

consumption. A significant regression equation was found ( F = 2.72, p <.05), with an R2 of .21.

Overall media consumption was a significant predictor of body image. Specifically, an increase

in media consumption is associated with a decrease in body image. In other words, young adult

women who are exposed to larger amounts of media have a more negative body image.

Overall Media Consumption and Self-Esteem

A multiple linear regression was calculated to predict self-esteem based on overall media

consumption. A significant regression equation was found ( F = 4.69, p <.05), with an R2 of .14.

Overall media consumption was a significant predictor of self-esteem. Specifically, an increase

in media consumption is associated with an increase in self-esteem. In other words, young adult

women who are exposed to larger amounts of media have a more positive self-esteem. Thus RQ1

was supported.

Social Media Use and Self-Esteem

A multiple linear regression was calculated to predict self-esteem based on social media

use. The regression equation was not significant (F= 3.15, p>.05), with an R2 of .15. Specifically,
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social media use is not a significant predictor of self-esteem. In other words, young adult women

who pay more attention to topics of dieting and fitness on social media do not have lower levels

of self-esteem.

Social Media Use and Body Image

A multiple linear regression was calculated to predict body image based on social media

use. The regression equation was not significant (F= 1.33, p>.05) with an R2 of .17. Specifically,

social media use is not a significant predictor of body image. In other words, young adult women

who pay more attention to topics of dieting and fitness on social media do not have a negative

body image. RQ2 was not supported.

Celebrity Impact and Body Image

A multiple linear regression was calculated to predict body image based on celebrity

impact. The regression equation is not significant (F=.332, p>.05) with an R2 of .031.

Specifically, celebrity impact is not a significant predictor of body image. In other words, the

impact of celebrities does not lead to decreased body image in young adult women.

Celebrity Impact and Self-Esteem

A multiple linear regression was calculated to predict self-esteem based on celebrity

impact. The regression equation is not significant (F=2.075, p>.05) with an R2 of .065.

Specifically, celebrity impact is not a significant predictor of self-esteem. In other words, the

impact of celebrities does not lead to lower levels of self-esteem in young adult women. Similar

to RQ2, RQ3 was not supported.

Internalization of Beauty Standards and Body Image

A multiple linear regression was calculated to predict body image based on beauty

standards. The regression equation is not significant (F=.5, p>.05), with an R2 of .046.
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Specifically, internalization of beauty standards is not a significant predictor of body image. In

other words, the thin ideal standard does not have a direct correlation with negative body image

amongst young adult women.

Internalization of Beauty Standards and Self-Esteem

A multiple linear regression was calculated to predict self-esteem based on beauty

standards. The regression equation was not significant (F=2.224, p>.05), with an R2 of .069.

Specifically, internalization of beauty standards was not a significant predictor of self-esteem. In

other words, the thin ideal standard does not have a direct correlation with lowered self-esteem

among young adult women. RQ4 was also not supported.

Qualitative Method

For this research project, the qualitative method selected for gathering data is interviews.

Interviews are the most suitable method for this project because the researchers are discussing a

sensitive topic that can be difficult for some women to address. In order to make the interviewee

feel more comfortable with opening up about their personal experiences, opinions, and feelings,

the researchers aim to minimize the number of people present during the interview. The research

questions that will be examined throughout these interviews are as follows.

RQ1: In what ways do women at Wheaton College discuss their body image and

self esteem in relation to their social media use?

Social media is a prevalent point of comparison for many young adult women, and the discussion

of body image as followers of Christ who are made in the image of God is important to discuss.

The relation between the two is subjective to the individual, but the conversations may reveal

common themes that arise among this demographic.

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RQ2: In what ways do women at Wheaton College compare their own lifestyles

to the lifestyles portrayed by celebrities in social media?

Social media is often used as a platform to present the lifestyles and daily habits of individuals.

When observing the lifestyles portrayed by celebrities, women may examine and compare their

own lifestyles.

