OPERATING SYSTEM

MICRO PROJECT PROPOSAL

ON
Shell Script in Linux/Unix

1. Aims/Benefits of the micro project:

An Operating System is basically a system program that controls

the execution of application programs and acts as an interface between
applications and the computer hardware. It manages the computer system
resources to be used in an efficient manner. This course enables one to
learn the internal functioning of operating systems and will help in
identifying appropriate Operating Systems for given applications/tasks.
This course is also a prerequisite for the group of courses included in the
'Cloud Infrastructure Maintenance' Elective group.

2. Course outcome addressed:

a. Use operating system tools to perform various functions.

b. Execute process commands for performing process management
operations,
c. Apply scheduling algorithms to calculate turnaround time and
average waiting time.
d. Calculate the efficiency of different memory management
techniques.
e. Apply file management techniques.

3. Proposed methodology
In this project, we get information about shell scripting in Linux/Unix.

1
 4. Action Plan
Plan Plan
Sr. Name of responsible
Detail of activity start finish
No. team members
date date

SANSKRUTI
1 Discuss the project with the project guide
BHAKARE

Collect information from the internet and

2 GIRISH DESAI
textbook

Collect information from the OSY Operating

3 VAISHNAVI WALE
Systems 22516 reference book

SANSKRUTI
4 Arrange all information in MS-word
BHAKARE

5 Prepare a report on it using MS word GIRISH DESAI

6 Print micro project VAISHNAVI WALE

5. Resources used

Sr. no. Name of resource material Specifications Quantity

1 computer Windows 10 1

2 Internet Youtube / Wikipedia

1
3 textbook/manual OSY Operating Systems 22516

2
 MICRO PROJECT REPORT
ON
Shell Script in Linux/Unix

 1.0 Brief Introduction

Shell Scripting is an open-source computer program run by the

Unix/Linux shell. Shell Scripting is a program to write a series of
commands for the shell to run. It can combine lengthy and repetitive
sequences of commands into a single and simple script that can be kept
and run anytime which, decreases programming efforts.

This Shell Scripting tutorial aids in learning a basic understanding of

the Linux/Unix shell scripting program to develop concepts of Shell
Scripting. This Shell Script tutorial is designed for newbies and
professionals who want to learn What is Shell Scripting? How shell
scripting works, types of shell, and more.

What is Shell?

Shell is a UNIX term for an interface between a user and an operating

system service. Shell delivers users with an interface and receives human-
readable commands into the system and performs those commands which
can run automatically and give the program’s output in a shell script.

An Operating is created of many components, but its two prime

components are –

 Kernel
 Shell

KERNAL: A Kernel is at the heart of a computer. It completes the

communication between the hardware and software possible. While the
Kernel is the innermost part of an operating system, a shell is the
outermost one.

3
 Types of Shell:
1. The Bourne Shell: The prompt for this shell is $ and its derivatives are
listed below:

 POSIX shell also is known as sh

 Korn Shell also known as sh
 Bourne Again SHell also known as bash (most popular)

2. The C shell: The prompt for this shell is %, and its subcategories are:

 C shell also is known as csh

 Tops C shell also is known as tcsh

Steps to Write Shell Script in Linux/Unix:

Shell Scripts are written utilizing text editors. On your Linux system,
open a text editor program, open a new file to begin typing a shell script
or shell programming, then give the shell permission to complete your
shell script and put your script at the location from where the shell can
locate it.

Let us understand the steps in making a Shell Script:

1. Create a file utilizing a vi editor(or any other editor). Name script

file with extension .sh
2. Start the script with #! /bin/sh
3. Write some code.
4. Save the script file as filename.sh
5. For running the script type bash filename.sh

4
“#!” is an operator named shebang which directs the script to the
interpreter's location. So, if we use”#! /bin/sh” the script gets directed to
the bourne-shell.

Let’s create a small script –

#!/bin/ah la

Command ‘ls’ is run when we complete the scrip sample.sh file.

