CHAPTER IV – DECISION MAKING

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the discussion, the students should be able to:
1. Know and discuss correctly the environmental influence in decision making.
2. Identify and elucidate appropriately the nine (9) characteristics of a good decision.
3. Recognize and demonstrate precisely the decision-making process approaches and
techniques.
4. Know and distinguish correctly the decision making models in criminal justice.
5. Identify appropriately the different traits and values and their essentials in decision-
making.
6. Know and discuss comprehensively the cultural influences in decision making.
7. Identify and distinguish the different decision making models.
8. Know and explain perfectly the effect of culture on decision making.
DECISION-MAKING CONCEPT
Decision making can be seen as a problem-solving process that generates a solution that
is considered to be ideal, or at least acceptable. Consequently, it is a mechanism that can
be more or less logical or irrational and based on overt or implicit knowledge and beliefs. In
dynamic decision-making processes, implicit information is often used to fill holes
(Brockman, 2016). Typically, all implicit and explicit, of these forms of information are used
together in the decision-making process.
A significant part of decision making involves evaluating a finite range of alternatives
that are defined in terms of evaluative criteria. So the challenge would be to rate these
alternatives in terms of how appealing they are to the decision-maker while considering all
the criteria at the same time. Another objective maybe to find the best alternative or to
assess the relative overall value of each alternative when all the parameters are
simultaneously considered.
The Multiple-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) focuses on solving these problems.
While very old, this field of decision-making has drawn attention from many researches and
practitioners, and is still widely debated as there as many MCDA approaches that can
produce very different results when applied to exactly the same data (Triantaphyllou, 2000)
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE IN DECISION-MAKING
The environment of decision makers will play a role in the decision-making process. A
factor affecting cognitive performance, for example, is environmental uncertainty (Davidson,
2006).
A complex environment is an environment with a great number of potentially different
states that come and go over time (Godfrey-Smith, 2001). Studies conducted at the University
of Colorado have shown that more complex environments associate with higher cognitive
performance, suggesting the setting can affect a decision. One experiment assessed
complexity in a space by the amount of small objects and devices at present; less of those
items were in a simple environment. The higher measure of environment uncertainty has
positively improved executive performance, making it harder to think about the situation and
make a rational decision.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DECSION-MAKING (Monahan, 2000)
a. Objectives to be set first.
b. Requirements must be graded and placed in order of importance.
c. We need to build alternate acts.
d. The alternatives must be measured against all targets.
e. Tentative decision is the option which can accomplish all the objectives.
f. The tentative decision is evaluated for more possible consequence.
g. The preliminary decision id reviewed for more potential implications.
h. Decisive action is taken and further action is taken to avoid any negative effects from
being issues and to continue all processes all over again.
i. There are usually followed steps leading to a decision model that could be used to
assess an optimal production schedule.
THE NINE (9) CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DECISION
1. Decisions positively impact others.
2. Decisions are replicable.
3. Decisions foster opportunity.
4. Decisions include others.
5. Decisions are executable.
6. Decision is systematic.
7. Decisions are accountable.
8. Decisions are pragmatic.
9. Decisions involve self-awareness.
DECISION-MAKING TECHNIQUES
1. Group Decision-Making Techniques
2. Individual Decision-Making Techniques
Individual decision-making techniques can also often be applied by a group.
GROUP DECISION-MAKING
Also known as “Collaborative Decision-Making”, is a situation faced when individuals
collectively make a choice from the alternatives before them. The decision is then no longer
attribute to any single individual who is a member of the group. This is because the result
applies to certain systems of individuals and social classes such as social power, Community
decisions often vary from those taken by individuals.
INDIVIDUAL DECISION-MAKING
In general, a person takes prompt decisions. When in a group, keeping any one person
responsible for a wrong decision is not easy. Human decision taking usually saves time,
resources and energy as individuals make timely and rational choice. Although taking group
decision takes a lot of time, money and energy.
DECISION MAKING APPROACHES
We make the majority of the decisions, as individuals. It is important to look at the
approaches that we follow in our individual decision-making in the effort to take more
successful decisions.
