TT 1

Islam
Basic Aspects
As it sees itself
As others see it
As it is
A Teachers’ Textbook
By
Gerhard Nehls
and
Walter Eric
Resource Material
with Documentation of Original sources
Islam
Basic Aspects
As it sees itself
As others see it
As it is
By
Gerhard Nehls and Walter Eric
This is a publication of
Life Challenge Africa © 2009 SIM
P.O. Box 50770, 00200 City Square, Nairobi, Kenya
New Fully Revised Edition 2005
ACTS Book Edition 2009
ISBN 9966 895 16 7
Introduction
Welcome! This Textbook is part of a set of five Teacher-Trainer Manuals that
are linked with a Student Handbook (REACH OUT). The set includes:
Vol. 1 Islamics (green) Islam – Basic Aspects
Vol. 2 Apologetics (blue) Christian – Islamic Controversy
Vol. 3 Pragmatics (orange) Tactical – Practical Approach
Vol. 4 Didatics (red) Training of Trainers Materials
Vol. 5 Presentation File Display Materials for Teachers
Please keep in mind:

These notes depict primarily the view of original Islam as seen from its sources.
Much of this is not known to the Muslim “man in the street”. So please use this
information with wisdom and in a Christ-like spirit.
Brethren, do not be children in your thinking; yet in evil be
babes, but in your thinking be mature.
1Cor 14:20 (ASV)
THIS IS A TEACHER’S TEXTBOOK – NOT A DO-IT-YOURSELF

MANUAL!
A textbook is not to be read as another book. Its content has to be well worked
through to be fully understood.
It supplies the trainer with comprehensive, yet basic information. He has to
scrutinize this information and select his specific teaching materials. This should
be adjusted to the students, the situation in which they are likely to work and the
type of Muslims they are likely to meet. Anyone who like to read about this in
more detail should contact us for our various teaching books, videos and CDs.
Some repetitions have been unavoidable. These are done for emphasis, or because
they relate to different subjects as well. But these notes are not designed to stand
on its own. You will learn a lot from Muslims as you seek to share the Gospel in a
meaningful way. It is so important to know how Islam views Christians and
Christianity. We need to understand the Muslim’s world view, their perception of
religion and some cultural aspects, for these factors determine decisively our
communication. There are practical forms of how to present the Gospel, the good
news, to this specific group of people.
These notes, however, do not supply quick answers, nor do they promise instant
results. Love and patience are always needed, and more so in Muslim evangelism.
Which translations of Bible and Qur’an did we use?
All quotations from the Bible, unless otherwise specified, are from the NEW
INTERNATIONAL VERSION, 1984, by the International Bible Society.
All quotations from the Qur’an, unless otherwise marked, are from the translation
by Abdullah Yussuf Ali, New Revised Edition, Amana Corporation, Brentwood,
Maryland, U.S.A., 1989. This is one of the most acceptable translations to
Muslims.
For practical reasons we have not included any Arabic texts in this edition.
Your instructors,
Gerhard Nehls and Walter Eric
Table of Contents
1 FACING REALITY ............................................................................ 1
2 THE PROPHET AND HIS WORLD............................................... 3

2.1 ARABIA BEFORE ISLAM................................................................................................3
2.1.1 The people of Arabia .......................................................................... 3
2.1.2 Life in Arabia ....................................................................................... 4
2.1.3 The available Scriptures...................................................................... 4
2.1.4 The Religion of the Pagans ................................................................. 4
2.1.5 Deities of the Pagans .......................................................................... 4
2.2 MUHAMMAD - THE PROPHET OF ISLAM.......................................................................5
2.2.1 Islamic Terms and their meaning ....................................................... 5
2.3 MUHAMMAD’S CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH .....................................................................5
2.3.1 How Muhammad Received Revelation............................................... 6
2.3.2 The Abyssinian Exile of the Early Muslims .......................................... 8
2.3.3 The Islamic Concept of Prophethood .................................................. 9
2.3.4 Alleged “Proofs” of Muhammad’s Prophethood ................................ 9
2.3.5 Muhammad - Allah’s Warner for Arabia .......................................... 18
2.3.6 The Miraj, the Mysterious Night Journey to Heaven ........................ 19
2.3.7 The Satanic Verses ............................................................................ 20
2.3.8 The Hijra - the Flight from Mecca to Medina ................................... 21
2.3.9 Muhammad in Mecca versus Muhammad in Medina...................... 21
2.3.10 Muhammad and the Jews of Medina........................................... 22
2.3.11 Persecution of the Jews ................................................................ 25
2.3.12 Muhammad’s Assessment of the Christians ................................ 27
2.3.13 Muhammad goes to War ............................................................. 27
2.3.14 Muhammad’s Attitude Towards His Enemies .............................. 33
2.3.15 The Wives and Concubines of Muhammad .................................. 38
2.3.16 Personal Advantages - Muhammad’s great Temptation ............. 45
2.3.17 The Final Episode of the Life of Muhammad ................................ 48
2.3.18 An Evaluation ............................................................................... 50
3 HISTORY-MAKERS SHAPING NATIONS................................. 52

3.1 THE KHALIFS (KHALIFAHS) .........................................................................................52
3.1.1 The Early Expansion of Islam ............................................................ 53
3.2 THE DYNASTIES ........................................................................................................55
3.2.1 The Ummayad Dynasty .................................................................... 55
3.2.2 The Abbaside Dynasty ...................................................................... 56
3.2.3 Medieval Islamic Expansion.............................................................. 60
3.2.4 The Ottoman Empire ........................................................................ 60
3.2.5 Islam In The Modern Age.................................................................. 62
3.3 THE CHANGING FACE OF ISLAM..................................................................................64
3.3.1 The Socio-Economic Leap ................................................................. 64
3.3.2 Modernity ......................................................................................... 65
3.3.3 Fundamentalism ............................................................................... 65
3.3.4 Liberal Muslims................................................................................. 65
3.3.5 The Other Option .............................................................................. 66
3.4 THE SECTS WITHIN ISLAM...........................................................................................66
3.4.1 The Sunnis......................................................................................... 67
3.4.2 The Shi’ah ......................................................................................... 68
3.4.3 The Mutazilah ................................................................................... 68
3.4.4 The Wahhabi .................................................................................... 69
3.4.5 The Ahmadiyya ................................................................................. 69
3.4.6 The Bahai .......................................................................................... 70
3.4.7 The Tabligh Movement ..................................................................... 70
3.4.8 Sufism ............................................................................................... 72
3.4.9 Folk Islam .......................................................................................... 75
4 BOOKS THAT MATTER TO MUSLIMS .................................... 82

4.1 THE QUR’AN............................................................................................................82
4.1.1 An Introduction ................................................................................. 82
4.1.2 The Meaning of the Word “Qur’an” .................................................... 82
4.1.3 Chapter Divisions of the Qur’an ........................................................ 82
4.1.4 A Chronological List of the Surahs .................................................... 83
4.1.5 Important Criteria Concerning the Qur’an........................................ 83
4.1.6 An Introduction to the Qur’an as given in the Mishkat .................... 86
4.1.7 The Collection of the Qur’ an ............................................................ 91
4.1.8 Additions and Omissions in the Qur’an ............................................ 97
4.1.9 The Problem of Abrogation ............................................................ 102
4.1.10 Claims for the Uniqueness of the Qur’an! .................................. 105
4.1.11 The Sources Of The Qur’an ......................................................... 109
5.1.12 An Evaluation ............................................................................. 117
4.2 THE HADITH ..........................................................................................................118
4.2.1 Introduction and Definition ............................................................ 118
4.2.2 The Contents of the Hadith............................................................. 119
4.2.3 The Collection and Trustworthiness of the Hadith.......................... 123
4.2.4 Islamic Teaching on Obedience to the Traditions ........................... 125
4.2.5 A Christian Evaluation Of The Hadith ............................................. 128
5 ALLAH – HIS NATURE AND ESSENCE .................................. 131

5.1 THE NATURE AND ESSENCE OF GOD IN ISLAM AND THE BIBLE.......................................132
5.1.1 Had the Knowledge of God been Kept Alive in Arabia? ................. 132
5.1.2 The historical roots of the word ‘Allah’........................................... 133
5.1.3 Who is Allah? .................................................................................. 133
5.1.4 The Essence of Allah ....................................................................... 138
5.1.5 Yahweh Elohim ............................................................................... 139
5.1.6 Islam’s Reaction To The Triune God ............................................... 140
5.1.7 The Mercy and Grace of God .......................................................... 142
5.1.8 The Love of God .............................................................................. 144
5.1.9 God’s Power.…………………………………………………………………………… 148
5.1.10 The 99 Most Excellent Names of Allah ....................................... 150
5.1.11 An Evaluation ............................................................................. 153
6 FAITH AND PRACTICE BELONG TOGETHER .................... 154

6.1 DEEN: THE PRACTICE OF ISLAM...................................................................................154
6.1.1 Confession Of Faith ......................................................................... 155
6.1.2 Prayer ............................................................................................. 157
6.1.3 Giving (‘Zakat’) ............................................................................... 159
6.1.4 Fasting ............................................................................................ 160
6.1.5 Pilgrimage ...................................................................................... 160
6.2 IMAN - THE FAITH OF ISLAM ………………………………………………………………………162
6.2.1 Allah................................................................................................ 162
6.2.2 His Angels ....................................................................................... 162
6.2.3 All revealed Books .......................................................................... 162
6.2.4 All the Prophets .............................................................................. 163
6.2.5 The Last Day / Predestination......................................................... 163
6.3 PREDESTINATION IN ISLAM …………………………………………………………………….164
6.3.1 Predestination in the Qur’an .......................................................... 165
6.3.2 Predestination As Taught In The Hadith ......................................... 170
7 MAN, SIN AND THE LAW OF GOD……………………………………………173
7.1 THE NATURE OF MAN ............................................................................................173
7.1.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 173
7.1.2 Man’s Position Before God According To The Bible ............................... 173
7.1.3 Man’s Position Before God According To The Qur’an..................... 176
7.2 THE PERCEPTION OF SIN..........................................................................................179
7.2.1 An Assessment Of Sin In The Bible .................................................. 179
7.2.2 An Assessment Of Sin In Islam ........................................................ 181
7.2.3 What the Hadith teaches about sin ................................................ 186
7.2.4 Repentance, Forgiveness, Pardon For Sin ....................................... 187
7.2.5 An Evaluation ................................................................................. 188
7.3 THE LAW OF GOD ...................................................................................................189
7.3.1 The Bible ......................................................................................... 189
7.3.2 Islam ............................................................................................... 189
8 THE SHARIAH ............................................................................. 191

8.1 THE STRUCTURE OF THE SHARIAH ............................................................................193
8.1.1 The Origin And Fountain Of All Islamic Law ................................... 195
9 ISLAMIC IDEAS ABOUT SALVATION ................................... 197
10 SPECULATIONS ABOUT FUTURE LIFE................................ 200

10.1 DEATH AND THE PUNISHMENT IN THE GRAVE .............................................................200
10.1.1 Which Sins Will Be Punished?..................................................... 203
10.2 THE TIME OF THE END ............................................................................................205
10.3 PARADISE ..............................................................................................................213
10.4 HELL .....................................................................................................................215
11 THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN ISLAM ..................................... 216