Adding shell comments
Commenting is important in any program. In Shell programming,
the syntax to add a comment is : #comment

5
 What are Shell Variables?
Variables store data in the form of characters and numbers. Likewise, Shell variables are
utilized to store information and they can be by the shell only.

For example, the following creates a shell variable and then prints it:

variable ="Hello"
echo $variable

Below is a small script that will use a variable.

#!/bin/sh
echo "what is your name?"
read name
echo "How do you do, $name?"
read remark
echo "I am $remark too!"

the steps to create and execute the script

As you see, the program determined the value of the variable ‘name’ as
Joy and ‘remark’ as excellent. This is a simple script. You can create
advanced scripts which contain conditional statements, loops, and

6
 functions. Shell scripting will make your life easy and Linux
administration a breeze.

Summary:

 The kernel is the heart of the operating systems, and it communicates between
hardware and software
 Shell is a program that interprets user commands through CLI like Terminal
 The Bourne shell and the C shell are the most used shells in Linux
 Linux Shell scripting is writing a series of commands for the shell to execute
 Shell variables store the value of a string or a number for the shell to read
 Shell scripting in Linux can help you make complex programs containing conditional
statements, loops, and functions
 Basic Shell Scripting Commands in Linux: cat, more, less, head, tail, mkdir, cp, mv, rm,
touch, grep, sort, wc, cut, and, more.

2.0  Actual Resources Use

Sr. no. Name of resource material Specifications Quantity

1 computer Windows 10 1

2 Internet Youtube/geek for geeks

3 textbook/manual OSY Operating Systems 22516 1

3.0    Outputs of the Micro-Project

In this project, we successfully get information about the shell scripting in

Linux/Unix. TECHNOLOGIES

4.0  Skill Developed / Learning outcomes of this Micro-Project

1. Increase knowledge about shell scripting in Linux/Unix.

2. Experience teamwork
3. Increase communication skill
4. Know about shell scripting in Linux/Unix.

7
 Conclusion
A shell script is a text file that includes a sequence of commands for a UNIX-based operating
system. It is called a shell script because it combines a sequence of commands, that would
otherwise have to be typed into the keyboard one at a time, into a single script.

Intended Course Outcome:

1) Analyze the functioning of data communication and computer

network.
2) Select relevant transmission media and switching techniques as
per need.
3) Analyze the transmission errors with respect to IEEE standards.
4) Configure various networking devices.
5) Configure different TCP/IP service.

4.0 Literature Review:

5.0 Proposed methodology:

A star network is an implementation of a spoke–hub distribution
paradigm in computer networks. In a star network, every host is
connected to a central hub. In its simplest form, one central hub acts as a
conduit to transmit messages. The star network is one of the most
common computer network topologies. A ring network is a network
topology in which each node connects to exactly two other nodes,
forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node – a
ring. Data travels from node to node, with each node along the way
handling every packet.

8
6.0 Resources Required:

No Name of Specifications Quantity Remarks

resources/material
1. Software Microsoft - 1
word

2. Operating system Windows 10 - 2

7.0 Action plan:

No Detail of Planned Planned Team of responsible

activity start date finish member
date

1. Information GIRISH DESAI &

collection SANSKRUTI BHAKARE

2. Proposal SANSKRUTI BHAKARE

creation & GIRISH DESAI

3. Report SANSKRUTI BHAKARE

creation & GIRISH DESAI

9
 MICRO PROJECT REPORT
ON

DATA COMMUNICATION AND

COMPUTER NETWORK
Title of Micro-Project: Star & Ring Topology

1.0 Brief Description:

The main objective of this project is to discuss the advantages,

disadvantages and usage of star network topology. A topology is a
physical structure of a network. Star topology is a network structure
comprising a central node to which all other devices attached directly and
through which all other devices intercommunicate. The hub, leaf nodes
and the transmission lines between them form a graph with the topology
of a star.
Star is one of the most and oldest common topology in the local area
network. The design of star topology comes from telecommunication
system. In telephone system all telephone calls are managed by the
central switching station. Just like in star topology each workstation of
the network is connected to a central node, which is known as a hub. Hub
is a device where the whole linking mediums come together. It is
responsible of running all activities of the network. It also acts as a
repeater for the data flow. Generally when build a network using two or
more computers, you need a hub. It is possible to connect two computers
to each other directly without the need of a hub but when adding a third
computer in the network, we need a hub to allow a proper data
10
communication within the network. In a Star Network the whole network
is reliant on the hub.