 As the outcomes of the decisions are not clear, it is necessary to concentrate on how a
decision is made to increase the consistency of the decision. By looking at the approaches to
decision-making, we aim to highlight certain potential for change that be accomplished
regardless of a particular decision strategy.
1. RATIONAL OR ANALYTICAL APPROACH
a. Exemplified by systematic decision-making.
b. Defines upfront success factors.
c. Looks for details and objectively explores how each solution meets each success
factor.
d. Decision-making is organized and decisions can be taken under the assumption of
the desired solutions except for major unforeseeable or unpredictable incidents.
e. Consideration of the implications of the final decisions.
2. INTUITIVE DECISION MAKING APPROACH
a. Relying on emotion and feelings.
b. Careful planning is not possible or not desired.
c. People will point to a “gut feeling” or “hunch” as the cause for a choice,
reflecting that explanation is not accessible through conscious thought.
3. RANDOM OR CHANCE APPROACH
a. In this approach a decision is made on impulse, without thought.
b. Flipping a coin or using a “decision wheel” would be representative of
employing this approach.
c. It is sometimes considered a dependent style because this approach can
promote denial of responsibility.
DECISION MAKING APPROACHES A CONSEQUENCE OF PERSONALITY
Any of our emotional and thought processes can be defined by personality, so it’s
natural to assume that our preferred approach to decision-making is a feature of our
personality. There’s ample proof that our personality develops over time and evolves. This
may also imply changes in personality result from our approach to decision taking that
contribute to improvements in our thought processes.
SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENTS
Rational or Analytic Decision Makers
a. Have ready a decision-making process that you know works.
b. Gain knowledge of pitfalls and prejudices in decision taking.
Intuitive Decision Maker
a. Ask or accept broad questions well in advance of a decision.
b. Know where and where your intuition is working, or not.
c. Increasing reflection.
d. Play games which involve decision-making.
Random or Chance Decision Maker
a. Improve awareness and appreciation.
b. Apply know-how.
c. Know the risks and the uncertainties.
 SIMILAR DECISION-MAKING
1. GOFER (Mann, L. 1980)
FIVE DECISIONS-MAKING STEPS:
1. Goals Clarification
2. Options generation
3. Facts-finding
4. Consideration of Effects
5. Review and implementation
2. DECIDE (Guo, K., 2008)
1. Define
2. Establish or Enumerate
3. Consider or Collect
4. Identify
5. Develop
6. Evaluate
3. OTHER
1. SEVEN DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES (Brown, P., 2001)
a. Outline the goal and outcome
b. Gather data
c. Develop alternatives (i.e., brainstorming)
d. List pros and cons of each alternatives
e. Make the decision
f. Immediately take action to implement it
g. Learn from and reflect on the decision.

2. EIGHT STAGES OF MORAL DECISION-MAKING (Pjanowski, J., 2009)

a. Create and nurture the relationship, norms, and procedures that will influence
how problems are understood and communicated.
b. Recognize that a problem exists
c. Identify competing explanations for the problem, and evaluate the drivers behind
those interpretations.
d. Sift through various possible actions or responses and determine which is more
justifiable.
e. Examine the competing commitments which may distract from a more moral
course of action and then prioritize and commit to moral values over other
personal, institutional or social values.
f. Follow through with action that supports the more justified decision.
g. Reflection in action.
h. Refection on action.
DECISION MAKING MODELS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE
For criminal justice, decision-making requires more than studying the rules and applying
them to the individual cases. Decisions are based on discretion, that is, the exercise of human
judgment in order to make decisions about alternative courses of action.
 Professionals in criminal justice have little time to make important decisions which may
be the difference between life and death. While there is no decision-making process that is
fool proof, training, conditioning, and practice among criminal justice leadership can help
these professionals react more rationally and strategically in the heat of the moment.
