System: A combination or arrangement of a → An interconnection of components forming a

number of different physical components to form a system configuration that will provide a desired
whole unit such that that combining unit performs response.
to achieve a certain goal. → It consists of subsystems and processes (or
plants) assembled for the purpose of
Control: The action to command, direct or regulate controlling the output or process.
a system. → In its simplest form, a control system provides an
output or response for a given input or stimulus.
Plant or process: The part or component of a
system that is required to be controlled. Control System - consists of subsystems and
processes (or plants) assembled for the purpose of
Input: It is the signal or excitation supplied to a obtaining a desired output with desired
control system. performance, given a specified input

Output: It is the actual response obtained from the

control system.

Controller: The part or component of a system that

controls the plant.
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM
Disturbances: The signal that has adverse effect on
the performance of a control system. → Control systems are classified into 2 general
categories:
Control system: A system that can command,  OPEN-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
direct or regulate itself or another system to  CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
achieve a certain goal  Multi-variable Control System

Automation: The control of a process by automatic → The two systems are determined by their
means control action which is the quantity responsible
for activating the system to produce the
Control System: An interconnection of components output.
forming a system configuration that will provide a
desired response. → OPEN-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
 Independent of the output
Actuator: It is the device that causes the process to  Utilize a controller or control actuator
provide the output. It is the device that provides  ADVANTAGES: simple to design,
the motive power to the process convenient to use, cheaper, and not
usually troubled with problem of
Controlled Variable: It is the quantity or condition instability
that is measured and controlled. It is normally the  DISADVANTAGES: naturally inaccurate,
output of the system. a non-feedback system

Manipulated Variable: It is the quantity or condition → CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS/ FEEDBACK

that is varied by the controller so as to affect the CONTROL SYSTEM
value of the controlled variable.  Dependent on the output
 Utilizes feedback to compare the
Plants: It may be a piece of equipment, perhaps actual output to the desired output
just a set of machine functioning together, the response
purpose of which is to perform a particular  ADVANTAGES: more accurate and
operation. It is a system to be controlled. reliable than open-loop systems
 DISADVANTAGES: Complex and
Disturbances: A signal that tends to adversely needed more care to design and
affect the value of the output of a system more expensive

INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS FEEDBACK: permits the output to be compared with

the input to the system so that the appropriate
→ An arrangement f [physical components control action may be performed as some function
connected or related in such a manner as to o the output and input.
command, direct, or regulate itself or another
system. Characteristics of Feedback
1. More accuracy
2. Tendency toward oscillation or instability
3. Less sensitive 1920s Minorsky worked on automatic controllers for
4. Less effect of non-linearity steering ships.
5. Less disturbance or noise 1930s Nyquist developed a method for analyzing
6. Increased bandwidth the stability of controlled systems
1940s Frequency response methods made it
possible to design linear closed-loop control
Basic Concept of Control System systems
Control Engineering is concerned with techniques 1950s Root-locus method due to Evans was fully
that are used to solve the following six problems developed
a. Identification 1960s State space methods, optimal control,
b. Representation adaptive control and
c. Solution 1980s Learning controls are begun to investigated
d. Stability and developed.
e. Design Present and on-going research fields. Recent
f. Optimization application of modern control theory includes such
non-engineering systems such as biological,
4 PRIMARY REASONS FOR CONTROL SYSTEM biomedical, economic and socioeconomic systems
1. Power Amplifier
2. Remote Control 1. Establishment of goals, variables to be controlled,
3. Convenience of Input Form and specifications.
4. Compensate for Disturbances 2. System definition and modeling
3. Control system design, simulation, and analysis.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEMS 4. If the performance meets the specifications, then
→ Analog Signal: A signal dependent on a finalize the design.
continuum of values of the independent 5. If the performance does not meet the
variable t. It is also known as continuous-time specification, then iterate the configuration.
signal or continuous-data signal
→ Digital Signal: also called as discrete-time, DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM
discrete-data, or sampled-data signal • Step 1. Transform requirements into a physical
system
Classification of Control System According to the • Step 2. Draw a functional block diagram
Types of Signal • Step 3. Create a schematic
→ Continuous-Time Control (Analog): contain or • Step 4. Develop a mathematical model
process only continuous-time signal • Step 5. Reduce the block diagram
components • Step 6. Analyze and design
→ Discrete-Time Control Systems (Digital): have
components at one or more points in the CLASSICAL / FREQUENCY DOMAIN
system. Advantages
- Converts differential equation into algebraic
CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PROBLEM equation via transfer functions
→ ANALYSIS: the investigation of the properties of - Rapidly provides stability and transient response
an existing system info
→ DESIGN: the choice and arrangement of Disadvantages
system components to perform a specific task - Applicable only to Linear, Time-Variant (LTI)
→ DESIGN BY ANALYSIS: accomplished by systems or their close approximations
modifying the characteristics of an existing or
standard system configuration STATE SPACE / TIME DOMAIN
→ DESIGN BY SYNTHESIS: defining the form of the Advantages
system sirectly from its specifications - Provides a unified method for modeling, analyzing,
and designing a wide range of systems using matrix
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN CONTROL SYSTEM algebra
i. Ancient Greece (1 to 300 BC) – Water float - Nonlinear, Time-Varying Multi-variable systems
regulation, water clock, automatic oil lamp Disadvantages
ii. Cornellis Drebbel (17th century) – Temperature - Not as intuitive as classical method
control - Calculations required before physical
iii. James Watt (18th century) – Flyball governor interpretation is apparent
iv. Late 19th to mid 20th century – Modern control
theory