2.0 Aim of Micro Project:

3.0 Course Outcomes Integrated:

4.0 Actual Procedure Followed:

First, we discussed in group about to find the subject related to

project. After discussion finally, we selected the topic, the topic is Study
on Star & Topology. Then we collected information related to the subject.
Afterwards, according to the standard format we started to do the work on
project. The group members decided to do work separately in ways like
collecting information, making proposal & report.
Mrs. Smita Ghorpade Mam, guide us how to collect the
information & how to work on the subject. According to his guidance we
followed the rule and after collecting information our project is
completed. Finally, our project is successfully completed. As per the
decision of all members complete the given work.

5.0 Actual Resources Used:

Sr. No. Name of Specifications Quantity Remarks

Resource/material

11
1. Software Microsoft - 1
Word

2. Operating system Window 10 1

6.0 Outputs of the Micro-project:

 Star Topology
A star network is an implementation of a spoke–hub distribution
paradigm in computer networks. In a star network, every host is
connected to a central hub. In its simplest form, one central hub acts as a
conduit to transmit messages. The star network is one of the most
common computer network topologies.
The hub and hosts, and the transmission lines between them, form
a graph with the topology of a star. Data on a star network passes through
the hub before continuing to its destination. The hub manages and
controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data
flow.
The star topology reduces the impact of a transmission line failure by
independently connecting each host to the hub. Each host may thus
communicate with all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the
hub. The failure of a transmission line linking any host to the hub will
result in the isolation of that host from all others, but the rest of the
network will be unaffected.
The main objective of this project is to discuss the advantages,
disadvantages and usage of star network topology. A topology is a
physical structure of a network. Star topology is a network structure
comprising a central node to which all other devices attached directly and
through which all other devices intercommunicate. The hub, leaf nodes
and the transmission lines between them form a graph with the topology
of a star.
12
 Star is one of the most and oldest common topology in the local area
network. The design of star topology comes from telecommunication
system. In telephone system all telephone calls are managed by the
central switching station. Just like in star topology each workstation of
the network is connected to a central node, which is known as a hub. Hub
is a device where the whole linking mediums come together. It is
responsible of running all activities of the network. It also acts as a
repeater for the data flow. Generally when build a network using two or
more computers, you need a hub. It is possible to connect two computers
to each other directly without the need of a hub but when adding a third
computer in the network, we need a hub to allow a proper data
communication within the network. In a Star Network the whole network
is reliant on the hub.
 Working
Devices such as file server, workstation and peripheral are all linked
to a hub. All the data passes through the hub. When a packet comes to the
hub it moves that packet to all the nodes linked through the hub but only
one node at a time successfully transmits it. Data on a star network
exceeds through the hub before continuing to its target. Different types of
cables are used to link computers such as twisted pair, coaxial cable and
fiber optics. The most common cable media in use for star topologies is
unshielded or shielded twisted pair copper cabling. One end of the cable
is plugged in local area network card while the other side is connected
with the hub.
Due to the centralization in star topology it is easy to monitor and
handle the network making it more advantageous. Since the whole
network is reliant on the hub, if the whole network is not working then
there could be a problem with the hub. The hub makes it easy to
troubleshoot by offering a single point for error connection at the same
time the reliance is also very high on that single point. The central
function is cost effective and easier to maintain.
Star topology also has some draw backs. If the hub encounters a
problem then the whole network falls short. In a Star Network Topology
it is possible to have all the important data backups on the hub in a
private folder and this way if the computer fails you can still use your
data using the next computer in the network and accessing the backup
files on the hub.