The interview processes will take place in a private setting such as the living room of

college apartments or other comfortable rooms to promote a confidential environment and open

conversation without fear of others listening in to the conversation. Each researcher will

interview one female student here at Wheaton College. The interviewees will be selected based

on the requirements of being a female and being a Wheaton College student. The study is

specifically observing young adult women, therefore it is important to make sure that the

interviewees are people that fit into that particular category. The interviews will last

approximately 20-25 minutes in duration. The researcher will document the interviews by taking

jottings throughout the conversation, recording the audio, and later transcribing the interview

using the audio. During the interview, there will be coffee or beverages provided for the

interviewee as incentive.

Interviewees were all chosen due to their status as a female student currently enrolled in

Wheaton College. One interviewee is a 20-year-old junior from Annapolis, Maryland. This

interviewee’s parents served as missionaries, so she spent several years living in Bogota,

Columbia. Another interviewee is a 21-year-old junior from Wheaton, IL. One interviewee is 22

years old and is a senior at Wheaton College. She is from Minneapolis, Minnesota. The fourth

interviewee is a 21-year-old junior from Nashville, Tennessee. Each interviewee took part in an

individual interview with one of the researchers.

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Table 1. Interviewee Demographic Information

Names Demographic Demographic Demographic Demographic
(Pseudonyms) Info (Gender) Info (Age) Info (Class) Info (Home
town)

Gretchen Female 21 years old Junior at From Wheaton,

Wheaton IL

Katie Female 20 years old Junior at From Annapolis,

Wheaton Maryland and
Bogota,
Columbia

Rory Female 22 years old Senior at From

Wheaton Minneapolis,
MN

Sally Female 21 years old Junior at From Nashville,

Wheaton TN

For this research project, some personal judgments that may affect this project would be

the projection of the researchers’ feelings and thoughts about body image from social media into

this process and paper. Another aspect of personal reflexivity would be wording questions and

probing to get interviewees to agree with similar thoughts and emotions that may be felt about

this subject. Some functional reflexivity aspects of this process would be to make sure the

researchers remain professional during interviews and examining results. Aiming for the use of

impartial language in this project would allow the knowledge and results to be obtained with less

bias. In addition, all interviewees have close relationships with the interviewers, and this could

lead to more detailed and vulnerable disclosures than if women were chosen with no prior

relationship to the interviewers. This is important to take into consideration for the discussion

later on.
 21

The purpose of the interviews are to deepen understanding of women’s experiences and

feelings towards social media use and what influencers they follow. With this, questions will be

used to discover how it may affect their body image and daily routines and lifestyles. Before

proceeding with interviews, it is important that interviewers walk through the consent form with

each interviewee as the questions being asked have the potential to stir up vulnerable

conversations. Warmup questions are asked to make the interviewee more comfortable before

transitioning into interview questions. Warmup questions also include demographic questions

about the participants. During the interview, participants are asked a series of main questions to

gain insight on experiences and feelings towards social media, influencers, and body image.

Some examples of questions include, “How do you feel about yourself after looking at social

media?”, “What do you first notice when you look at a post on social media?”, and “What

aspects of social media do you find frustrating or difficult as a woman?” At the end of each

interview, interviewees were asked for their final thoughts or additional comments on the

questions asked.

Qualitative Results

The data analysis process was thematic coding. Each researcher recorded their entire

interview. After this, each interviewer coded their own transcript by choosing important quotes

as units of analysis that answered the Research Questions. Then, each unit was grouped into

different categories that briefly explained the quote. Finally, themes were chosen to group certain

categories together that represented common trends throughout the units. After each interviewer

did this for their own transcript, they completed the same process with another interviewer’s

transcript in order to triangulate and decide on two themes for each Research Question. Below is

an example of the coding process.

 22

Table 2. Example of Thematic Coding Procedure

Units Categories Themes

Gretchen: I think some Attentiveness to others Awareness of social media

people are just showing the effects
best like pictures of
themselves. I think it can
definitely have a huge
impact because you see
yourself at all like points in
how your body looks, like,
the worst, and the best and
often we, we take, like, too
harshly how we look at our
worst.

Gretchen: So I think then Attentiveness to others Awareness of social media

when you just see people at effects
their very best it can, like,
make you feel pretty bad
about yourself.