11.1 THE POSITION OF WOMEN IN SOCIETY ..............................................................................216
11.2 THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE FAMILY .......................................................................218
11.2.1 The Islamic Pattern of Honour and Shame ....................................... 219
11.2.2 Dress Code and Veiling ............................................................... 220
11.3 MARRIAGE ............................................................................................................221
11.4 DIVORCE ...............................................................................................................223
11.4.1 Polygamy – not an option for women!....................................... 226
11.5 RELIGIOUS LIFE AND FUTURE HOPE ...........................................................................228
11.5.1 The Impact of Folk Islam on the Life of Women ............................... 229
12 THE FEASTS OF ISLAM ............................................................ 231
12.1 THE ISLAMIC CALENDAR ..........................................................................................231
12.2 SOME MAJOR FEASTS OF ISLAM ...............................................................................231
12.2.1 Ashura ........................................................................................ 231
12.2.2 Maulid ........................................................................................ 232
12.2.3 Lailatu’n-Nisf Min Sha’ban ......................................................... 232
12.2.4 Ramadaan .................................................................................. 232
12.2.5 Lailatu’l-Qadr’ (The Night of Power) .......................................... 233
12.2.6 Eidu’l-Fitr (The Minor Feast)....................................................... 233
12.2.7 Idu’l-Adha (The Great Festival) .................................................. 233
12.2.8 Origin and Meaning of Sacrifices in Islam .................................. 234
13 OUR FINAL CONCLUSION ........................................................ 238

13.1 THREE VITAL MISCONCEPTIONS................................................................................238
14 APPENDIX .................................................................................... 240

14.1 KALIMA, SALAT, KA`BA AND HUBAL..........................................................................240
14.1.1 The Kalima.................................................................................. 240
14.1.2 The Salat .................................................................................... 240
14.1.3 The Ka’ba ................................................................................... 241
14.1.4 Hubal - the Suspect .................................................................... 242
14.2 THE MOSQUE ........................................................................................................248
14.3 THE 114 SURAHS OF THE QUR'AN ............................................................................250
14.4 THE 99 MOST EXCELLENT NAMES OF ALLAH ..............................................................253
14.5 A BRIEF DICTIONARY OF ISLAMIC TERMS....................................................................256
14.6 WHO'S WHO IN ISLAM ...........................................................................................260
14.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………………………….263
14.8 INDEX ...................................................................................................................267
1
1 Facing Reality
Although the West only focused on Islam in fairly recent times, it has been a
religion and a world power for over 1300 years. It had its times of glory and of
decay and recession. It hardly featured in Western history books, and only found
attention rather recently in the media.
This has changed dramatically in the last few decades. And what brought about this
change? Global migration, the resurgence of Islam, the variously interpreted acts of
violence in the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians and those directed
particularly at Christians in Indonesia, Pakistan, Nigeria, the Philippines and other
places undoubtedly contributed. The attacks, first on US embassies and
installations and then on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, drove home the
point to the West that Islam is a force to be reckoned with. Islam is indeed in the
news and two burning questions are in the air: “What is Islam?” and “What is it up
to?”
The West with its humanistic worldview has grappled with the issue of
understanding Islam. It is fundamentally different from the still-prevailing
Animism, Hinduism or Buddhism. It views itself to be an Abrahamic religion in
line with Judaism and Christianity. It does, in fact, claim that Abraham, Moses and
all the other actors of the Old Testament as well as Jesus and his disciples were
actually all Muslims. Today’s Judaism and Christianity are assumed by Muslims to
be perversions of their original and Islam sees itself as being called to correct and
cure the ailments of the Western world. This, according to Islam, can only be done
by enforcing the order of Allah, the Shariah, i.e. the Islamic Law, on this decadent
part of the world. The purpose of the Law is to cause all mankind to bow itself in
submission to Allah, the One and Only God.
Christianity was, and even today is equally out of focus regarding Islam. In the past
the Crusades and other belligerent actions such as Colonialism were just about the
only message the Muslim world received from Christianity.
In order to acquaint Muslims with the biblical Jesus and his message, we will have
to make an endeavour to understand the Muslim mind-set, and in order to be able
to do that, we will have to come to terms with Islam.
This compilation, with its biblical assessments, wants to do that. We will,
consequently, take a look at the founder and prophet of Islam, the Books it believes
in, the teachings it derived from that, and its present worldview and self
assessment.
2 Facing Reality
These notes are a collection of resource materials rather than a book to read. They
are meant to provide the necessary information and a teaching pattern for preparing
Christians to share the Gospel with Muslims in a meaningful way.
Recommended Literature for Chapter 1

• The Church in Africa encounters the Challenge of Islam, Nairobi: LCA, 1996,
revised and enlarged 2002.
• The Church in Africa takes note of the Islamic Agenda, Nairobi: LCA, 1996.
• Battle for the Hearts, Episode 1, Can Muslims be reached with the
Gospel.TWR & LCA, 2001.
The Prophet and his World 3
2 The Prophet and his World

2.1 Arabia Before Islam
2.1.1 The people of Arabia
Due to the vast Arabian Peninsula being largely desert country, it was always
thinly populated. The people who lived there (1400 years ago) were
• Pagans who worshipped idols.
• Some Jewish clans who had settled there after they were expelled from
Israel after AD 70.
• Some Arabs who had converted to the Jewish faith.
• Christians - mainly Orthodox, most of these lived in the Northern
Region of Arabia, which today is named Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Israel
and Lebanon. But there was also quite a strong church in the South.
We also are told of some
‘Hanifs’ living there. Six are
mentioned by name in the
biography of Muhammad
recorded by Ibn Ishaq.
(More about the Hanifs in
“The Books of Islam -
Qur’anic Concepts
borrowed from the Hanifs
[Hanifites]”). These were
apparently men who
rejected idol worship and
claimed to believe in ‘the
God of Abraham’. We are
aware that Abraham’s son
Ishmael became the
forefather of the Arabs. We
have very strong reasons to
assume, however, that the
Arabs of the 6th Century
AD had lost all knowledge
of the God of Abraham (God = Allah in Arabic). This knowledge is likely to have
been transmitted to the Arabs by their Jewish and Christian contemporaries.
2.1.2 Life in Arabia

Life in Arabia was largely nomadic. Bedouin tribes moved from place to place to
find grazing for their camels, cattle, horses and goats. But in the towns, particularly
in Mecca and Medina, the inhabitants were largely traders and craftsmen. Mecca
appears to have been a link between Africa (Ethiopia) and the Middle East
extending to India, China and Europe.
2.1.3 The available Scriptures

Judging from biblical stories that are reflected upon in the Qur’an, it seems that
many of the contemporary Christians used apocryphal Scriptures. These are
legendary tales about Jesus that were not included into the New Testament because
they were not ‘apostolic’, i.e. not written by the inspired apostles. The Jews of
Arabia are likely to have lived largely by the Talmud (a rabbinical commentary on
the Old Testament) instead of the Old Testament in their day-to-day practice of
religion.
2.1.4 The Religion of the Pagans

In a number of places the pagans had built so-called Ka’bas. These were cube-like
temples built of stones. The pagans believed that their deities (gods) lived in these
shrines. The most prominent of these was placed in Mecca and later became the
center of Islamic worship. Deities and idols were sources of power for the pagans.
Through them they sought protection and guidance as well as refuge from all kinds
of calamity.
2.1.5 Deities of the Pagans

It is generally believed that in pre-Islamic Mecca some 360 deities were
worshipped. This is based on a biography of Muhammad recorded by Waqqidi,
who was born 120 years after Muhammad’sdeath. Earlier biographies and reports
make no mention of that number. The ‘Kitab al-Asnam’ (‘The Book of Idols’) by
ibn al-Kalbi mentions only 27 by name, and these were not all from Mecca.
It is interesting to know that, according to the Qur’an and early Islamic source
materials, we only know of three sculptured idols, called ‘sanam’. All other deities
were assumed to live in unshaped stones, which, in turn, were built into a Ka’ba. In
contrast to the idols, these stones were named ‘watham’. The best-known idol was
Hubal, the other two were Isaf and Na’ilah. These two were believed to have been
lovers, who committed fornication in the Ka’ba and as a result were turned into
stone. They were placed on two little hills near the Ka’ba (Safa and Marwa), while
Hubal was actually accommodated in the Ka’ba of Mecca (Siratu’l Nabi, p. 97); it
was probably the only image there. Before and during the time of Muhammad the
Quraish (inhabitants of Mecca) called Hubal ‘the Lord of this House’ (Ka’ba) and
the Qur’an calls on them to “adore the Lord of this House” (Surah 106:3).
Although this is interpreted differently today, Muhammad called him the ‘Lord of
this City’ (i.e. Mecca) and was commanded to serve him (Surah 27:91). This is
indeed a cause for much concern.
The Appendix gives fuller information about Hubal and the occult practices
the grandfather and father of Muhammad performed before him (see
Appendix 14.4 ‘Hubal - the Suspect’).
2.2 Muhammad - The Prophet Of Islam

2.2.1 Islamic Terms and their meaning
When looking into Islam we cannot avoid using some Arabic terms. We
will learn them as we proceed. But there are three words, which are
fundamental:
Muhammad (and Ahmad) = The Praised One
Islam = Submission (to Allah)
Muslim = Someone who submits to Allah
Most Arabic words can be related to a root word, which consists of three
letters. Original Arabic script does not show vowels, only consonants. To
demonstrate this, we write the vowels of key words in small letters and the
consonants in capitals.
The root letters for the following words are the same:
SLM Islam Muslim Peace
Root letters iSLaM muSLiM SaLaaM
2.3 Muhammad’s Childhood and Youth

Muhammad was the son of Abdullah and Amina. He was born in AD 570 in
Mecca. His father died before his birth; his mother when he was just 6. After that
he was brought up by his grandfather, Abdu’l Muttalib, and after his death by his
uncle Abu Talib. He was a prominent member of the clan of Hashim, which was
part of the Quraish tribe of which Abdu’l Muttalib was the chief.
Muhammad is reported to have been a quiet, amiable and pleasant boy, but already
in his childhood he had some occult exposure.
Being part of a merchant family, Muhammad, accompanying trading caravans,

travelled widely already as a young man. At the age of 25 he got married to
Khadijah, in whose employ he was. She was 15 years his senior and had been
widowed twice before. The marriage was seemingly a happy one, and 2 boys and 4
girls were born to them. Khadidjah died after 25 years of marriage.
On his travels to Northern Arabia Muhammad must have met Jews and Christians,
and surely became acquainted with a number of biblical stories, which were related
to him (Surahs 14 and 15). A story tells us that a Christian Monk by the name of
Bahira recognized him as a prophet, an experience which might have influenced
his entire life (‘Siratu’l Nabi’, translated by A. Guillaume, p. 24).
Waraqa ibn Naufal, a cousin of Muhammad’s wife Khadijah, was a Christian in
Mecca. He is supposed to have translated “the Gospel from Hebrew into Arabic”
(Dictionary of Islam by T.P. Hughes, al-Bukhari Vol. 1, 3 and ‘Siratu’l Nabi’ by
ibn Ishaq vss. 143-145). We may well assume that he too must have given
information about the Bible to Muhammad.
2.3.1 How Muhammad Received Revelation