13
 The star configuration is commonly used with twisted pair
cable and optical fiber cable. However, it can also be used with coaxial
cable as in, for example, a video routeLet’s say one computer wants to
send data to another computer.
The first computer will forward the information to the hub. The hub
will then check the address of the recipient computer, then forward the
message on.But the hub has no memory of its own, so when the first
computer sends over the information, the hub then needs to ask all the
other computers and ports which of them owns that address.This
procedure is called Address Resolution Protocol (or ARP for short).
Essentially it means that the hub can find the correct address of the
recipient computer and transfer the data to the right place.In terms of
cables, star topologies are sometimes implemented with Ethernet/cabled
structures, wireless routers, and other components. These additional
nodes are clients, and all link back to the central hub.
 Diagram

14
  Implementation

In the star topology, all computers and other network devices connect

to a central device called a hub or switch. Each connected device requires
a single cable to be connected to the hub, creating a point-to-point
connection between the device and the hub. Using a separate cable to
connect to the hub allows the network to be expanded without disruption
to the network. A break in any single cable will not cause the entire
network to fail. Figure 1.5 provides an example of a star topology. The
star topology is the most widely implemented network design in use
today, but it is not without its shortcomings. Because all devices connect
to a centralized hub, this creates a single point of failure for the network.
If the hub fails, any device connected to it will not be able to access the
network. Because of the number of cables required and the need for
network devices, the cost of a star network is often higher than other
topologies. Table 1.4 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of
the star topology.

15
 Advantages of star network

 Isolation of devices: each device is isolated by the link that

connects it to the hub. By so doing it makes the isolation of the
individual devices simple. This isolation nature also prevents
any non-centralized failure from affecting the network. In a star
network, a cable failure will isolate the workstation that it links
to the central computer, but only that workstation will be
isolated. All the other workstations will continue to function
normally, except that they will not be able to communicate with
the isolated workstation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_network)

 Simplicity: The topology is easy to understand, establish, and

navigate. The simple topology obviates the need for complex
routing or message passing protocols. As noted earlier, the
isolation and centralization simplifies fault detection, as each
link or device can be probed individually .Due to its centralized
nature, the topology offers simplicity of operation.

 If any cable is not working then the whole network will not be
affected: in a star topology, each network device has a home run
of cabling back to a network hub, giving each device a separate
connection to the network. If there is a problem with a cable, it
will generally not affect the rest of the network. The most
common cable media in use for star topologies is unshielded
twisted pair copper cabling. If small numbers of devices are
utilized in this topology the data rate will be high. It is best for
short distance

 You can easily add new computers or devices to the network

without interrupting other nodes: The star network topology
works well when computers are at scattered points. It is easy to
add or remove computers. New devices or nodes can easily be
added to the Star Network by just extending a cable from the
hub. If the hub adds a device for example a printer or a fax
machine, all the other computers on the network can access the
new device by simply accessing the hub. The device need not
be installed on all the computers in the network. The central
16
 function is cost effective and easier to maintain. If the
computers are reasonably close to the vertices of a convex
polygon and the system requirements are modest. And also
when one computer falls short then it won’t affect the whole
communication.

 Centralization: the star topologies ease the chance of a network

failure by linking all of the computers to a central node. All
computers may therefore communicate with all others by
transmitting to and receiving from the central node only.
Benefits from centralization: As the central hub is the
bottleneck, increasing capacity of the central hub or adding
additional devices to the star, can help scale the network very
easily. The central nature also allows the check up of traffic
through the network. This helps evaluate all the traffic in the
network and establish apprehensive behavior .