HISTORY
18th Century James Watt’s centrifugal governor for
the speed control of a steam engine.
 called spring constant, coefficient of viscous friction,
FREQUENCY DOMAIN and moment of inertia, respectively

Block diagram of a system

TIME DOMAIN

Two approaches are available for the analysis and

design of feedback control systems. The first is
Block diagram of an interconnection of subsystems known as the classical, or frequency-domain,
technique. This approach is based on converting a
system’s differential equation to a transfer function,
thus generating a mathematical model of the
system that algebraically relates a representation
of the output to a representation of the input.
R(t)= reference input Replacing a differential equation with an algebraic
C(t)= controlled variable equation not only simplifies the representation of
individual subsystems but also simplifies modeling
TRANSFER FUNCTION interconnected subsystems.
→ allow separation of the input, system, and
output into three separate and distinct parts The primary disadvantage of the classical
→ allow us to algebraically combine approach is its limited applicability: It can be
mathematical representations of subsystems to applied only to linear, time-invariant systems or
yield a total system representation. systems that can be approximated as such.

G(s) = C(s)/R(s) A major advantage of frequency-domain

techniques is that they rapidly provide stability and
Block diagram of a transfer function transient response information. Thus, we can
immediately see the effects of varying system
parameters until an acceptable design is met.

ELECTRICAL NETWORK TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

ROTATIONAL MECHANICAL SYSTEM TRANSFER With the arrival of space exploration, requirements
FUNCTIONS for control systems increased in scope. Modeling
Rotational mechanical systems are handled the systems by using linear, time-invariant differential
same way as translational mechanical systems, equations and subsequent transfer functions
except that torque replaces force and angular became inadequate.
displacement replaces translational displacement.
The mechanical components for rotational systems The state-space approach (also referred to as the
are the same as those for translational systems, modern, or time-domain, approach) is a unified
except that the components undergo rotation method for modeling, analyzing, and designing a
instead of translation. wide range of systems. For example, the state-
Also notice that the term associated with the mass space approach can be used to represent
is replaced by inertia. The values of K, D, and J are
nonlinear systems that have backlash, saturation,
and dead zone. Also, it can handle, conveniently,
systems with nonzero initial conditions.