After times of seclusion in a cave of Mt. Hira near Mecca, where he went to
meditate, he had his first revelation in a cave of this mountain, when he was about
40 years old (AD 610):
Narrated Aisha, the wife of the Prophet: The commencement (of
 the Divine Inspiration) to Allah’s Apostle was in the form of true

dreams in his sleep, for he never had a dream but it turned out
to be true and clear as the bright daylight. Then he began to like
seclusion, so he used to go in seclusion in the cave of Hira
where he used to worship Allah continuously for many nights before going
back to his family to take the necessary provision (of food) for the stay. He
would come back to (his wife) Khadija again to take his provision (of food)
likewise, till one day he received the Guidance while he was in the cave of
Hira. An Angel came to him and asked him to read. Allah’s Apostle replied, “I
do not know how to read.” The Prophet added, “Then the Angel held me
(forcibly) and pressed me so hard that I felt distressed. Then he released me
and again asked me to read, and I replied, ‘I do not know how to read.’
Thereupon he held me again and pressed me for the second time till I felt
distressed. He then released me and asked me to read, but again I replied. ‘I
do not know how to read.’ Thereupon he held me for the third time and
pressed me till I got distressed, and then he released me and said, ‘Read, in
the Name of your Lord Who has created (all that exists), has created man out
of a clot, Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous. Who has taught (the
writing) by the pen, has taught man that which he knew not. Surah 96:1-5
Then Allah’s Apostle returned with that experience; and the
 muscles between his neck and shoulders were trembling till he

came upon Khadija (his wife) and said, “Cover me!” They
covered him, and when the state of fear was over, he said to
Khadija, “O Khadija! What is wrong with me? I was afraid that
something bad might happen to me.” Then he told her the story. Khadija said,
“Nay! But receive the good tidings! By Allah, Allah will never disgrace you, for
by Allah, you keep good relations with your kith and kin, speak the truth, help
the poor and the destitute, entertain your guests generously and assist those
who are stricken with calamities.” Khadija then took him to Waraqa bin Naufil,
the son of Khadija’s paternal uncle. Waraqa had been converted to Christianity
in the Pre-Islamic Period and used to write Arabic and write of the Gospel in
Arabic as much as Allah wished him to write. He was an old man and had lost
his eyesight. Khadija said (to Waraqa), “O my cousin! Listen to what your
nephew is going to say.” Waraqa said, “O my nephew! What have you seen?”
The Prophet then described whatever he had seen. Waraqa said, “This is the
same Angel (Gabriel) who was sent to Moses. I wish I were young.
al-Bukhari Vol. 6, p. 450, No 478
We may question whether the above was a revelation. However, since the Qur’an
strongly contradicts the Bible, we may well assume that this was an inspiration,
though it did not come from the same source as the Bible. The oldest and thus most
reliable biographer of Muhammad, ibn Ishaq, reports:
When it was the night on which God honoured him with his
 mission and showed mercy on His servants thereby, Gabriel

brought him the command of God. ‘He came to me’, said the
apostle of God, ‘while I was asleep, with a coverlet of brocade
whereon was some writing, and said, ‘Read!
‘Siratu’l Nabi’ (vs. 152)
Muhammad’s first revela-tions

bitterly attacked polytheism (= Muhammad’s Curriculum Vitae
belief in many gods) and
AD Event
idolatry. Surahs (=chapters) on
judgment and condemnation 570 Birth of Muhammad
were received - and proclaimed.
576 Death of his mother; after that he
The earlier revelations, which
was raised by his grandfather and
were received in Mecca, were later by his uncle
written in a superior style to
those received later in Medina. 595 Marriage to Khadija, a wealthy
Most Meccan Surahs appear (in widow
the original Arabic) in beautiful 610 First revelation at Mount Hira;
poetry. However, the majority Surah 96:1-5
of the Meccans rejected
620 Death of Khadija and his
Muhammad; maybe their own influencial uncle Abu Talib; leads
religion presented them with a to increasing pressure
goodly income from nomadic
pagans who came to Mecca 622 Flight to Yathrib (=Medina); start
of the Islamic Calendar
during the annual festivities at
the Ka’ba, the religious shrine. 630 Conquest of Mecca; Arabian
The Meccans themselves were peninsula surrenders to Islam
seemingly not very devoted to
632 Death of Muhammad
their religion.
Muhammad convinced some
Meccans who became his first converts in spite of his painful rejection and
ridicule. It speaks for Muhammad’s initial sincerity that his first convert was his
wife.
2.3.2 The Abyssinian Exile of the Early Muslims

Pressure and persecution of the first Muslim believers in Mecca led to the forming
of a group of 80 Muslims who migrated and sought exile in Abyssinia (Ethiopia).
The Negus (Emperor) there granted them permission to stay, assuming they were a
Christian sect. 33 of them returned when they heard that the
Meccans had accepted Islam.
This had happened when Muhammad had compromised his
monotheistic stance by introducing three Arabic deities from
whom ‘intercession was to be hoped for’. That move made
Islam more acceptable to the Arab Meccans and the
hostilities toward Muhammad ceased temporarily - until part
of the ‘Satanic verse’ as it is now named, was retracted and the antagonism
towards Muhammad grew even stronger than before.
2.3.3 The Islamic Concept of Prophethood

The word ‘Prophet’ in Arabic can have two sources:
• Rasul: (pl. Rusul) meaning a Proof of Prophethood
messenger who by revelation Islamic Biblical
received a Book, someone with a
special mission [Surah 7:158; 48:8- Alleged Predictions
9]. Islam acknowledges 315 rusul. illiteracy must come
true
• Nabi: (pl. Ambiya) is someone who Attributed
received direct inspiration (wahi). prophecies Message
Islam speaks of as many as 124.000 must not
Alleged
contradict
ambiya, most of these are not miracles
earlier
mentioned by name. Alleged biblical revelations
Muhammad is called both Rasul and Nabi in prophecies
Surah 33:40.
2.3.4 Alleged “Proofs” of Muhammad’s Prophethood
 These are the Signs of Allah [i.e. ayas or verses of the Qur’an]: We
rehearse them to thee in truth: verily thou art one of the Apostles.
Surah 2:252
Allah assures the people that the signs which qualify Muhammad as a prophet
(aya) are the verses (= aya) of the Qur’an!
The Jews of Medina, whose support Muhammad coveted, questioned his
prophethood. Muhammad’s response to that was twofold: defence (“I am only a
Warner”) and threat (severe punishment):

And the Unbelievers say: ‘Why is not a Sign sent down to him from his
Lord?’ But thou art truly a warner, and to every people a guide.
Surah 13:7
When there comes to them a Sign (from Allah), they say: ‘We shall not believe until
we receive one (exactly) like those received by Allah’s apostles’. Allah knoweth best
where (and how) to carry out his mission. Soon will the wicked be overtaken by
humiliation before Allah, and a severe punishment for all their plots.
Surah 6:124
To support Muhammad’s claim to prophethood, Muslims claim:
1. Muhammad was illiterate - how could he produce a Book like the
Qur’an?
2. Muhammad prophesied events - so he must be a prophet
3. Muhammad performed miracles to prove his claims
4. Muhammad’s coming was prophesied in the Bible
We investigate these claims:
2.3.4.1 Muhammad’s Alleged Illiteracy

Muslims believe that Muhammad was illiterate. This is not meant to degrade him.
On the contrary! Muslims reason: ‘How can an illiterate man compose a book like
the Qur’an?’ By this they like to emphasize that the authorship of the Qur’an rests
with Allah. The assumption of his illiteracy is based on a Qur’anic text:
 Those who follow the Apostle, the unlettered Prophet [‘an-nabbiyyal-

ummi’ = ‘the Prophet of ignorance’], Whom they find mentioned in
their own (Scriptures); in the law and the Gospel; for he commands
them what is just and forbids them what is evil; he allows them as
lawful what is good. Surah 7:157
If we want to understand what the word for ‘unlettered’ really means, we
have to investigate the Arabic text where it reads: ‘an-nabiyyal-ummi’.
‘Nabi’ clearly means prophet; ‘Ummi’ is best explained by another verse:
It is He Who has sent amongst the Unlettered [‘ummi’] an apostle
 from among themselves, to rehearse to them His Signs, to

sanctify them, and to instruct them in Scripture and Wisdom.
Surah 62:2
Who are the ‘unlettered’ in this text? The comment makes it quite clear:

The Unlettered: as applied to a people, it refers to the Arabs, in
comparison with the People of the Book, who had a longer
tradition of learning.
Qur’an, by Yusuf Ali, Fn. 5451, commentary
The Arabic word used for Muhammad is ‘ummiyyun’, clearly the same as in Surah
7:157. The word ‘ummi’ meant people who did not have the Scriptures, as the Jews
and Christians did. They were ‘un-scriptured’, so to speak. So the text says really
no more than that Muhammad was the prophet to those who had no Book, no
revelation, i.e. the Arabs.
People who had not accepted Islam (which was about to get a ‘Book’) as yet, were
consequently called ‘people of ignorance’. ‘The time of ignorance’ in Muslim
usage is clearly referring to the time before Muhammad. He pointed to himself as
the prophet to the ‘people of ignorance’, rather than referring to himself as being
ignorant or illiterate. Besides, it is difficult to imagine that a merchant of his stature
would be illiterate, particularly when we consider that his nephew Ali, with whom
he had close association in his youth, was highly literate.
That Muhammad was able to write may be deduced from the following Tradition
(Hadith):

The Prophet, may Allah bless him, fell ill on Thursday. Thereupon
he, i.e. Ibn ‘Abbas began to weep and say: Woe be to this
Thursday! What a Thursday! The illness of the Prophet, may
Allah bless him, became severe; he said: Bring an ink-pot and
something to write on. I shall have a document written and you will never be
misguided. Ibn Sa’d’s biography, Vol. 2, p. 302
We are grateful to the translators of this text for rectifying in the footnote
what the literal reading is: “I shall write for you...” A last passage may
corroborate what has already been said:
When the Prophet intended to perform ‘Umrah’ in the month of
 Dhul-Qada, the people of Mecca did not let him enter Mecca till
he settled the matter with them by promising to stay in it for three
days only. When the document of treaty was written, the following
was mentioned: “These are the terms on which Muhammad,
Allah’s Apostle agreed (to make peace).” They said, “We will not agree to this,
for if we believed that you are Allah’s Apostle we would not prevent you, but
you are Muhammad bin ‘Abdullah.” The Prophet said, “I am Allah’s Apostle
and also Muhammad bin ‘Abdullah.” Then he said to ‘Ali, „Rub off (the words)
‘Allah’s Apostle’, but ‘Ali said, ‘No, by Allah, I will never rub off your name.” So,
Allah’s Apostle took the document and wrote, „This is what Muhammad bin
‘Abdullah has agreed upon: No arms will be brought into Mecca except in their
cases, and nobody from the people of Mecca will be allowed to go with him
(i.e. the Prophet) even if he wished to follow him and he (the Prophet) will not
prevent any of his companions from staying in Mecca if the latter wants to stay.
2.3.4.2 Prophecies Attributed To Muhammad

A commentary in the Hadith makes a vital statement:
The greatest thing in miracles is a prophecy i.e. a forecast of
 future events. This is not a political forecast but a forecast of

future secrets derived from Divine Knowledge. Prophecy is
greatest for the following reasons. It can be historically proved
but a miracle cannot. Prophecy manifests God’s fore-knowledge,
while a miracle God’s power. As knowledge is greater than power, so prophecy
is greater than a miracle. Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 396 - Commentary
Apart from pronouncements that certain battles would be won by the
Muslims, only one political forecast by Muhammad has been recorded:

The Roman (Byzantine) Empire has been defeated - in a land close
by; but they (even) after (this) defeat of theirs, will soon be victorious
- within a few years. With Allah is the decision, in the past and in the
future; on that day shall the believers rejoice. Surah 30:1-4
This passage refers to the defeat of the Byzantines in Syria by the Persians
under Khusran Parvis (AD 615-616, this was several years before the
Hijrah). The predicted defeat of the Persians should take place ‘soon’ -
exactly translated, ‘in a small number of years’. At this prediction, Abu
Bakr challenged Ubai-ibn-Khalaf to bet with him that this prediction would
be fulfilled within three years. Muhammad corrected him, by stating that
the ‘small number’ would be between three and nine years (Al-Baizawi).
Muslims tell us that the Byzantines overcame their enemies within seven
years. However, the fact is that the Byzantines defeated Persia in AD 628
(Al-Baizawi commentary). That was twelve years after the prediction of
Muhammad. This passage does not qualify as a prophecy. Firstly it was a
predictable political prognosis and it was not fulfilled in the predicted time
frame, but it should also be added that in any event the time between
prophecy and fulfilment was far too short to make this a prophecy in the
biblical sense. Biblical prophecies, like that of the coming of Christ, were
given 500-1000 years before they were fulfilled!
The other ‘prophecies’ refer to Muhammad’s victories and those relating to the
Qur’an itself. It is nearly impossible to establish whether these prophecies were
indeed said before their fulfilment. Besides - they were either also predictable, or
simply war-propaganda. In the same sense Churchill might well be called a prophet
too, for he predicted that the Allies would win the Second World War.
By biblical standards, we find it impossible to conclude that Muhammad
was a prophet of God. The Bible asks a pertinent question in this regard:

How may we know the Word which the Lord has not spoken?
When a prophet speaks in the Name of the Lord, if the word
does not come to pass or come true, that is a word which the
Lord has not spoken, the prophet has spoken it presumptuously.
Do not be afraid of him. Deut 18:21-22
Set forth your case, says the Lord, bring your proofs, says the King of Jacob.
Let them bring them and tell us what is to happen. Tell us the former things,
what they are that we may consider them, that we may know their outcome, or
declare us the things to come. Tell us what is to come hereafter, that we may
know that you are gods. Is 41:21-23
Read also: Is 44:7,26; Is 48:3,5; Deut 13:1-4; Jer 28:9; Ps 105:17-19;
Amos 3:7 and Zech 4:9.
2.3.4.3 Alleged Miracles Done By Muhammad

Please Note: Most Muslims believe that Muhammad performed miracles, although
the Qur’an denies that. On the other hand, the Hadith reports a number of miracles.
They say: ‘We shall not believe in thee, until thou cause a spring
 to gush forth for us from the earth. Or (until) thou have a garden
of date trees and vines, and cause rivers to gush forth in their
midst, carrying abundant water. Or thou cause the sky to fall in
pieces, as thou sayest (will happen) against us, or thou bring
Allah and the angels before (us) face to face. Or thou have a house adorned
with gold, or thou mount a ladder right into the skies. No, we shall not even
believe in thy mounting until thou send down to us a book that we could read’.
Say: ‘Glory to my Lord! Am I aught but a man - an apostle?’
Surah 17:90-93
In more understandable English it would say: “Am I more than a man, a
messenger?”
And we refrain from sending the sign, only because the men of
 former generations treated them as false: We sent the She-

camel; to the Thamud to open their eyes, but they treated her
wrongfully; We only sent the signs by way of terror (and warning
from evil). Surah 17:59
They say: ‘Why is not a sign sent down to him from his Lord?’ Say: ‘Allah
hath certainly power to send down a sign: But most of them understand not’.
Surah 6:37
Those without knowledge say: ‘Why speaketh not Allah unto us? Or why
cometh not unto us a sign?’ So said the people before them words of similar
import. Their hearts are alike. We have indeed made clear the signs unto any
people who hold firmly to Faith (in their hearts). Verily, we have sent thee in
truth as a bearer of glad tidings and a warner. Surah 2:118-119
According to that, the only ‘sign’ (‘sign’ in Arabic is ‘aya’, also used as a
name for verses in the Qur’an) Muhammad had been given were the verses
of the Qur’an.
The AHadith have a different perception and report many a miracle:
The Prophet was looking while riding upon his mule like one
 eagerly longing to kill them. He said: This was when the blood
boiled in veins. Thereafter he took some pebbles and threw them
at the faces of the infidels and then said: Be routed, by the Lord
of Muhammad.
Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 411 quoting from Sahih Muslim, Hadith 4385
This was supposed to have decided the battle in Muhammad’s favour. But
there are other rather strange miracles reported to have happened:
Anas reported: A man wrote to the Prophet and he turned an
 apostate from Islam and joined the infidels. The Prophet said:
Verily the earth will not accept him. Abu Talhah informed me
that he had come to the land wherein he died. He found him
thrown outside. He said: What is the matter with him? They said:
They buried him several times but the earth did not accept him.
Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 419-420
He said: And who is to attest what you say? He said: This tree. The Apostle of
Allah then called it while he was by the side of a valley, and so it came tearing
the ground till it stood in his presence. He wanted it to recite three attestations.
So it attested thrice as he had said and then it returned to its root.
Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 447
There is no water with us to make therewith ablution and to drink except what
is in your jug. Then the Prophet placed his hand unto the jug and water began
to gush forth between his gingers like springs. Thereupon we took drink and
made ablution. Jabar was asked: How many were you? He said: Had we been
one hundred thousands, it would have surely sufficed us. We were fifteen
hundreds. Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 407
Bara’a-b-A’jeb reported: We were 1400 on the Day of
 Hudaibiyyah with the Apostle of Allah, and in Hudaibiyyah was

a well. We exhausted it and left not a drop therein. It reached the
Prophet who came to it, sat down on its edge and then called for
a pot of water. He made ablution and then gurgled and invoked.
Thereafter he poured it therein and said: Leave it for an hour. Then they
allowed satisfaction to themselves and to their riding animals by water till
they departed. Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 408
This hadith has been transmitted on the authority of Abdullah b.Masud (who
said): We were along with Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him) at
Mina that moon was split up into two. One of its parts was behind the
mountain and the other one was on this side of the mountain. Allah’s
Messenger (may peace be upon him) said to us: Bear witness to this.
Sahih Muslim Vol. 4, p. 1467, No 6725
The last passage, even more than the others, shows the latent desire of the people
to have some supernatural proof for their faith. We are told that “at Mina the moon
was split up into (sic) two”. This links up with Surah 54. It is called “The Moon”,
and begins: “The hour (of judgement) is nigh, and the moon is cleft asunder ...”
The context shows this was meant to be a sign, which the people rejected.
Have we ever seen a half-moon in the night sky? Of course we have. We did not
assume then, that the other half ‘was behind the mountain’. It could well have
been, mind you. According to another writer, ‘the mountain covered one of its
parts’ (Hadith 6726).
Eager Muslims try to substantiate this story by telling us that when one of the first
men stepped on the moon, he heard the ‘Shahada’ being recited: “There is no god
but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet.” He also is supposed to have discovered
the crack in the moon, which remained after the splitting of the moon. How far can
human imagination go?!
To the Christian reader many of these reports sound very much like the legendary
stories of the New Testament Apocrypha. These are well meaning ‘reports’, often
very fanciful in character. They lack just one thing: authenticity. The Apocrypha
dates mainly from the second century AD, something like 70-170 years after the
death of Jesus. The Hadith were compiled approximately 250-300 years after the
Hijra. This being the case, we have to take both the Apocrypha and the Hadith with
a pinch of salt.
2.3.4.4 Alleged Prophecies About Muhammad In The

Bible
The Qur’an definitely suggests that Muhammad was foretold in the Bible:

And remember, Jesus, the son of Mary, said: ‘O children of Israel!
I am the apostle of Allah (sent) to you confirming the Law (which
came) before me, and giving glad tidings of an Apostle to come
after me, whose name shall be Ahmad. Surah 61:6
Those who follow the Apostle, the unlettered Prophet whom they find mentioned
in their own (Scriptures) - in the Law and the Gospel; for he commands them what
is just and forbids them what is evil; he allows them as lawful what is good.
Surah 7:157
These verses must have prompted many a Muslim to search the Gospels for
such prophecies. In John 14:16 they came across the “Comforter”
(Paracletos). Some learned Muslim concluded that it should read
‘Periclytos’, which should be translated ‘the praised one’, the very meaning
of the words Ahmad and Muhammad. Based on this assumption many
Muslims believe that Muhammad is this Comforter and that he is
subsequently foretold in the Bible.
Further, Muslims interpret a text in Deuteronomy (18:18-19) as a reference to
Muhammad. In this passage God says to Moses:

I will raise up for them a man like you from among their brothers;
I will put my words in his mouth, and he will tell them everything I
commanded him. If anyone does not listen to my words that the
prophet speaks in my name, I myself will call him to account.
Deut 18:18-19
All Christians unite in the interpretation that this text speaks of Jesus, and that is
confirmed in the New Testament. Muslims, however, reason that since the
Ishmaelites are the brothers of the Jews, that prophecy must refer to Muhammad.
(We will not consider this argument any further here, but rather refer to Volume 2
of this set (‘The Islamic-Christian Controversy’), and the chapter “Is Muhammad
mentioned in the Bible?” where this argument will be dealt with in more detail.)
2.3.4.5 Prophethood as defined in the Bible

While we respect Muhammad for his statesmanship and bravery, and commend
him for his stand against paganism and his care for his people, especially widows
and orphans, Christians cannot accept him as a biblical prophet! There are three
reasons for that:
1. Muhammad did not have the divine credentials as required by Scripture
(see next page).
2. We have to strongly suspect that his message came from occult sources.
3. His personal life style, particularly with regard to his excessive
involvement with the opposite sex, his moral ethics regarding women
and his enemies, and his granting himself special privileges, which
were supposedly revealed to him and came to be incorporated into the
Qur’an as God’s word, is inappropriate and inconsistent with that of a
prophet of God.
When we evaluate Muhammad’s life, we need to do it in the light of
Scripture:
Lord, who may dwell in your sanctuary? Who may be on your holy
 hill? He whose walk is blameless and who does what is righteous,

who speaks the truth from his heart and has no slander on his
tongue, who does his neighbour no wrong and casts no slur on his
fellow man, who despises a vile man but honours those who fear
the Lord, who keeps his oath even when it hurts. Ps 15:1-4
2.3.4.6 The Biblical Mark of a Prophet

In the Bible we find a number of passages that outline who and what a
prophet of God is:
Let him declare and lay out before me what has happened since I
 established my ancient people, and what is yet to come - yes, let

him foretell what will come. Do not tremble, do not be afraid. Did I
not proclaim this and foretell it long ago? You are my witnesses.
I am the Lord..., who foils the signs of false prophets..., who carries out the
words of his servants and fulfil the predictions of his messengers.
Is 44:7-8, 24-26
‘Present your case’, says the Lord. ‘Set forth your arguments’, says Jacob’s
King. Bring in (your idols) to tell us what is going to happen. ...declare to us
the things to come, tell us what the future holds so that we may know that you
are gods... But you are less than nothing and your works are utterly worthless;
he who chooses you is detestable. Is 41:21-24
The prophet who prophesies ... will be recognized as one truly sent by God
only if his prediction comes true. Jer 18:9
I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their brothers; I will
put my words in his mouth, and he will tell them everything I command him.
You may say to yourselves: ‘How can we know when a message has not been
spoken by the Lord?’ If what a prophet proclaims in the name of the Lord
does not take place or come true, that is a message the Lord has not spoken.
That prophet has spoken presumptuously. Do not be afraid of him.
Deut 18:18, 21-22
Hundreds of biblical prophecies were fulfilled in great detail in Jesus Christ

and the Jewish nation. That fact alone guarantees that He is the One to
trust. In contrast to that Muhammad can lay no claim to divinely ordained
prophethood.
We refer again to Volume 2 of this set (‘The Islamic-Christian Controversy’). The
chapter “Evidences which support the divine origin of the Bible” points to a
number of prophetic Scriptures in the Old Testament concerning Jesus and their
fulfilment in the New Testament
2.3.5 Muhammad - Allah’s Warner for Arabia

Muhammad at first understood himself to be a Warner for Arabia in the line
of the biblical prophets. He was, no doubt, assuming to bring the same
message (as the Bible) to the Arabs in Arabic.