 Easy to troubleshoot: in a star network the whole network is

reliant on the hub so if the entire network is not working then
there could be a problem with the hub. This feature makes it
easy to troubleshoot by offering a single point for error
connection ad at the same time the dependency is also very high
on that single point

 Better performance: star network prevents unnecessary passing

of the data packet through nodes. At most 3 devices and 2 links
are involved in any communication between any two devices
which are part of this topology. This topology encourage a huge
overhead on the central hub, however if the central hub has
plenty of capacity, then very high network used by one device
in the network does not affect the other devices in the network.
Data Packets are sent quickly as they do not have to travel
through any unnecessary. The big advantage of the star network
is that it is fast. This is because each computer terminal is
attached directly to the central computer .

 Easy installation: Installation is simple, inexpensive, and fast

because of the flexible cable and the modular connector.

17
  Disadvantages of star network
If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled: The
primary disadvantage of a star topology is the high dependence of the
system on the functioning of the central hub. While the failure of an
individual link only results in the isolation of a single node, the failure of
the central hub renders the network inoperable, immediately isolating all
nodes.
The performance and scalability of the network also depend on the
capabilities of the hub. Network size is limited by the number of
connections that can be made to the hub, and performance for the whole
network is limited by its throughput. While in theory traffic between the
hub and a node is isolated from other nodes on the network, other nodes
may see a performance drop if traffic to another node occupies a
significant portion of the central node’s processing capability or
throughput.
The primary disadvantage of the star topology is the hub is a single
point of failure: If the hub were to fall short the whole network would fail
as a result of the hub being connected to every computer on the network.
There will be communication break down between the computers when
the hub fails.
Star topology requires more cable length: When the network is being
extended then there will be the need of more cables and this result in
intricate installation.
More Expensive than other topologies: it is expensive due to cost of
the hub. Star topology uses a lot of cables thus making it the most costly
network to set up as you also have to trunk to keep the cables out of harm
way. Every computer requires a separate cable to form the network. . A
common cable that is used in Star Network is the UTP or the unshielded
twisted pair cable. Another common cable that is used in star networks is
the RJ45 or the Ethernet cables

 Applications
Star topology is a networking setup used with 10BASE-T cabling
(also called UTP or twisted-pair) and a hub. Each item on the network is
connected to the hub like points of a star. The protocols used with star

18
configurations are usually Ethernet or local-talk. Token Ring uses a
similar topology, called the star-wired ring.
Star Topology is the most common type of network topology that is
used in homes and offices. In the Star Topology there is a central
connection point called the hub which is a computer hub or sometimes
just a switch. In a Star Network the best advantage is when there is a
failure in cable then only one computer might get affected and not the
entire network.
Star topology is used to ease the probabilities of network failure by
connecting all of the systems to a central node. This central hub
rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any peripheral node to all
peripheral nodes on the network, sometimes including the originating
node. All peripheral nodes may thus communicate with all others by
transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node only.
Star network is used to transmit data across the central hub between
the network nodes. When a packet comes to the hub it transfers that
packet to all nodes connected through a hub but only one node at a time
successfully transmits it.
In local area networks where the star topology is used, each machine
is connected to a central hub. In contrast to the bus topology, the star
topology allows each machine on the network to have a point to point
connection to the central hub and there is no single point of failure. All of
the traffic which transverses the network passes through the central hub.
The hub acts as a signal booster or repeater which in turn allows the
signal to travel greater distances.
When it is important that your network have increased stability and
speed, the star topology should be considered. When you use a hub, you
get centralized administration and security control, low configuration
costs and easy troubleshooting. When one node or workstation goes
down, the rest of your network will still be functional.