Gtretchen: It’s easy to feel Easily discouraged Negative comparison

like you’re, like, failing in
terms of how good they’re
doing .

Gretchen: Mhhm. I think Easily discouraged Enjoys being included

maybe it kinda makes you
feel a bit like you're missing
out on something, or just,
like, you're not doing a
good job if you're not, like,
being as like consistent or,
 23

or your life isn’t as, like,

aesthetically pleasing as
theirs.

RQ1: In what ways do women at Wheaton College discuss their body image and self

esteem in relation to their social media use? Throughout the coding process of finding categories

and themes to best fit the patterns of RQ1, two themes that stood out the the group were

“Negative Self-Esteem” and “Comparing Body Image.” An example shown through interviews

we had seen to reveal negative self-esteem was when Katie had expressed, “I would say neutral,

but, uh, if not neutral, I would say generally worse about myself. And more, like, worse about

like, oh I’m not doing enough. Or like, I’m not on top of my life like all these people are. Or, I

haven’t spent enough time working out, or I haven’t been eating well.” This quote exemplifies

negative self-esteem because it shows how this person is “never doing enough” or feeling their

best compared to all other people in their life. Another example shown in interviews to represent

negative self-esteem by Gretchen who said, “So I think then when you just see people at their

very best it can like make you feel pretty bad about yourself.” This quote explains that

self-esteem has been brought down due to the fact that other people are “doing better” than the

social media user being exposed to these images.

The second theme, “Comparing Body Image,” may be found in a quote by Sally, who

stated, “I try to not follow a ton of people that would make me feel like less than when it comes

to body image.” This message explains comparing body image because it blatantly states that

Sally would never want to look on social media to find people who make her feel less than and

not great about herself. Another quote by Sally to emphasize comparing body image is, “...And I
 24

feel like a lot of them are super fit, and stuff like that, so I feel like I have to be careful to not

compare myself to those people.” This quote shows that comparing oneself to someone on social

media is quite easy to do, and some young women do have an awareness of it when it occurs.

Acknowledging when being careful not to compare is showing that this trait often happens from

social media influencing.

RQ2: In what ways do women at Wheaton College compare their own lifestyles

to the lifestyles portrayed by celebrities in social media? The two main themes that were found

during the process of coding transcriptions for Research Question 2 were, “Unobtainable

Reality” and “Seeking Encouragement”. In answering Research Question 2, the theme

“Unobtainable Reality” was found in one interviewee’s response, “Because it’s like, it’s not like I

look like her or like, do things that she does or live like a luxurious life like her, so I feel like, I

don’t know, like, that could be a hard thing about social media is that like, it’s easy to envy

people’s lives cause it just seems so perfect.” In Rory’s response during her interview, she spoke

about a specific celebrity, Hailey Beiber. Rory viewed her lifestyle as “unobtainable” through the

lavish posts that she was posting and even admitted to feelings of jealousy over Hailey’s

“perfect” life. In addition to Rory, Sally stated in her interview that, “It’s just not, it’s not real.”

In talking about her social media following, Sally’s comment fell under the theme of

“Unobtainable Reality” as she describes celebrities lifestyles as “not real”.

The second theme present in the interviews that addressed RQ 2 was “Seeking

Encouragement”. This theme was evident in several quotes. When interviewee, “Katie” was

asked how she compares herself to her favorite influencer, she said, “Maia has like, two kids and

is like, living life, you know? Like, well, if she can do it, then I can do whatever I’m doing here

in college. So, it’s like a different comparison, but similar in some ways I guess.” This quote
 25

suggests that Katie is inspired and encouraged by her favorite influencer to be the best she can be

in the time of life that she is in. She seeks encouragement and positivity from her favorite

influencers. Another example came from the interview with “Sally”. When Sally was asked

about what she likes about her influencer’s social media, she stated, “I feel like that’s kinda

cliche, but I don’t know, I feel like there are some that I'm just like, ‘Oh, that's so bright and fun

and just like warm’. Where there are some that are moody and edgy that I'm kinda like ‘meh’”.