Thus have We sent by inspiration to thee an Arabic Qur’an; that
thou mayest warn the Mother of Cities [i.e. Mecca] and all around
her. Surah 42:7
And before this, was the Book of Moses as a guide and a mercy; and this Book
confirms (it) in the Arabic tongue; to admonish the unjust, and as Glad Tidings
to those who do right. Surah 46:12
We have made it a Qur’an in Arabic, that ye may be able to understand (and
learn wisdom). Surah 43:3
We sent not an apostle except (to teach) in the language of his (own) people,
in order to make (things) clear to them. Surah 14:4
Verily, We have sent thee in truth as a bearer of glad tidings and a warner.
Surah 2:119
Only later in time this message was advanced within the Qur’an.

We have not sent thee but as a universal (Messenger) to men,
giving them glad tidings, and warning them (against sin), but most
men understand not. Surah 34:28
Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but (he is) the Apostle of
Allah, and the Seal of the Prophets; and Allah has full knowledge of all things.
Surah 33:40
2.3.6 The Miraj, the Mysterious Night Journey to

Heaven
Two years after the death of Khadijah, in the twelfth year of his ‘calling’,
Muhammad is reported to have gone on a mysterious night journey (Miraj).
Islamic sources state that this happened ‘in the spirit’. His
body remained behind. Gabriel supposedly provided a mount
(animal to ride on) by the name of Buraq, described to be like
a white mule or donkey with a human face. It took
Muhammad ‘for a ride’ from the ‘mosque in Mecca’ to ‘the
farthest mosque’ (= ‘al-Aqsa’ in Jerusalem). From there he is
said to have ascended to the heavens on a ladder of light. The
‘farthest mosque’, was, however, not yet built at that time.
Yusuf Ali in his commentary 2168 to the Qur’an says: “The
Farthest Mosque must refer to the site of the Temple of
Solomon in Jerusalem on the hill of Moriah, at or near which
stands the Dome of the Rock, called also the Mosque of
Hadhrat ‘Umar. This and the Mosque known as the Farthest
Mosque (Masjid-ul-Aqsa) were completed by the Amir ‘Abd-ul-Malik in AH 68.”
That is in AD 712, 50 odd years after Muhammad’s demise. Alternatively, maybe
the Jewish temple was referred to, but that had been completely destroyed 550
years prior to that.
Islam believes in the existence of seven heavens. In the first heaven Muhammad
supposedly met Adam; in the second, John the Baptist and Jesus; in the third,
Joseph; in the fourth, Enoch; in the fifth, Aaron; in the sixth, Moses; and in the
seventh, Abraham (who welcomed him as “good son and good prophet”). There
Muhammad was commissioned by Allah to introduce fifty daily prayers for all
believers. On the journey back, Moses, in the sixth heaven, encouraged
Muhammad to query that quota and request a smaller one. Ten daily prayers were
deducted. Again Moses encouraged Muhammad to go back and ask for still fewer
prayers. This process was repeated until five daily prayers were left. This
Muhammad did not dare query. (According to “Siratu’l Nabi” vs. 270-271).
2.3.7 The Satanic Verses

A strange incident deserves to be recorded. A verse [‘aya’ = sign] was
revealed, which contradicted in principle practically all previous ones and
by that constituted an outright compromise to Muhammad’s previous
monotheistic conviction:

‘Have you seen (considered, thought of) al-Lat and al-Uzza and
another, the third [goddess] Manat?’ Verily they are the most
exalted females [maiden], [arab.’gharaniq’] and their intercession
is to be hoped for. Surah 53:19-20
These were the very words the infidels, the polytheists, were chanting
when walking around the Ka’ba in worship of their deities! When hearing
about this verse, the heathen began to turn to Islam. News of this, and the
end of persecution, reached Ethiopia, and the refugees there began to
return. Tradition reports that the angel Gabriel (who is viewed to be the
Holy Spirit), who is supposed to have conveyed the message of Allah to
Muhammad, came to him saying: “What have you done, Muhammad? You
have read to these people something I did not bring you from Allah and
you have said what He did not say to you!” Consequently the second part
of this verse was abrogated (omitted). It is now called the “Satanic verse”
and came into the limelight through the book ‘The Satanic Verses’ by
Salman Rushdie.
Muslim apologists (at-Tabari) try to explain this incident by claiming that
Muhammad’s overriding concern for the spiritual welfare for the people prompted
him to listen to the whispering of Satan rather than Allah (Premises and Principles
of Muslim Evangelism, pp. 24-25).
We must add a word of warning regarding Rushdie’s book. Any
 Christian who has had the opportunity to study the book will be
quickly convinced of its blasphemous, cynical and ungodly
character. It is certainly not a book any committed Christian
would want to identify with. It rather seems to be a personal
vendetta by the author against his Islamic heritage.
When the part of this verse was withdrawn, Muhammad faced renewed
pressure from the pagans, which confirmed his resolution to leave Mecca.
2.3.8 The Hijra - the Flight from Mecca to Medina

After the death of his well-respected wife Khadidjah and his uncle and
protector Abu Talib, who died in or around AD 620, pressure on
Muhammad and the Muslims in Mecca further increased. Soon afterwards,
at the annual Hajj, a secret delegation of Muslim believers from Yathrib (a
town appr. 350 km north of Mecca) invited him to settle in their town and
to become their leader in order to arbitrate between the various factions
living in that town. In exchange they offered their allegiance and promised
to protect him.
With this plan in place, he encouraged his followers (between100-200) to
emigrate to Yathrib (later known as Medina). Muhammad and his close
companion Abu Bakr left last under cover of night. This flight or
emigration (arab. hijra) happened in AD 622. This date became the
beginning of the Islamic calendar. Islamic references to dates normally
refers to their own calendar and add the letters AH = ‘After the Hijrah’, as
compared with the Christian calendar AD = Anno Domini (in the year of
the Lord).
2.3.9 Muhammad in Mecca versus Muhammad in

Medina
One can hardly fail to see a tragic metamorphosis (change) in the life of
Muhammad at that time. To assess the actual cause for this will always be a matter
of speculation, for there must have been several contributing factors. We can
observe, however, how a man who was a devoted believer in his calling, who had
submitted to rejection and ridicule and who was the husband of one wife, changed
into a man of exceptional authority, who instilled fear in his enemies, expanded his
power by force and became a conqueror. He also exchanged his monogamy for an
extravagant harem and showed behaviour trends that defy Christian ethics. What
was happening? Was this caused by grief for his departed wife? Or was it simply
the new situation of power that he now assumed?
It has been suggested (by Dr. Peter Cotterell) that Muhammad, when he came to
Medina, had expected the three influential Jewish clans to side with him and to
accept him as a biblical prophet. They did not. On the contrary, they must have
attempted to correct the many false perceptions Muhammad had about the Old
Testament and its content, which had become part of his teaching and which were
propagated as divine revelation, later forming the Qur’an.
Muhammad must have faced a crucial choice. He could either submit to the
testimony of the Scriptures he had so often proclaimed to be the Word of God, and
admit to have drawn from a wrong well - or insist on having received his revelation
from God, and to declare the Jews to be falsifiers of Scripture. As is well known,
he opted for the second alternative with a tragic result.
2.3.10 Muhammad and the Jews of Medina

Arriving in Medina, Muhammad and his companions had been
economically dependent on the Muslims in that city. This source proved to
be insufficient. As we already observed, he must have hoped that the
Jewish community would accept him as a prophet in the biblical
succession. Consequently he participated in Jewish religious feasts. We
have this report about it:
 A few months after his arrival in Medina, Muhammad saw the

Jews keeping the great Fast of the Atonement; and he readily
adopted it for his own people…
Ashor, or the ‘Fast of the Tenth’, is the tenth day of the seventh month (Lev
23:27). It was a day of affliction and atonement; but popular tradition at Medina
assigned to it another origin. ‘When Muhammad asked the Jews what was the
origin of the fast, they said that it was in memory of the delivery of Moses out
of the hands of Pharaoh, and the destruction of the tyrant in the Red Sea: ‘We
have a greater right in Moses than they’, said Muhammad; so he fasted like the
Jews, and commanded his people to fast also.
At the annual pilgrimage of Mecca victims (slaughter animals) have from time
immemorial been slain at the close of the ceremonies in the vale of Mina. For
the first year at Medina the occasion passed unnoticed. But, Jewish rites being
still in favour, Muhammad kept the great Day of Atonement with its sacrifice of
victims in its stead; and had he continued on a friendly footing with the Jews,
he would, no doubt, have maintained the practice. In the following year,
however, it was in keeping with his altered relations to abandon altogether the
Jewish ritual of sacrifice, and to substitute for it another somewhat similar in
character, but grounded on the ceremonies of the Ka’ba and held it
simultaneously with them. It was after having waged war against one of the
Jewish tribes settled in the suburbs of Medina, and having expatriated them
from the country, that Muhammad resolved upon the change. Accordingly at
the moment while the votaries of the Ka’ba were engaged in the closing
ceremonies of the pilgrimage at Mina, Muhammad, preceded by Bilal carrying
the Abyssinian staff, and followed by the people, went forth to the place of
prayer without the city. After a service resembling that of the breaking of the
Fast, two fatted sucking kids, with budding horns, were placed before him.
Seizing a knife, he sacrificed the first, saying: ‘O Lord! I offer this for my
people, those that bear testimony to thy Unity and to my Mission’. Then he
called for the other, and, slaying it likewise, said: ‘O Lord! This is for
Muhammad and for the family of Muhammad’. Of the latter kind both he and
his family partook, and that which was over he gave to the poor. The double
sacrifice seems in its main feature to have been founded on the practice of the
Jewish high-priest at the Day of the Atonement, when he sacrificed first for his
own sins, and then for the people. The ceremony was repeated by Muhammad
every year when present at Medina, and it is still observed throughout the
Muslim world at the time when the sacrificial rite is being performed at Mina
which closes the Greater Pilgrimage.
The Life of Muhammad, by W. Muir, pp. 191, 194, 195
This accounts for the fact that the Jewish Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur)
bears certain parallels with the Muslim Eid-u’l Adha, at which sacrifices
are being slaughtered, although the biblical meaning and purpose have been
lost, as we can see from the Qur’an:

“.. their [the Muslims] place of sacrifice is near the ancient House
[i.e. the Ka’ba] ...the sacrificial camels We [i.e. Allah] made for you
as among the symbols from Allah ... It is not their meat nor their
blood, that reaches Allah; it is your piety that reaches Him...”.
Surah 22:33-37
Compare what the Bible says:

Where I see the blood, I will pass over you! Ex 12:13
 The Life of a creature is in the blood, and I have given it for you
upon the altar to make an atonement for your souls, for it is the
blood that makes atonement for ones life. Lev 17:11
Without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness of sins. Heb 9:22
The reason the Jews did not accept Muhammad as their prophet is reflected
in the Qur’an:
They say: ‘Why is not a Sign sent down to him from his Lord?’
 Say: ‘Allah hath certainly Power to send down a Sign: but most of
them understand not’. Surah 6:37
They [i.e. the Jews] say: ‘We shall not believe in thee, until thou
cause a spring to gush forth for us from the earth or (until) thou ... cause rivers
to gush forth in their midst, carrying abundant water ... or thou have a house
adorned with gold, or thou mount a ladder right into the skies’ ... Say: ‘Glory to
my Lord! Am I aught but a man - an apostle?’ Surah 17:90-93
We can easily detect the reasons for this. They might well have reasoned:
Muhammad’s nicknames in Mecca1

Muhammad was given all kinds of ‘nicknames’ by the people of Mecca that show us
how they perceived him and his strange, new message.
Madjnun one possessed (Surah 37:35; 44:13; 52:29; 68:2; 81:22) - one who
behaved unnaturally when he received his revelations
Sahir magician (Surah 10:2; 15:16; 38:3) - one dealing with witchcraft in
influencing people
Mashur bewitched, (Surah 17:50; 25:9; 44:13; 81:25) - one controlled by evel
spirits and demons, acting as their medium
Kahin fortune-teller / soothsayer, (Surah 52:29; 69:42) - one receiving

inspiration by the jinn, revealing secrets to man
Sha’ir Poet, (Surah 37:35; 52:30; 69:43) - one inspired with enchanting
words in enticing rythms by certain jinn
1
The Occult in Islam by Abd al-Masih.
‘Unless you have divine credentials, we cannot accept you as a prophet

from God! Moses caused water to gush forth (out of the rock), Solomon
lived in a house adorned with gold and Jacob had a dream about the ladder
reaching to heaven.
We would do better to base our assessment of a prophet on Deut 18:21-22
and many similar texts, as we have already seen and will see later. The
Jews also challenged Muhammad, saying:

‘Allah took our promise not to believe in an apostle unless he
showed us a sacrifice consumed by fire (from heaven)’,
Surah 9:5
In response Allah told him to reply: ‘There came to you Apostles before me,
with clear Signs and even with what ye ask for: why then did ye slay them, if ye
speak the truth?’ Then if they reject thee, so were rejected Apostles before
thee, who came with clear Sings, Books of dark prophecies, and the Book of
Enlightenment’. Surah 3:183-184
These verses obviously point to Elijah on Mt. Carmel. Muhammad’s

apology is striking. In clear text this says: “Yes, there were Apostles who
performed miracles, yet the Jews did not listen to them. Therefore God
ceased to perform miracles.”
2.3.11 Persecution of the Jews

An unequivocal threat to the Jews (the clans [arab. ‘Banu’] Quraiza, Nadir and
Qainuqa) is evident in the following tradition:
It has been narrated on the authority of Abu Huraira who said: We
 were (sitting) in the mosque when the Messenger of Allah (may

peace be upon him) came to us and said: (Let us) go to the Jews.
We went out with him until we came to them. The Messenger of
Allah (may peace be upon him) stood up and called out to them
(saying): O ye assembly of Jews, accept Islam (and) you will be safe. They
said: Abu’l-Qasim, you have communicated (God’s Message to us). The
Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) said: I want this (i.e. you should
admit that God’s Message has been communicated to you), accept Islam and
you would be safe. They said: Abu’l-Qasim, you have communicated (Allah’s
Message). The Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) said: I want this
... He said to them (the same words) the third time (and on getting the same
reply) he added: You should know that the earth belongs to Allah and His
Apostle, and I wish that I should expel you from this land. Those of you who
have any property with them should sell it, otherwise they should know that the
earth belongs to Allah and His Apostle (and they may have to go away leaving
everything behind).
It is surely understandable from a biblical viewpoint that the Jews intended

not to compromise their position. This, however, produced severe
consequences for them.
It has been narrated on the authority of Ibn Umar that the Jews of
 Banu Nadir and Banu Quraiza fought against the Messenger of

Allah (may peace be upon him) who expelled Banu Nadir, and
allowed Quraiza to stay on, and granted favour to them until they
too fought against him. Then he killed their men and distributed
their women, children and properties among the Muslims, except that some of
2
them had turned to the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him ) who
granted them security. They embraced Islam. The Messenger of Allah (may
peace be upon him) turned out all the Jews of Medina, Banu Qainuqa (the tribe
of Abdullah b. Salam) and the Jews of Banu Haritha and every other Jew who
was in Medina.
Sahih Muslim Vol. 3, pp. 963-965, No 4363-4364 and 4366
Then the apostle divided the property, wives, and children of B. Qurayza
among the Muslims. The apostle had chosen one of their women for himself,
Rayhana d. Amr b. Khunafa, one of the women of B. Amr b. Qurayza, and she
remained with him until she died, in his power. The apostle had proposed to
marry her and put the veil on her, but she said: ‘Nay, leave me in your power,
for that will be easier for me and for you’. So he left her.
Siratu’l Nabi vss. 690, 691 and 693
Then God revealed the verse: ‘It is not befitting for a prophet that he should
take prisoners until the force of the disbelievers has been crushed ...’ to the
end of the verse: ‘so eat ye the spoils of war, (it is) lawful and pure. So Allah
made booty lawful for them. Sahih Muslim Vol. 3, p. 962, No 4360
Practically all Jews of Arabia were either killed or chased from their homes and
towns. The common accusation that the Banu Qurayza were rewarded for treason
is patently untrue. The Muslims tried to win the Jews for their cause, but the
Qurayza remained neutral. This was their crime!
2
In some Islamic publications PBUH = peace be upon him
2.3.12 Muhammad’s Assessment of the Christians

Initially Muhammad had a high regard for Christians.
Strongest among men in enmity to the Believers wilt thou find the
 Jews and Pagans; and nearest among them in love to the

Believers wilt thou find those who say, ‘We are Christians’:
Because amongst these are men devoted to learning and men who
have renounced the world, and they are not arrogant.
Surah 5:82
However, when most of them did not respond by converting to Islam, he changed
his mind about them. Shortly before his death he even cursed them. Both Jews and
Christians were only acceptable to Muhammad once they had acknowledged him
as prophet.
Never will the Jews or the Christians be satisfied with thee unless
 thou follow their form of religion. Say: ‘The guidance of Allah -

that is the (only) guidance’. Wert thou to follow their desires after
the knowledge which hath reached thee, then wouldst thou find
neither protector nor Helper against Allah. Surah 2:120
O ye who believe! Take not the Jews and the Christians for your friends and
protectors; they are but friends and protectors to each other. And he amongst
you that turns to them (for friendship) is of them. Verily Allah guideth not a
people unjust. Surah 5:54
Let not the Believers take for friends or helpers Unbelievers rather than
Believers; if any do that, in nothing will there be help from Allah: except by way
of precaution, that ye may Guard yourselves from them. But Allah cautions you
(to remember) Himself; for the final goal is to Allah.
Surah 3:28
The Jews call Uzair [Ezra?] a son of Allah, and the Christians call Christ the
son of Allah. That is a saying from their mouths; (in this) they but imitate what
the unbelievers of old used to say. Allah’s curse be on them! How they are
deluded away from the Truth! Surah 9:30
2.3.13 Muhammad goes to War

After having settled in Medina, a Charter was written to regulate life between the
various differing interest groups in the town. Soon it became evident that the
emigrant Muslims in Medina had to find a livelihood. This caused Muhammad to
undertake “expeditions.” He sent groups of his warriors to raid Meccan trading
caravans in order to find booty. Against the rule not to fight in the ‘holy months’, a
contingent of troops raided a trading caravan. This caused havoc in his own camp
because a Meccan had been killed in the month in which bloodshed was forbidden.
Promptly a ‘revelation’ came:
They ask thee concerning fighting in the prohibited month. Say:
 ‘Fighting therein is a grave (offence): but graver is it in the sight of

Allah to prevent access to the path of Allah to deny Him; to prevent
access to the Sacred Mosque, and drive out its members’. Tumult
and oppression are worse than slaughter. Surah 2:217
When a large Meccan caravan was reported to be passing Badr in the South-West
of Medina on its way from Palestine to Mecca, the Meccans anticipated an attack
and obtained supporting forces from the city. They intercepted the Muslim
attackers, which led to the Battle of Badr (2 years after the Hijrah3) With only 300
men, but in a superior strategic position, Muhammad defeated the close to 1 000
Meccans. This victory gained him a tremendous status and swelled his army
rapidly.
This was followed by several other battles besides a number of smaller skirmishes.
Well known are the Battle of Uhud near Medina, which Muhammad lost and where
he was wounded in the fighting. The Battle of the Ditch (Trench) took place close
to the city when the Meccans came to deal a final blow to Muhammad. They had
brought all their allies along, but Muhammad had trenches dug at strategic places
around Medina to prevent the enemy cavalry from using its advantages.
Subsequently the Meccans withdrew after a couple of skirmishes - never to recover
from this loss of face. In the year 9AH4 Muhammad conquered Mecca with 10 000
soldiers who never needed to raise the sword. The power to resist had gone.
2.3.13.1 The Incentive to fight Holy Wars

Muslims emphatically insist that the Jihad, or Holy War, was, and should be, a
means of defence or an act of correcting oppression and injustice. This is
underlined in the explanatory notes of a collection of Islamic traditions:
3
Hijrah = flight from Mecca to Medina (Yathrib) in AD 622
4
AH = after the Hijrah
Thus Jihad in Islam is not an act of violence directed
 indiscriminately against the non-Muslims; it is the name given to

an all-round struggle which a Muslim should launch against evil in
whatever form or shape it appears. Qital fi sabilillah (fighting in
the way of Allah) is only one aspect of Jihad. Even this qital in
Islam is not an act of mad brutality. It has its material and moral functions, i.e.
self-preservation and the preservation of the moral order in the world.
Sahih Muslim Vol. 3, p. 938, commentary
... the sword has not been used recklessly by the Muslims; it has been wielded
purely with humane feelings in the wider interest of humanity.
Sahih Muslim Vol. 3, p. 941, commentary
Let us investigate how this claim is supported in other Islamic source
materials and by the actual facts of history:

Jihad is one of the chief meritorious acts in the eyes of Islam and it
is the best source of earnings but it shall be undertaken with the
intention of self-defence as said above.
Mishkat Vol. 2, p. 340, commentary
This is the best method of earning both spiritual and temporal. If victory is won,
there is enormous booty and conquest of a country which cannot be equalled
to any other source of earning. If there is defeat or death, there is ever-lasting
Paradise and a great spiritual benefit. This sort of Jihad is conditional upon
pure motive i.e. for establishing the kingdom of Allah on earth.
But when the forbidden months are past, then fight and slay the
 pagans wherever ye find them and seize them, beleaguer them

and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war).
Therefore, when ye meet the unbelievers (in fight), smite at their
necks; at length, when ye have thoroughly subdued them, bind a bond firmly
(on them); thereafter (is the time for) either generosity or ransom: until the war
lays down its burdens. Thus (are ye commanded): but if it has been Allah’s will
he could certainly have exacted retribution from them (himself). But (He lets
you fight) in order to test you. Surah 47:4
Fight those who believe not in Allah, nor the Last Day. Nor hold that forbidden
which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Apostle, nor acknowledge the
Religion of Truth (even if they are) of the People of the Book until they pay the
5
Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued. Surah 9:29
5
Jizya = poll-tax
And fight them on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there
prevails justice and faith in Allah altogether and everywhere. Surah 8:39
All of the above texts are contradicted by:

Let there be no compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear
from error. Surah 2:256
Say: O ye that reject Faith! I worship not that which ye worship.
Nor will ye worship that which I worship. And I will not worship
that which ye have been wont to worship. Nor will ye worship that which I
worship. To you be your Way, and to me mine. Surah 109:1-6
We learn with regard to the Jihad, that:

Abu Hurairah reported that the Messenger of Allah said: To
whichever village you go and settle therein, there is your share
therein, and whichever village disobeys Allah and His
Messenger, its one-fifth is for Allah and His Messenger, and the
remainder is for you. Mishkat Vol. 2, p. 412, No 150
We find it difficult to interpret this as ‘swords being wielded purely with humane
feelings in the interest of humanity’.
This income (booty), no doubt, was at the expense of someone else’s livelihood.
Let us look at Muslim warfare in practice.
What are the choices of the defeated?