 Conclusion

19
 A star network is a local area network in which all computers are
directly connected to a common central computer. Every workstation is
indirectly connected to every other through the central computer. In some
star networks, the central computer can also operate as a workstation
A Star Network Topology is best suited for smaller networks and
works efficiently when there is limited number of nodes. One has to
ensure that the hub or the central node is always working and extra
security features should be added to the hub because it s the heart of the
network. To expand a star topology network, you’ll need to add another
hub and go to a “star of stars” topology.
In a Star Network Topology it is possible to have all the important
data backups on the hub in a private folder and this way if the computer
fails you can still use your data using the next computer in the network
and accessing the backup files on the hub.
 Ring Topology
A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to
exactly two other nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals
through each node – a ring. Data travels from node to node, with each
node along the way handling every packet.
Rings can be unidirectional, with all traffic travelling either clockwise
or anticlockwise around the ring, or bidirectional (as in SONET/SDH).
Because a unidirectional ring topology provides only one pathway
between any two nodes, unidirectional ring networks may be disrupted by
the failure of a single link.[1] A node failure or cable break might isolate
every node attached to the ring. In response, some ring networks add a
"counter-rotating ring" (C-Ring) to form a redundant topology: in the
event of a break, data are wrapped back onto the complementary ring
before reaching the end of the cable, maintaining a path to every node
along the resulting C-Ring. Such "dual ring" networks include the ITU-
T's PSTN telephony systems network  Signaling System No.
7 (SS7), Spatial Reuse Protocol, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI),
and Resilient Packet Ring. IEEE 802.5 networks – also known as IBM
Token Ring networks – avoid the weakness of a ring topology altogether:
they actually use a star topology at the physical layer and a media access
unit (MAU) to imitate a ring at the data-link layer.
All Signaling System No. 7 (SS7), and some SONET/SDH rings have
two sets of bidirectional links between nodes. This allows maintenance or

20
failures at multiple points of the ring usually without loss of the primary
traffic on the outer ring by switching the traffic onto the inner ring past
the failure points.
A ring topology is a network configuration where device connections
create a circular data path. Each networked device is connected to two
others, like points on a circle. Together, devices in a ring topology are
referred to as a ring network.
In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to the next
until they reach their destination. Most ring topologies allow packets to
travel only in one direction, called a unidirectional ring network. Others
permit data to move in either direction, called bidirectional. The major
disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual connection in the
ring is broken, the entire network is affected. Ring topologies may be
used in either LANs (local area networks) or WANs (wide area
networks). Depending on the network card used in each computer of the
ring topology, a coaxial cable or an RJ-45 network cable is used to
connect computers together.
There are two types of the Ring Topology based on the data flow:
1) Unidirectional and,
2) Bidirectional
A Unidirectional ring topology handles data traffic in either clockwise
or anticlockwise direction. This data network, thus, can also be called as a
half-duplex network. A Unidirectional ring topology is thus easy to
maintain compared to the bidirectional ring topology.
Ex: SONET network, SDH network etc.
A SONET/ SDH is a standardized network protocol that transfers data
streams over optical fibers. Whereas, a bidirectional ring topology
handles data traffic in both the direction and can be a full-duplex
network.
 Working
In a ring network each device (workstation, server, printer) is
connected to two other devices - this forms a ring for the signals to travel
around. Each packet of data on the network travels in one direction and
each device receives each packet in turn until the destination device
receives it. When the data is needed to reach at a specific node, then the
data packet goes through each of the intermediate nodes in the ring
21
topology network and when it reaches the destination node, it gets copied
at that system.
And when the data packet (after the packet passes through each node
or in a full circle) it gets returned to the sender’s node, and ultimately gets
removed from the transmission source station.
Moreover, the nodes of ring topology have equal access to network
media. But, this builds a conflict situation i.e. if one of the nodes (or
system) fails to transmit the data through itself, the entire network gets
failed.
Carefully consider the following picture for a better understanding of
working Information about Ring Topology. The picture shows a Ring
Network of six computers. For your convenience, there is an anti-
clockwise numbering of devices. But you can assign numbers in
clockwise direction too. There is absolutely nothing to worry about it.
When no device is communicating, Token will be circulating through
the Network. Let us suppose that in this scenario, Token is circulating in
anti-clockwise direction. Suppose Computer-1 (Sender) wants to send
data message to Computer-5 (Receiver). The whole communication will
take place in the following steps:
1. Sender will request for Token assignment for initiating
communication.

2. If Token is available then it will be assigned to Sender,

otherwise Sender has to wait for Token to become available.
Suppose Token is free and assigned to Sender.