In other words, Sally follows influencers on social media that will encourage and uplift her

instead of discourage her about her current lifestyle.

Discussion

Quantitative Discussion

After assessing these results and analyzing observations for the quantitative study, we

found that Wheaton College females have more positive self-esteem, and more negative body

image the longer they are exposed to larger amounts of media, which was in agreement with

RQ1. These results are interesting, as we expected that there would be a decline in both

self-esteem and body image when there is an increase in celebrity media consumption. Research

Questions 2, 3, and 4 were not supported by the results gathered through these surveys. For RQ2,

our RQs stated that topics of fitness and dieting on social media lead to lower levels of

self-esteem and body image, but from the results; it does not lead to either of those concepts.

However, the dependent variable of self-esteem was very close to statistical significance. This

may have been due to the small sample, which will be discussed in the limitations section. For

RQ3, we evaluated that after longer exposure to social media and celebrities, these influential

figures did not lead to a decrease in body image or lower self-esteem for users. This is

fascinating to see as we see these celebrities possibly often for people who are consistent on
 26

social media, and to find out that the impact from them is minimal can be surprising, yet

encouraging. For RQ4, we got the results of an internalization of beauty standards not having a

direct correlation to negative body image or self-esteem. This is also unforeseen because we

expected this concept would have an impact on the way we view our body and self-esteem, but it

does not seem to. If we had more responses from participants, possibly this research question

could have been supported, but with our circumstances and the limitations that came with it, we

are unable to fully prove if it would have been significant or not. Only having one RQ supported

out of the four we had created was something our group was not expecting, but interesting to find

and dive deeper into.

Quantitative Christian Perspective

After looking at how media has affected the way people view themselves based off of the

results, it shows how people can view themselves in a negative way the longer they are exposed.

Chrisitianity can be brought into this because we should set priorities into spending time with

God and His creation, rather than a false reality online. These results have shown that comparing

ourselves to one another is detrimental and not what God has intended for us to do. It can make

us as humans feel “less than” and not appreciate the gifts and physical features God intended to

create us with. Social media has many great uses to it, but when it comes to affecting the way

people may view themselves, this can make serious conversation as to why social media should

be limited or used in different ways.

Qualitative Discussion

In the results section of the qualitative analysis, two themes were identified for each RQ

that were common trends in the four interviews. The two themes that addressed the first RQ were

“Negative Self-Esteem” and “Comparing body image”. These two themes were significant
 27

because they revealed the potential damage that social media can have on both self-esteem and

body image. These themes that were present across multiple interviews portray the battle that

college-aged women have with social media and the temptation to compare themselves to others.

It is evident that the correlation between social media and comparison is strong among young

adult women, and important to remember how prevalent negative self-esteem is and comparison

of body image even in a Christian environment such as Wheaton College. One of the

interviewees, Sally, said in her final comments of the interview, “I’m honestly really glad that

y’all are talking through these questions. I feel like it’s something that our culture is only going

to keep progressing in and talking about, and it’s not like Instagram or any social media is going

away any time soon.” This quote is evidence that negative self-esteem and body image

comparison is incredibly common among this age group, therefore the discussion and

vulnerability is important so that women can be transparent with what they are struggling with,

and eventually grow in these areas. The two themes for RQ two were “Unobtainable Reality”

and “Seeking Encouragement”. The qualitative results for this question reveals that young adult

women are less inclined to compare their lifestyles to celebrities or influencers when the reality

seems unattainable or fake. Interestingly, interviews portrayed that the temptation to compare is

stronger with peers than with celebrities. Another quote from the interview with Sally is a good

example of this: “Like, it’s just such a different lifestyle in Hawaii that it doesn’t even feel

practical to compare”. Before this statement, she said that the social media atmosphere can be

“toxic” because of the inclination to compare your own life to the “highlight reel” of peers. On

the other hand, the interviewees portrayed a desire to be positively encouraged by the influencers

they follow. Sally explained her choice to follow the influencers that she does by saying,

“Because I feel like I just try to follow people that are going to be uplifting and not make me
 28

compare myself.”. In other words, peers on social media proved to be a point of comparison, but

some of the interviewees' responses suggested that influencers can actually serve as an

encouragement.