DECISION MAKING CHALLENGES FOR CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROFESSIONALS
THE CONSEQUENCES OF MAKING THE WRONG DECISION
a. Loss of life.
b. Departmental or jurisdictional administrative costs.
c. Negative media attention and public opinion.
d. Demotion in position and / loss of job.
e. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), family problems and other psychological
concerns.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AN EFFECTIVE DECISION MAKING ON THE JOB
a. To increase the number of options, look at a problem from multiple viewpoints and
angles.
b. Assess the situation with a view to recognizing threats and non-threats; seek to make
rational decisions about how to respond accordingly.
c. Visualize the way situations play out before they act. Challenge assumptions about a
situation.
d. Seek support and advice from colleagues in circumstances that requires it.
e. Make choices about the most important information, and seek to commit it to memory.
Be mindful of and accept the feelings before making a conscious move to make rational
decisions.
f. Practice verbal and non-verbal communication skills with colleagues to communicate
information about how to respond to a situation.
DECISION MAKING STYLES IN MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
FOUR STYLES OF DECISION-MAKING
1. Directive Decision-making
Usually a Policy decision-maker sorts out the pros and cons of a situation based on what
they already know. Decision-makers in the directive are very rational and have little
tolerance for uncertainty. Instead of going to others for more detail, their decisions are
rooted in their own intelligence, experience and reasoning. The upside to this style is that
decision-making is fast, ownership is transparent, and no extra communication is needed.
Often, however, directive decisions can be taken impulsively, without all the necessary
details.
 A leader’s role in Directive Decision-making
A leader has to sense the situation, categorize it as a scenario that calls for a clear
decision and an appropriate response.
 Signs you need to use different approach
Once operations run smoothly it is easy for leaders to become victims of complacency.
 2. Analytic Decision Making
Before taking action, strategic decision-makers analyze a lot of details. These decision-makers
have a high degree of uncertainty tolerance and are extremely adaptable but they are to
monitor certain aspects of the decision process.
 When to use Analytic Decision-Making
In situations where there may be more than one right answer, analytical decisions are
helpful.
 A leader’s role in Analytic Decision-Making
Unlike decision-making directives, before agreeing on a course of action, leaders must
evaluate all the details they have available. Assembling a team of experts to assists with
analytical decisions is advantageous; leaders must therefore freely consider contradictory
advice and ideas.
 Signs you need to use different approach
Decisions paralysis is the most important warning sign of overuse of the logical decision
form.
3. Conceptual Decision-making
Compared with the guideline or empirical approaches, the relational decision-making
process takes a more collaborative approach. Conceptual decision-makers promote innovative
thinking and teamwork and take a wide variety of viewpoints into consideration.
 When to use Conceptual Decision-Making
This decision style is ideally suited to circumstances that are marked by unpredictability and
tailored to creative and inventive approaches. You see no immediate solution in these
situations but trends emerge over time. The use of the conceptual decision-making style
accounts for long-term planning and the unknown variables.
 A leader’s role in Conceptual Decision-making
To be successful in analytical decision taking, leaders need to create an atmosphere that
fosters experiments designed to uncover instructive trends over time.
Signs you need to use a different approach
If the decision you need to make includes a situation that needs structure and
established outcomes, a conceptual approach should not be employed.
4. Behavioral Decision-making
Behavioral decision-seek to make sure that everyone is working together well. Like the
conceptual method, behavioral decision-is group-oriented; however, the community is given
the choices available to them, rather than brainstorming alternative solutions.
When to use behavioral decision-making
The behavioral style requires proactive communication, as with conceptual decision-
making.
A leader’s role in behavioral decision-making
 Leaders in this style od decision-making need to open lines of communication. Again,
build groups of people who can contribute their opinions and promote democratic debate.
Signs you need to use a different approach
If group discussion sessions cannot reach a resolution, a new strategy will need to be
considered. Conversely, if new ideas never come up or no one questions views, then
behavioral decision-making might not be the best choice.
TRAITS AND VALUES IN DECISION-MAKING
Decision-making and Personality Traits
Personality characteristics have a much greater role to play in decision taking that you
would expect. Some people are indecisive, because of their very existence. They find most
decisions quite difficult to make. These people I also find very committed to the decision when
they do. I am sure you know this kind of people. Others make choices way too easily without
taking into account all the consequences. Those are more impulsive people.