3. Sender will now have the charge of the whole Ring

Network. Sender will attach the Receiver address with the data
message and send it.

4. The message will travel in anti-clockwise direction. Hence, it

will pass through the the computers numbered 2, 3 and 4.

5. Each of these computers will receive the data message and

check the destination address. For instance, Computer-2 will
receive the data message first and check the destination address.

22
 6. If the current computer address and destination address are not
same then the computer forwards the data message to the next
computer. For instance, again, Computer-2 will check the
destination address. Destination address is Computer-5. So, the
addresses don`t match and Computer-2 will forward the
message to Computer-3. Same process will be repeated at each
computer.
If the current computer address matches the destination address then
the computer will keep the data and release the Token. For example,
at Computer-5, both current address and destination address are the same.
So, Computer-5 will keep the the data and release the Token.
 Diagram

23
  Implementation
In this section, I am going to write down different steps for
constructing Ring Topology in Cisco Packet Tracer. I will also be
explaining each and every step for your proper understanding. I will
demonstrate every step with the help of picture. This will help you in
enhancing your learning. But before beginning this tutorial you should
fulfill following requirements:
Place Computers on Drawing Area (Step 1)
In this step you will need to place Computers or Computing
Devices on the main drawing area. You can find Computers easily in the
tools menu (bottom left corner). In the tools menu, find ‘End
Devices’ option to find Computing Devices. There are plenty of end
devices like Server, Laptop, Desktop, Tablet PC and many more that you
can use. Click on the end device you want to use. After clicking on the
device place your pointer on the drawing area. After that click again. You
will see clearly that device is placed on the drawing area. Repeat this
same process for placing any number of end devices you want. As

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described earlier I have placed only four Desktop Computers for the sake
of convenience.

Draw Switches on Drawing Area (Step 2)

You can`t connect computers directly with each other. You obviously
need an intermediate device that will serve this purpose. There are variety
of options available in Cisco Packet Tracer Toolbox. For example, you
have separate sections labelled as Routers, Switches, Hubs and Wireless
Devices in the tools menu. Each of these devices have specialized
usage. Hub and Switch are two suitable devices for making Ring
Topology Network in Cisco Packet Tracer. I will be using a Switch for
this purpose. Now, draw four Switch Devices from the tools menu using
the same process you used while drawing computers.

Create Communication Links (Step 3)

So far we have just placed Computers and Switches. It is is evident
from picture that there is no Communication Channel between these
devices. For communication to occur, we must have a
proper communication link or channel. In this step we will be
creating communication link between each pair of computer and
its corresponding switch. We will connect PC0 with Switch0, PC1 with
Switch1 and so on.  I will use standard Un-shielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Cable or Ethernet Cable for this purpose. In order to find Ethernet
Cable go to icon labelled as ‘Connections’ in Cisco Packet Tracer Tools
Menu. There are plenty of cable types in this menu. However, you will
not any cable named Ethernet Cable. In Packet Tracer, an Ethernet
Cable is named as ‘Copper Cable’. Moreover, you will find two options
for this cable type:
1. Straight-Trough
2. Cross-Over
Connect Computer to Switch
1. Select Ethernet Straight-Through from Cisco Packet Tracer Tool
Menu. This is easily done by clicking on the designated cable
icon.

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2. After selecting cable type, move to drawing area. Click on
the Computer and you will be able to see option menu. As we
are working with Ethernet Cable so we will select Fast
Ethernet from the menu. You will be able to see a black colored
line along-with mouse pointer.

 Advantages of Ring topology :

 In this data flows in one direction which reduces the chance of
packet collisions.

 In this topology additional workstations can be added after

without impacting performance of the network.

 Equal access to the resources.

 There is no need of server to control the connectivity among the

nodes in the topology.

 It is cheap to install and expand.

 Minimum collision.

 Speed to transfer the data is very high in this type of topology.