The thematic findings agree with past literature that says social media exposure leads to

an increase of social comparison and is a primary component for many users.(Bennett et al.,

2021). The thematic findings contribute to the claims of researchers who have said that

celebrities have the power to influence many people through social media, especially in

convincing women that their value is contingent upon their physical appearance and body

(Hopper, Aubrey, 2015). However, the interviews portrayed themes that implied that celebrities

have the power to influence, but they were less negatively affected by celebrities than their peers

as far as self-esteem and comparison goes. The interviews did not address “celebrity worship”

directly, but female fans who have levels of celebrity worship are more inclined to experience

body dissatisfaction (Maltby, et al., 2005) and reduced self-esteem (Wilcox & Laird, 2000). None

of the interviewees admitted to having levels of celebrity worship. But, the thematic findings

address reduced self-esteem and body dissatisfaction and also offer the other side that suggests

celebrities can offer encouragement and positivity.

Qualitative Christian Perspective

For Christians, it is important to pay close attention to what is presented in the media,

specifically social media. As shown in the qualitative research, what is presented in the media

has the potential to alter one’s body image and self-esteem, which the Lord did not intend for

believers. The Lord declared His creation as “beautifully and wonderfully” made, yet social

media often presents inherent lies in its posts that individuals can be greatly influenced by. With

this, it is important for Christians to be careful with what they pay attention to and what they are
 29

meditating on. From this study, Christians can ultimately learn the benefit of not only taking

social media in doses, but prioritizing what they read and look at. The more time Christians

spend time in scripture and in praying, getting to understand the Lord and His character more,

the more likely they will seek out truth, be encouraged despite the potential negative content they

come across on social media platforms, and be more inclined to spend more time outside of

social media. Thus, this study has the potential to shed light on a dark issue presented in the

“worldly” realms of media, and how Christians can come and be lights amongst these platforms.

Quantitative and Qualitative Results Together

The Quantitative Results assessed the concepts of overall media consumption, body

image, self-esteem, social media use, celebrity impact, and internalization of beauty standards.

The Qualitative Results portrayed four themes that were, Negative Self-Esteem, Comparing

Body Image, Unobtainable Reality, and Seeking Encouragement. The concepts and themes for

both quantitative and qualitative research found results that varied in many ways. For instance,

the quantitative results found that, “young adult women who pay more attention to topics of

dieting and fitness on social media do not have a negative body image.” In contrast to this,

qualitative research discovered from interviewee Katie, that she struggled with body image after

following fitness influencers on social media as she increasingly became hard on herself and her

lifestyle choices with working out and eating. The quantitative and qualitative disagreed with all

of their results as social media, celebrity impact, and the internalization of beauty standards all

were not supported and did not have direct correlations.

The qualitative findings offer insight to the quantitative findings as interviewees expand

upon topics that were not touched upon in the surveys used for the quantitative study. The nature

of qualitative research allots for more space for personal stories and opinions, which was helpful
 30

in conducting results for the research questions as this topic is very personal and can vary from

individual to individual. With the survey that was used for quantitative research, it was

impossible to interject during the survey and personalize each participants’ questions to tailor it

in efforts to make it more relatable towards their experiences and stories. With this, the

interviewee’s responses failed to illustrate the study’s quantitative findings as interviewee’s felt

that social media did in fact influence their body image and celebrities’ content was unobtainable

and there were frustrations expressed towards this “Fake Reality”, which was different than what

was found in the quantitative results.

Quantitative Limitations

A significant limitation in our group research is the smaller number of respondents we

received from our survey. Our group got a total of 68 responses, but having more than 100

responses would have more accurate data to our RQs. This also falls into the limitation of

having a short time frame in which we were able to collect data. If we had more time, possibly

more responses would have been able to be recorded. Another limitation would be the collection

of responses only at Wheaton College, where there is not much diversity in faith, color, and core

values. This is a limitation due to the fact that we did not get many diverse results we may have

received if we had sent it out to numerous colleges, including secular schools. Due to our

survey, a limitation in this area would be the far fetched questions we received from our research

sites. Especially in the celebrity impact section, very few people were able to relate to the

extreme celebrity worship levels. This possibly skewed peoples answers because of how

unrelatable they could have been, and people did not know in which way to respond.