Time-varying systems, (for example, missiles with

varying fuel levels or lift in an aircraft flying through
a wide range of altitudes) can be represented in
state space. Many systems do not have just a single
input and a single output. Multiple-input, multiple-
output systems (such as a vehicle with input
direction and input velocity yielding an output
direction and an output velocity) can be APPLYING THE STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
compactly represented in state space with a model 1. A minimum number of state variables must be
similar in form and complexity to that used for selected as components of the state vector. This
single-input, single-output systems. minimum number of state variables is sufficient to
describe completely the state of the system.
THE GENERAL STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION 2. The components of the state vector (that is, this
minimum number of state variables) must be
→ LINEAR COMBINATION: a linear variable of n linearly independent.
variables, xi for I=1 to n, is given by the
following sum, S: S=Knxn… where Ki is a LINEARLY INDEPENDENT STATE VARIABLES.
constant. The components of the state vector must be
→ LINEAR INDEPENDENCE: A set of variables is linearly independent.For example, the voltage
independent if non of the variables can be across an inductor, vL , is linearly independent of
written as a linear combination of the others. the current through the inductor, iL , since vL = LdiL
→ SYSTEM VARIABLES: Any variable that responds /dt. Thus, vL cannot be evaluated as a linear
to an input or initial conditions in a system combination of the current, iL .
→ STATE VARIABLES: The smallest set of linearity
independent system variables MINIMUM NUMBER OF STATE VARIABLES
→ STATE VECTOR: A vector whose state elements Typically, the minimum number required equals the
are the state variables order of the differential equation describing the
→ STATE SPACE: The n-dimensional space whose system. For example, if a third-order differential
axes are the state variables. equation describes the system, then three
→ STATE EQUATIONS: A set of n simultaneous, first- simultaneous, first-order differential equations are
order differential equations with n variables, required along with three state variables.
where the n variables to be solved are the
state variables.
→ OUTPUT EQUATION: The algebraic equation
that expresses the output variables of a system
as linear combinations of the state variables TIME RESPONSE
and the inputs.
POLES, ZEROS, AND SYSTEM RESPONSE
→ forced response + natural response = output
response of a system
→ forced response is also called the steady-state
response or particular solution
→ natural response is also called the
homogeneous solution
→ The concept of poles and zeros, fundamental
State equation to the analysis and design of control systems,
simplifies the evaluation of a system’s response.
Output Equation
Poles of a Transfer Function
(1) the values of the Laplace transform variable, s,
that cause the transfer function to become infinite
or
(2) any roots of the denominator of the transfer
function that are common to roots of the
numerator.

Zeros of a Transfer Function

(1) the values of the Laplace transform variable, s, TIME CONSTANT: time to get to 63% final value (Tc =
that cause the transfer function to become zero, or 1/a)
(2) any roots of the numerator of the transfer
function that are common to roots of the RISE TIME: Time to go from 0.1 to 0.9 final value (Tr =
denominator. 2.2/a)

SETTLING TIME: Time to stay within 2% of the final

POLES AND ZEROES EXAMPLE 0.02 value (Ts = 4/a)
1. A pole of the input function generates the form
of the forced response (that is the pole at the origin
generated a step function at the output) SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS
2. The pole of the transfer function generates the
form of the natural response (the pole at -5 Compared to the simplicity of a first-
generated e^-5t)
order system, a second-order system
3. A pole on the real axis generates an exponential
response of the form e^-at, where -a is the pole exhibits a wide range of responses that
location on the real axis. must be analyzed and described.
4. The poles and zeros generate the amplitude for
both the forced and natural responses.
Whereas varying a first-order system’s
parameter simply changes the speed of the
Poles determine the nature of the time response: response, changes in the parameters of a
Poles of the input function determine the second-order system can change the form
form of the forced response, and poles of the
transfer function determine the form of the natural
of the response.
response.
Zeros and poles of the input or transfer For example, a second-order system can
function contribute to the amplitudes of the display characteristics much like a
component parts of the total response. Finally,
poles on the real axis generate exponential first-order system, or, depending on
responses. component values, display damped or pure
oscillations for its transient response
FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS

TIME CONSTANT
We call 1/a the time constant of the response. From
Eq. (4.7), the time constant can be described as
the time for e -at to decay to 37% of its initial value.

The reciprocal of the time constant has the units

(1/seconds), or frequency. Thus, we can call the
parameter ‘a’ the exponential frequency. Since the
derivative of e -at is -a when t=0, a is the initial rate
of change of the exponential at t=0.

Thus, the time constant can be considered a

transient response specification for a first-order
system, since it is related to the speed at which the
system responds to a step input.

The time constant can also be evaluated from the

pole plot. Since the pole of the transfer function is
at ‘a’, we can say the pole is located at the
reciprocal of the time constant, and the farther the
pole from the imaginary axis, the faster the transient
response.