1. The acceptance of Islam, in which case the conquered
 became enfranchised citizens of the Muslim state.

2. The payment of poll-tax (Jizya) by which People of the Book,
i.e. Jews and Christians obtained ‘protection’, becoming ‘Zimmis’,
i.e. second grade citizens.
3. Death by the sword to those who would neither accept Islam nor pay the
poll-tax. Dictionary of Islam, by T. P. Hughes, p. 243
The Jews were allowed to stay at Khaibar on condition that they
 would pay half the produce of their lands to the Holy Prophet and
in addition Jizya tax. Mishkat Vol. 2, p. 455, Fn. 1112
After the battle of Badr, the verse dealing with the booties was first revealed.
The verse introduced the rule for the first time that the spoils of war would be
the property of the soldiers who actually take part in the battle. Previously it
went either to the coffers of the victorious king or commander even though he
did not join in the actual fight. That is one of the reasons why the soldiers of
Islam fought tooth and nail. They would get Paradise in case of death in a holy
war, and booties in case of conquest, Jihad is therefore the best source of all
acquisitions. Mishkat Vol. 2, p. 406, commentary
Booty included women:

In the actual war-field in the midst of hostilities, according to
some jurists, some concessions were sometimes given to
soldiers for recreation. Captive virgin girls in war were once made
lawful for the soldiers for copulation.
Abdullah (b. Masud) reported: We were on an expedition with Allah’s
Messenger (may peace be upon him) and we had no women with us. We said:
Should we not have ourselves castrated? He (the Holy Prophet) forbade us to
do so. He then granted us permission that we should contract temporary
marriage for a stipulated period giving her a garment, and Abdullah then
recited this verse: ‘Those who believe do not make unlawful the good things
which Allah has made lawful for you, and do not transgress. Allah does not
like transgressors. Sahih Muslim Vol. 2, p. 705, No 3243
2.3.13.2 Temporary Marriage

This practice is called ‘mut’ah’. It was allowed for the gratification of the
soldiers of Islam, but is still practiced among Shiá Muslims and was indeed
recommended, even for school children, by the ‘Ayatollah Khomeini’.
Ibn Juraij reported: Ata reported that Jabir b. Abdullah came to
 6
perform Umrah , and we came to his abode, and the people
asked him about different things, and then they made a mention
of temporary marriage, whereupon he said: Yes, we had been
benefiting ourselves by this temporary marriage during the
lifetime of the Holy Prophet (may peace be upon him) and during the time of
Abu Bakr and Umar.
Jabir b. Abdullah reported: We contracted temporary marriage giving a handful
of dates or flour as a dower during the lifetime of Allah’s Messenger (may
peace be upon him) and during the time of Abu Bakr until Umar forbade it in
the case of Amr b. Hurith.
6
Umrah = the small or lesser pilgrimage, i.e. not during the prescribed time
Sabra Juhanni reported: Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon
 him) permitted temporary marriage for us. So I and another

person went out and saw a woman of Banu Amir, who was like a
young long-necked she-camel. We presented ourselves to her
(for contracting temporary marriage), whereupon she said: What
dower would you give me? I said: My cloak. And my companions also said: My
cloak. And the cloak of my companion was superior to my cloak, but I was
younger than he. So when she looked at the cloak of my companion she liked
it, and when she cast a glance at me I looked more attractive to her. She then
said: Well, you and your cloak are sufficient for me. I remained with her for
three nights, and then Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him) said he
who has any such woman with whom he had contracted temporary marriage,
he should let her off. Sahih Muslim Vol. 2, p. 706, No 3252
In the light of what we read there is little wonder that a poem ascribed to
Ali ibn Abi Talib, reads:

Our flowers are the sword and the dagger;
Narcissus and myrtle are nought.
Our drink is the blood of our foeman;
Our goblet his skull, when we’ve fought.
The claim that Muslims acted only in defence is simply untrue. What were
the Muslims defending in Spain, France, India, Persia or at the very gates
of Vienna?
Objective observers will conclude: interest in material gain and political
power were shown to be more important than the making of converts. One
can hardly help feeling that the Holy War was a pretext to make booty and
receive continuing taxes.
This interest no doubt gave enormous political and military momentum to
the cause of Islam. Each warrior had a right to the belongings of the man he
had slain or captured, and could sell for ransom any prisoner he had made.
Women and children were also treated as booty. A Muslim saw no moral
irregularity in taking married women prisoners as concubines, as long as
they were not pregnant.
2.3.13.3 The Opposing Concept of Jesus

You have heard that it was said, ‘Eye for eye, and tooth for tooth’.
 But I tell you, Do not resist an evil person. If someone strikes you
on the right cheek, turn to him the other also. And if someone
wants to sue you and take your tunic, let him have your cloak as
well. If someone forces you to go one mile, go with him two
miles. Give to the one who asks you, and do not turn away from the one who
wants to borrow from you. You have heard that it was said: ‘Love your
neighbour and hate your enemy. But I tell you, Love your enemies and pray for
those who persecute you. Matt 5:38-44
Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called sons of God. Matt 5:9
2.3.14 Muhammad’s Attitude Towards His Enemies

Justice and compassion are the two components that create a civil society.
We are aware that at the time of Muhammad there was no Geneva
Convention regulating international relations and the treatment of prisoners.
But there have always been ethics. The example of Jesus set the stage for
Christian morality. A chivalry influenced by that could already be observed
in the early medieval time. We are sad to observe that the relationships
Muhammad had with his opponents was all too often governed by
pragmatics or, worse, by hatred. When studying the biographic materials of
Muhammad’s life, we find that he ordered at least 27 assassinations.
The Murder Of Marvan’s Daughter

When the apostle heard what she had said he said, ‘Who will rid
 me of Marwan’s daughter? Umayr B. Adiy al-Khatmi who was

with him heard him, and that very night he went to her house and
killed her. In the morning he came to the apostle and told him
what he had done and he said, ‘You have helped God and His
apostle, O Umayr!’ When he asked if he would have to bear any evil
consequences the apostle said, ‘Two goats won’t butt their heads about her’,
so Umayr went back to his people. Siratu’l Nabi, vs. 996
The Murder Of Ka’b Ibn Ashraf

Muhammad had called for a volunteer to carry out the assassination of one
of his personal enemies. Muhammad b. Maslama offered his services with
these words:

‘O Apostle of Allah, we shall have to tell lies’. He answered, ‘Say
what you like, for you are free in the matter.’
Siratu’l Nabi, vs. 151

It has been narrated on the authority of Jabir that the Messenger
of Allah (may peace be upon him) said: Who will kill Ka’b b.
Ashraf? He has maligned Allah, the Exalted, and His Messenger,
Muhammad b. Maslama said: Messenger of Allah, do you wish
that I should kill him? He said: Yes. He said: Permit me to talk (to him in the
way I deem fit). He said: Talk (as you like). So Muhammad b. Maslama came
to Ka’b and talked to him, referred to the old friendship between them and said:
This man (i.e. the Holy Prophet) has made up his mind to collect charity (from
us) and this has put us to a great hardship. When he heard this, Ka’b said: By
God, you will be put to more trouble by him. Muhammad b. Maslama said: No
doubt, now we have become his followers and we do not like to forsake him
until we see what turn his affairs will take. I want that you should give me a
loan. He said: What will you mortgage? He said: What do you want? He said:
Pledge me your women. He said: You are the most handsome of the Arabs;
should we pledge our women to you? He said: pledge me your children. He
said: the son of one of us may abuse us saying that he was pledged for two
wasqs of dates, but we can pledge you (our) weapons. He said: All right. Then
Muhammad b. Maslama promised that he would come to him with Hartih, Abu
Abs b. Jabr and Abbad b. Bishr. So they came and called upon him at night.
He came down to them. Sufyan says that all the narrators except ‘Amr have
stated that his wife said: I hear a voice which sounds like the voice of murder.
He said: it is only Muhammad b.Maslama and his foster-brother, Abu Na’ila.
When a gentleman is called at night, even if to be pierced with a spear, he
should respond to the call. Muhammad said to his companions: As he comes
down, I will extend my hands towards his head and when I hold him fast, you
should do your job. So when he came down and he was holding his cloak
under his arm, they said to him: We sense from you a very fine smell. He said:
Yes, I have with me a mistress who is the most scented of the women of
Arabia. He said: Allow me to smell (the scent on your head). He said: Yes, you
may smell. So he caught it and smelt. Then he said: Allow me to do so (once
again). He then held his head fast and said to his companions: do you job. And
they killed him. Sahih Muslim Vol. 3, pp. 990-991, No 4436
The Siratu’l Nabi continues the same story:
They walked on farther ... Ka’b suspected no evil. Then he cried,
 ‘Smite the enemy of Allah!’ So they smote him, and their swords
clashed over him with no effect. Muhammad b. Maslama said, ‘I
remembered my dagger when I saw that our swords were
useless, and I seized it. Meanwhile the enemy of God had made
such a noise that every fort around us was showing a light. I thrust it into the
lower part of his body, then I bore down upon it until I reached his genitals, and
the enemy of Allah fell to the ground. Al-Harith had been hurt, being wounded
either in his head or in his foot, one of our swords having struck him.
We carried him and brought him to the apostle at the end of the night. We
saluted him as he stood praying, and he came out to us, and we told him that
we had killed Allah’s enemy. He spat upon our comrade’s wounds, and both he
and we returned to our families. Our attack upon Allah’s enemy cast terror
among the Jews, and there was no Jew in Medina who did not fear for his life.
The apostle said, ‘Kill any Jew that falls into your power’.
Siratu’l Nabi, vs. 552-554
The Murder Of Sallam