Qualitative Limitations
 31

In the qualitative research portion of this study, there are several factors that may be

presented as limitations. First, only four participants were selected and interviewed. With a larger

number of participants, there may have been a broader range of responses. Additionally, the

demographics of the participants did not have much of a variation. The women who were

interviewed were either from the junior or senior class. Responses from a younger group of

participants, perhaps the freshman or sophomore class, may have offered a different perspective.

Participants were also largely from the United States, with the exception of one participant who

spent part of her childhood in Bogota, Columbia. The inclusion of international participants may

have offered different cultural perspectives. The length of the interviews may also be viewed as a

limitation in the study. Most of the interviews lasted about 20 minutes, which may be considered

a short amount of time to gather enough responses. If the interviews had been longer, additional

themes could have emerged. Another limitation to this study that could not have been prevented

was the sensitivity of the topics discussed. Participants were asked to discuss personal

experiences and opinions that may have been difficult or embarrassing to address. Although

participants were familiar with their interviewees and guaranteed anonymity, they may not have

given their entire perspective on the issues presented. This limitation was a factor that could not

be controlled by the researchers, thus it could not be prevented.

Directions for Future Quantitative Research

To expand this research project in the future, it would be beneficial to survey a large

range of young adult women that go beyond just the Wheaton College bubble. This would have

the potential to change our results as with each area of young adult women, comes differing

cultural standards of body image and different emphases on thin ideals and levels of celebrity

media consumption. In addition, it might be interesting to include other ages outside of this
 32

young adult age range. Many of the articles that were used included information that touched on

the topic of the impact that media consumption has on adolescents. Media is progressively

growing in accessibility to a younger demographic, which would bring a larger perspective of the

topic’s early stages before adolescents reach their young adult years. This would produce a more

in depth data set for future research. Another aspect to look at would be the gender that is

measured. It would be interesting to assess the impact that celebrity media has on young adult

men as well as women. For example, men stereotypically possess differing beauty standards than

women, which would allow room for exploration of the comparison between the genders and

how celebrity media impacts them similarly and differently. Majority of the sources that we

found included concepts of eating disorders and mental health. With this, it would be beneficial

for future research to include and dive deeper into these concepts as they are highly prevalent in

the adolescent and young adult population and growing at a steady incline.

Directions for Future Qualitative Research

Based on the limitations of the qualitative research, there are several directions that could

be taken in future research. First, a larger group of participants may be interviewed to gather

more responses. This could lead to a greater variation of responses and themes. Another future

direction may be the inclusion of participants from different ages and cultural backgrounds. Once

again, these factors may provide a variation of perspectives and experiences. Future research

may go beyond college-age students. Several of the respondents in this study mentioned the fact

that their perception of social media and celebrities has changed over the past several years.

Future research could look at high school students, or even adolescents. This study was also done

at Wheaton College, a Christian liberal arts institution. All of the respondents identified as

Christians, so future research may look at non-Christian perspectives. In addition, future research
 33

may look to understand male perspectives. It may be interesting to understand the ways that men

are influenced by and interact with social media.

Quantitative Implications

Our findings suggest support for some of our research, but are inconsistent or in need of

further research in other areas. The hypothesis we made based on our research questions was that

young adult women who view celebrity media regularly have an increased likelihood in dealing

with body dissatisfaction and lowered levels of self-esteem.

Existing research proposed that through exposure to media and large quantities of social

media content, social comparison often occurs, resulting in lower levels of self-esteem (Bennett,

Whisenhunt, Hudson, Wagner, Latner, Stefano, & Beauchamp, 2021). On top of that, it has been

said that lower levels of self-esteem and negative body image is impacted by several factors such

as media influence, personality factors, sociocultural influences, and the prevalence of celebrity

worship in the formation of identity development (Swami, Taylor & Carvalho, 2011). However,

our results did not fully reflect these existing studies. For example, our results portrayed that

media consumption was positively correlated with a negative body image, but interestingly,

media consumption was negatively correlated with low self-esteem.