HOW TO FACTOR YOUR PERSONALITY INTO YOUR DECISION-MAKING?
As much logic as you bring in your choices, the way you make a choice will always affect
your personality. Individual personality is an unavoidable consideration combined with
maturity and experience but constructive self-awareness can help you weigh how much your
intuition impacts your decision-making process.
HOW YOUR BRAIN MAKES DECISIONS?
Decision-making is multiply-determined, meaning that there are multiple forces at work
simultaneously. Your personality characteristics and influences blend with your beliefs, your
desires and your inspiration as you navigate the decision-making process every day. Your
“style” informs whether your rationally or emotionally impulsively or cautiously,
spontaneously or deliberately approach decisions. If you have bold and adventurous
components to your personality, you will find that you make decisions easily, even impulsively,
unlike your rational equivalent, who may need to consider every angle before weighing in.
CULTURAL INFLUENCES IN DECISION-MAKING
Decision-making is a mental process that is an important part of preparing and taking
action in a variety of ways and at a wide range of levels, including, though not limited to,
budget preparation, educational preparing, policy making, and career building. Such event
includes people all over the world.
DECISION-MAKING MODELS
1. The Universal Model
Typically, the scientists who use this model believe there is only a small difference in
how people from different cultures make their choices. The findings obtained from one
party are usually related to humans.
2. The Dispositional Model
The adherents of the dispositional view recognize that decision-making differences are cross-
cultural and support the cause of cross-cultural study. They assume that the variations found
in the studies reflects the omnipresence of cultural inclinations in individual’s minds, are
expected to appear in all situational contexts.
THE EFFECT OF CULTURE ON DECISION-MAKING
Cross Cultural Variances
Western theories are known for the systematic use of logical analysis, a methodical
approach to solving complex problems by splitting them into their constituent parts and
defining the patterns of cause and effect of the constituent parts; while oriental philosophies
are well-known for their focus on holism – the notion that the properties of a given system
cannot be defined or clarified solely by the parts of its components. But the system as a whole
decides how the components behave.
THE CONDITIONS ACCELERATING OR HINDERING THE SALIENCE OF CROSS-CULTURAL
DIFFERENCES IN DECISION-MAKING
1. PRIMING
The automatic cognition literature indicates behavior is influenced by exposure to
elements of the social environment in a manner that occurs below consciousness or
purpose. We know from the common schematic representations of a certain society, the
stereotyped behaviors that latter affect our decisions.
2. TIME PRESSURE
Cultural and personal information is accessible to all through cultures. Cultural
knowledge appears to represent a broad sampling of the events in life, whereas personal
knowledge is more based on individual or atypical experiences.
3. PEER PRESSURE
Individuals is collectivists societies are less likely to behave when they do not encounter
social pressure according to their cultural values. According to what collectivist culture
dictates, Japanese and Chinese students are more likely to decide, compared to American and
Italian students, whether they will eat in fast-subject to the norms adopted in their societies,
and less likely to make choices dependent on their personal attitudes.
The pressure to provide reasons for the decision
When individuals need to offer reasons for their decision, cultural awareness is
recruited. The need to include explanations evokes an information-processing approach
focused on top-down application of rules and standards, rather that bottom-up processing
based on personal experience.
The individual tolerance for cognitive ambiguity
Widespread common cultural awareness offers a validated context for individuals to
view potentially ambiguous interactions, providing their followers with a sense of epistemic
protection and protecting against ambiguity and unpredictability
The universal effects of situational demands on the decisions mode selection across cultures
Cultures shapes the prevalence of cultural factors – nature of decisions, motivations for
decisions, and situational demands and affordances – and shapes how functional factors are
converted into decision-making modes – modes of measurement, acknowledgement, law,
position and impact-based decision-making. Nevertheless, societies do have a variety of
common tendencies.
For example, when action is called for, members of both independent and
interdependent social orientations prefer to employ position, - rule-or case-based decision-
making, as they are far more open and requires less cognitive load, whereas calculation-
based mode would be less frequent in both orientations for relationship decisions.