 Due to the presence of token passing the performance of ring

topology becomes better than bus topology under heavy traffic.

 Easy to manage.

 Ring network is extremely orderly organized where every

device has access to the token and therefore the opportunity to
transmit.

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  Reduced chances of data collision as each node release a data
packet after receiving the token.

 Token passing makes ring topology perform better than bus

topology under heavy traffic.

 No need of server to control connectivity among the nodes.

 Equal access to the resources

1.0 Cost-effective:
There is no need for a server computer to make the network. All
computers behave the same and have the same processing power. It is
also easy to set up, install and expand computers in the network. Ring
topology is economic as compared to a hybrid, mesh, and tree topology.
2.0 High speed:
The data flow clockwise or anticlockwise which mean it flows
unidirectionally. If data flows in one direction then the speed of data
transfer is high. Also, data is transferred in the form of data packets
(tokens) so the speed of data is high.
3.0 No collision:
There is no collision of data. One computer with the empty token can
transfer data in the network. So all computers have to wait to get a token.
If a node gets a token then that computer can only transfer data making it
collision-free.

4.0 Robust:
Many nodes can be connected to the network making it robust. Ring
topology can support as many nodes as it can adjust.
5.0 Resource balance:
The network resources are equally distributed among the network. All
computers are given token equally and all computers share the data and
resources equally.
6.0 Repeaters:

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 The network can expand with more nodes with the help of repeaters
and boosters. The repeaters can boost the data and data can travels in the
long distance also.
7.0 Maintenance:
The maintenance of ring topology is easy as compared to bus
topology. There is no need for an administrator computer to control the
network. Troubleshooting in this network is also easy and cable damage
can be easily noticed in the ring topology.

 Disadvantages of Ring topology :

Due to the Uni-directional Ring, a data packet (token) must have to
pass through all the nodes.
If one workstation shuts down, it affects whole network or if a node
goes down entire network goes down.
It is slower in performance as compared to the bus topology
It is Expensive.
Addition and removal of any node during a network is difficult and
may cause issue in network activity.
Difficult to troubleshoot the ring.
In order for all the computer to communicate with each other, all
computer must be turned on.
Total dependence in on one cable.
They were not Scalable.

1.0 Adding/removing of nodes:

It is difficult to add/remove the node in ring topology because it will
stop working on the network. As data flows from one computer to other
so adding a new node can stop the network. Also removing any node will
temporary stops the data flow in the network.

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 2.0 The token is required:
All nodes require a token to send/receive data. So all the computers
have to wait for the empty token to reach them.
3.0 Slow than Ethernet:
Ring topology is slower in performance than Ethernet network. Ring
network uses coaxial cable or RJ-45 cable which is slower than Ethernet
cable.
4.0 Cable/node damage:
If cable damage then the whole network stops working. Also if any
node disconnects due to any problem then the whole network cease.
5.0 Old technology:
Ring topology was the first time used to network IBM computers.
Nowadays LAN become high speed and there is no need for ring
topology and it is old now.
6.0 Performance:
A ring network is slower than bus topology.  Ring topology is also
difficult to scale. All computers have to be turned on to keep the network
working.
Application
Typically you will not find Ring Topology Examples in real life now-
a-days because it is massively replaced by Star Network. However, one
of the common example that still exists is SONET Rings. SONET stands
for Synchronous Optical Networking. It uses Fiber Optic Cables for
heavy load data transfers for long distances. You can simply
think SONET to be Fiber Optic Cable Ring Topology. It is highly
reliable Computer Network for synchronizing various branch offices of a
multi-national company. Due to the use of Fiber Optic Cable, it provides
the best data transfer speeds. SONET is one of the most
popular Applications of Ring Topology.

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7.0 Skill Developed/ learning out of this Micro-Project:

 Time Management.
 Stress Management.
 Study Skills.
 Money Management.
 Assertiveness Skills.
 Well-Developed Self Care Skills.
 Keeping Safe and Avoiding Risky Behaviors.
 Seeking Assistance When Needed.

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