In previous studies, communication researchers have discovered through research that

media plays a significant role in “transmitting thinness-oriented norms and values” and curating

aesthetic standards” (Harrison & Cantor, 2007). Despite the lack of empirical evidence produced

to show the exposure to the media’s portrayal of thinness and its direct relationship to body

dissatisfaction, there are several studies that have found data that highlight the direct relationship

in how exposure to beauty advertisements endorse greater importance of sex appeal and beauty

than with ads that are neutral (Harrison & Cantor, 2007). In the study that we conducted, we
 34

found results that went against this study along with many other studies. These results concluded

that young adult women who are exposed to larger amounts of media have more positive

self-esteem. Our study also concluded that young adult women who are exposed to larger

amounts of media have a more negative body image. These results agree with Bell and Ditmar’s

study which conclude that a person’s perceived body and their ideal body are put into a

vulnerable position when pressures from idealized media models serve as a potent source of

negative body image (Bell & Ditmar, 2011).

Conclusion

Media use and consumption is not something that is going away anytime soon. This

emphasizes the importance of studying the topics at hand. We hope that our research is helpful in

considering the implications that heavy media consumption and celebrity portrayals of beauty

standards have on the young female adult. Even though our research has limitations, we trust that

our findings will promote conversations about these concepts among women at our college.

Further research would be helpful and is needed in order to explore our research questions more

extensively and to cover more demographics.

 35

Appendix

Are you 18 years or older?

1. Yes
2. No
What is your age?

Are you male or female?

1. Female
2. Male
What year are you in college?
1. Freshman
2. Sophomore
3. Junior
4. Senior
Please choose one or more race and/or ethnicity that you consider yourself to be:
1. American Indian or Alaska Native
2. Asian
3. Black or African-American
4. Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander
5. Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino
6. White
7. Other

I feel confident about my abilities.

1. Strongly Agree
2. Agree
3. Neutral
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
I feel that others respect and admire me.
1. Strongly Agree
2. Agree
3. Neutral
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
I feel self-conscious.
1. Strongly Agree
2. Agree
3. Neutral
 36

4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
I am pleased with my appearance right now.
1. Strongly Agree
2. Agree
3. Neutral
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
I feel inferior to others at this moment.
1. Strongly Agree
2. Agree
3. Neutral
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
I feel concerned about the impression I am making
1. Strongly Agree
2. Agree
3. Neutral
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
I feel unattractive.
1. Strongly Agree
2. Agree
3. Neutral
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree
I am worried about looking foolish
1. Strongly Agree
2. Agree
3. Neutral
4. Disagree
5. Strongly Disagree

Overall, how much attention do you pay to the topic of dieting on TV or streaming services?
1. Not at all
2. A little
3. A moderate amount
4. A lot
5. A great deal
 37

Overall, how much attention do you pay to the topic of dieting on the radio or podcasts?
1. Not at all
2. A little
3. A moderate amount
4. A lot
5. A great deal
Overall, how much attention do you pay to the topic of dieting in newspapers or magazines?
1. Not at all
2. A little
3. A moderate amount
4. A lot
5. A great deal
Overall, how much attention do you pay to the topic of dieting online?
1. Not at all
2. A little
3. A moderate amount
4. A lot
5. A great deal
Overall, how much attention do you pay to the topic of dieting on social media?
1. Not at all
2. A little
3. A moderate amount
4. A lot
5. A great deal
Overall, how much attention do you pay to the topic of fitness on TV or streaming services?
1. Not at all
2. A little
3. A moderate amount
4. A lot
5. A great deal
Overall, how much attention do you pay to the topic of fitness in newspapers or magazines?
1. Not at all
2. A little
3. A moderate amount
4. A lot
5. A great deal
Overall, how much attention do you pay to the topic of fitness in newspapers or magazines?
1. Not at all
2. A little
3. A moderate amount
 38

4. A lot
5. A great deal
Overall, how much attention do you pay to the topic of fitness online?
1. Not at all
2. A little
3. A moderate amount
4. A lot
5. A great deal
Overall, how much attention do you pay to the topic of fitness on social media?
1. Not at all
2. A little
3. A moderate amount
4. A lot
5. A great deal

I enjoy watching, reading, or listening to celebrities because it means a good time.

1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
I love to talk with others who admire celebrities.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
Learning the life stories of celebrities is a lot of fun.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
It is enjoyable to just be with others who like celebrities.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
 39

I like watching and hearing about celebrities when I am in a large group of people.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
I often feel compelled to learn the personal habits of celebrities.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
I have frequent thoughts about celebrities, even when I don’t want to.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
For me, “following celebrities is like daydreaming because it takes me away from life’s hassles.”
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
The successes of celebrities are my successes also.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
I have pictures and/or souvenirs of celebrities which I always keep in exactly the same place.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
When something good happens to celebrities I feel like it happened to me.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
 40

4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
I am obsessed with the details of celebrities’ lives.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
Keeping up with news about celebrities is an entertaining pastime.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
When celebrities die I feel like dying too.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
When something bad happens to celebrities I feel like it happened to me.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
When celebrities fail or lose at something I feel like failure at myself.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree

Slender women are more attractive.

1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
 41

Women who are in shape are more attractive.

1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
Tall women are more attractive.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
Women with toned (lean) bodies are more attractive.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
Shapely women are more attractive.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
Women with long legs are more attractive.
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree

Right now I feel…

1. Extremely dissatisfied with my physical appearance
2. Mostly dissatisfied with my physical appearance
3. Moderately dissatisfied with my physical appearance
4. Slightly dissatisfied with my physical appearance
5. Neither dissatisfied noe satisfied with my physical appearance
6. Slightly satisfied with my physical appearance
7. Moderately satisfied with my physical appearance
 42

8. Mostly satisfied with my physical appearance

9. Extremely satisfied with my physical appearance
Right now I feel…
1. Extremely dissatisfied with my body size and shape
2. Mostly dissatisfied with my body size and shape
3. Moderately dissatisfied with my body size and shape
4. Slightly dissatisfied with my body size and shape
5. Neither dissatisfied nor satisfied with my body size and shape
6. Slightly satisfied with my body size and shape
7. Moderately satisfied with my body size and shape
8. Mostly satisfied with my body size and shape
9. Extremely satisfied with my body size and shape
Right now I feel…
1. Extremely dissatisfied with my weight
2. Mostly dissatisfied with my weight
3. Moderately dissatisfied with my weight
4. Slightly dissatisfied with my weight
5. Neither dissatisfied nor satisfied with my weight
6. Slightly satisfied with my weight
7. Moderately satisfied with my weight
8. Mostly satisfied with my weight
9. Extremely satisfied with my weight
Right now I feel…
1. Extremely physically attractive
2. Very physically attractive
3. Moderately physically attractive
4. Slightly physically attractive
5. Neither attractive nor unattractive
6. Slightly physically unattractive
7. Moderately physically unattractive
8. Very physically unattractive
9. Extremely physically unattractive
Right now I feel…
1. A great deal worse about my looks than I usually feel
2. Much worse about my looks than I usually feel
3. Somewhat worse about my looks than I usually feel
4. Just slightly worse about my looks than I usually feel
5. About the same about my looks than I usually feel
6. Just slightly better about my looks than I usually feel
7. Somewhat better about my looks than I usually feel
 43

8. A great deal better about my looks than I usually feel

Right now I feel that I look…
1. A great deal better than the average person looks
2. Much better than the average person looks
3. Somewhat better than the average person looks
4. Just slightly better than the average person looks
5. About the same than the average person looks
6. Just slightly worse than the average person looks
7. Somewhat worse than the average person looks
8. Much worse than the average person looks
9. A great deal worse than the average person looks
 44

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