When Aus had killed Ka’b for his enmity towards the apostle,
 Khazraj used these words and asked themselves what man was
as hostile to the apostle as Ka’b? And then they remembered
Sallam, who was in Khaybar and asked and obtained the
apostle’s permission to kill him.
Five men of B. Salima of Khazraj went to him: ‘Abdullah b. Atik; Mas’ud b.
Sinan; Abdullah b. Unays; Abu Qatada al-Harith b. Rib’i; and Khuza’i b. Aswad,
an ally from Aslam. As they left, the apostle appointed Abdullah b. Atik as their
leader, and he forbade them to kill women or children. When they got to
Khaybar they went to Sallam’s house by night, having locked every door in the
settlement on the inhabitants. Now he was in an upper chamber of his to which
a ladder led up. They mounted this until they came to the door and asked to be
allowed to come in. His wife came out and asked who they were and they told
her that they were Arabs in search of supplies. She told them that their man
was here and that they could come in. When we entered we bolted the door of
the room on her and ourselves fearing lest something should come between us
and him. His wife shrieked and warned him of us, so we ran at him with our
swords as he was on his bed. The only thing that guided us in the darkness of
the night was his whiteness like an Egyptian blanket. When his wife shrieked
one of our number would lift his sword against her; then he would remember
the apostle’s ban on killing women and withdraw his hand; but for that we
would have made an end of her that night. When we had smitten him with our
swords Abdullah B.Unays bore down with his sword into his belly until it went
right through him, as he was saying Qatni, qatni, i.e. it’s enough.
We went out. Now Abdullah b. Atik had poor sight, and fell from the ladder and
sprained his arm severely, so we carried him until we brought him to one of
their water channels and went into it. The people lit lamps and went in search
of us in all directions until, despairing of finding us, they returned to their
master and gathered round him as he was dying. We asked each other how
we could know that the enemy of God was dead, and one of us volunteered to
go and see; so off he went and mingled with the people. He said, ‘I found his
wife and some Jews gathered round him. She had a lamp in her hand and was
peering into his face and saying to them ‘By God, I certainly heard the voice of
Abdullah B. Atik. Then I decided I must be wrong and thought, ‘How can Ibn
Atik be in this country? ‘Then she turned towards him, looking into his face,
and said, ‘By the God of the Jews, he is dead!’ Never have I heard sweeter
words than those.
Then he came to us and told us the news, and we picked up our companion
and took him to the apostle and told him that we had killed Allah’s enemy. We
disputed before him as to who had killed him, each of us laying claim to the
deed. The apostle demanded to see our swords and when he looked at them
he said, ‘It is the sword of Abdullah b. Unays that killed him; I can see traces of
food on it’.
Siratu’l Nabi, vs. 714-715
The Murder Of Abu Rafi

Allah’s Apostle sent some men from the Ansar to (kill) Abu
Rafi, the Jew, and appointed ‘Abdullah bin Atik as their
leader. Abu Rafi used to hurt Allah’s Apostle and help his
enemies against him.
The story then tells how this was done:
...I ... hit him with the sword, and because of my perplexity, I
 could not kill him. He cried loudly, and I came out of the house
and waited for a while, and then went to him again and said,
‘What is this voice, O Abu Rafi?’ He said, ‘Woe to your mother! A
man in my house has hit me with a sword!’ I again hit him
severely but I did not kill him. Then I drove the point of the sword into his belly
(and pressed it through) till it touched his back, and I realised that I have killed
him. Then I opened the doors one by one till I reached the staircase, and
thinking that I had reached the ground, I stepped out and fell down and got my
leg broken in a moonlit night. I tied my leg with a turban and proceeded on till I
sat at the gate, and said, ‘I will not go out tonight till I know that I have killed
him.’ So, when (early in the morning) the cock crowed, the announcer of the
casualty stood on the wall saying, ‘I announce the death of Abu Rafi, the
merchant of Hijaz. Thereupon I went to my companions and said, ‘Let us save
ourselves, for Allah has killed Abu Rafi’. So I (along with my companions
proceeded and) went to the Prophet and described the whole story to him.” He
said, ‘Stretch out your (broken) leg.’ I stretched it out and he rubbed it and it
became all right as if I had never had any ailment whatsoever.
al-Bukhari Vol. 5, pp. 251-253, No 371
The Slaughter Of Ocba

On tomorrow, the prisoners were brought up before him. As he
 scrutinized each, his eye fell fiercely on Nadhr, son of Harish.

‘There was death in that glance’, whispered Nadhr, trembling to a
bystander. ‘Not so’, replied the other, ‘it is but thine own
imagination’. The unfortunate prisoner thought otherwise and
besought Musab to intercede for him. Musab reminded him that he had denied
the faith and persecuted Believers. Ah, said Nadhr, had the Coreish be made
the prisoners. They would never have met the death! ‘Even were it so’
Mohammad scornfully replied ‘I am not as thou and Islam hath rent all bounds
asunder. Micda, the captor, fearing lest the prisoner, and with him the chance
of a rich ransom, was about to slip from his hands, cried out, ‘The prisoner is
mine’. But at this moment the command to strike off his head was interposed
by Mohammad, who has been watching what passed. ‘And, O Lord’ he added,
‘do thou of thy bounty grant unto Micdad a better prey than this’. Nadhr was
forthwith beheaded by Ali.
Two days afterwards, about half-way to Medina, Ocba, another prisoner, was
ordered out for execution. He ventured to expostulate and demand why he
should be treated more rigorously than the other captives. ‘Because of thy
enmity to Allah and to His Prophet’, replied Mohammad. ‘And my little girl’ cried
Ocba, in the bitterness of his soul, ‘who will take care of her?’ ‘Hell-fire!’
exclaimed the heartless conqueror, and on the instant his victim was hewn to
the ground. Dictionary of Islam, by T. P. Hughes, p. 380
While this may reflect the methods of secret agents in their political hit-
squad intrigue and faction hatred, we deem it not fitting for a man of God
to act like this - particularly so after Jesus Christ has opened our
understanding to a new set of ethics. While Church history has a lot to say
about all kinds of enmity, intrigue and even murder, this cannot be traced
back to the teaching or example of Jesus Christ. What a contrast we find in
Muhammad, who said:
‘Kill any Jew that falls into your power’. Thereupon Muhayyisa b.
 Mas’lud leapt upon Ibn Sunayna, a Jewish merchant with whom

they had social and business relations, and killed him. Huwayyisa
was not a Muslim at the time though he was the elder brother.
When Muhayyisa killed him Huwalyyisa began to beat him,
saying: ‘You enemy of Allah, did you kill him when much of the fat on your belly
comes from his wealth?’ Muhayyisa answered, ‘Had the one who ordered me
to kill him ordered me to kill you I would have cut your head off’.
Siratu’l Nabi, vs. 554
2.3.15 The Wives and Concubines of Muhammad

To properly and justly assess the life and action of Muhammad and his
rules, we have to realize that Muhammad lived ± 600 years after Christ
Jesus revealed God’s plans and purposes for our lives. A comparison with
the Old Testament, in which polygamy7 was tolerated by God, is therefore
not justified. It may be added that adultery and divorce were not overlooked
even under the OT dispensation.
A Muslim man may legally marry up to four wives (excluding concubines).
Marry women of your choice, two, or three, or four. But if ye fear
 that ye shall not be able to deal justly (with them), then only one,
or (a captive) that your right hands possess, that will be more
suitable, to prevent you from doing injustice.
Muhammad had lived 25 years in marriage with his first wife Khadija.
After her death, which roughly coincided with the Hijra to Medina, he
married no less than 12 wives in short succession. Perhaps all, except
Aisha, were widows or divorcees. (See list in the appendix).
Strangely this led to an increase of Muhammad’s status. In our modern world he is
rather viewed as a man of compassion who salvaged these poor women from an
unprotected way of life by supplying their daily needs. A suggestion that personal
interests, particularly sexual gratification, were a motive is bluntly refused by just
about all Muslims. We do not want to dispute his social concern in some cases, but
should consider the other side as well:
We would like to state again that all our information on early Islam is derived from
Islamic sources.
Muhammad’s Affair With Mary, The Copt

Mary (the Copt) was a Christian slave given to Muhammad 7 AH
 (AD 628) by the Governor of Egypt, Elmokaukas. Her sister,

8
Shereena , was also given at the same time. Muhammad
became intimate with Mary and she bore him Ebrahim, who died
in 10 AH. Intimacy took place in the home and bed of his wife
7
polygamy = ‘custom of having more than one wife at the same time’ (Oxford Advanced
Dictionary)
8
In Surah 4:23 we read:’Forbidden to you are…two sisters in wedlock at one and the same
time.
Hafsah (daughter of Umar) who was absent at that moment and on the day
which was either her or Aisha’s (daughter of Abu Bakr) turn. When Hafsah
found this out and questioned him he promised (on oath) not to touch Mary
again if she would keep this a secret, and promised that Umar and Abu Bakr
should be his successors. Hafsah, however, did not keep quiet and told Aisha
about this event. As a result Muhammad had no dealings with any of his wives
9
for a full month, living with Mary alone.
At this appropriate time Muhammad was given a suitable “revelation”:
O Prophet! Why holdest thou to be forbidden that which, Allah
 has made lawful to thee? Thou seekest to please thy consorts.

But Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. Allah has already
ordained for you (O men) the dissolution of your oaths (in some
cases)[these inserts are not part of the text!] and Allah is your
Protector, and He is full of knowledge and wisdom. When the Prophet
disclosed a matter in confidence to one of his consorts, and she then divulged
it (to another), and Allah made it known to him, he confirmed part thereof and
repudiated a part ... It may be, if he divorced you (all) that Allah will give him in
exchange consorts better than you - who submit (their wills), who believe,
who are devout, who turn to Allah in repentance, who worship (in humility),
who travel (for faith) and fast - previously married or virgins. Surah 66:1-3, 5
Al-Baizawi, (Commentary Vol.2, pp. 340-341), the Qur’an commentator,
gives an explanation of this passage:

It is related that Mohammed was alone in company with Mary in
Aisha’s or Hafsah’s turn. Hafsah became aware of that and
therefore scolded him about it. He declared he had taken an
oath, but admitted his unlawful behaviour, therefore these verses
descended. Mizanu’l Haqq, p. 330;
(The Mishkat names Zainab instead of Hafsah); Mishkat 2, p. 680-681)
We ought to be aware that many a Muslim may take grave offence at the
above recorded event. To illustrate this, an extract from the book “Namoose
Rasool” by Hafiz Muhammad Sawar Qureshi is added:
In Defence of the Honor of Muhammad: Peace and blessing of
 Allah be on him
One day in April 1978, I was studying Maudoodi’s famous
commentary on the Qur’an, Tafhimul Qur’an, Volume 4. I had to
9
“Der Koran” translated by Ludwig Ullmann, p. 456, Fn. 2, Authors own translation. The
complete story is found in the Rauzatu’r Safa, Vol. 2, p. 188.
look up something concerning the wives of the Prophet. Suddenly I read this
about Mary the Copt (may Allah be pleased with her): ‘(The Prophet of God)
took Mary Qabtia, who had been sent by the Maqauqus (ruler of Egypt)
especially for himself. The first three mentioned he freed and married but with
Mary he had intercourse on the basis of his having her in his power. It is not
10
proven about her that he freed her and married her’.
Such was the effect of this reading on my mind and soul that, without
exaggeration, for three straight days I could no longer believe even in the
prophethood and messengership of Muhammad (may peace and blessings of
Allah be on him). Again and again I said to my friends: See and check. Has
Maudoodi actually written that about Mary the Copt which I have understood?
At my insistence, my friends again and again read the relevant passage and
said to me: Surely these writings mean what you have understood it to mean.
I cannot explain fully what was the condition of my mind at that time. Strange
doubts and fears of a nature that would put me outside the limits of Islam arose
in my mind about the mission of the leader and seal of the prophet. I was so
disturbed because the ugly act which Maudoodi was attributing to the
messenger of God was so hideous that even a sinful person like myself could
not have committed it or thought of committing it. How could a great
messenger of God, walking on the path of Truth, have done such a thing?
Whatever else such a person might be, he certainly would not be the
messenger of God. Consider what would happen when this extremely
misleading commentary would be translated into the English language and
other international languages and would reach the nations of the world! What
opinion would they form of the best men, Muhammad, (peace and blessings of
Allah be on him) after reading Maudoodi’s commentary when they (especially
the Europeans) are already very much prejudiced against the Prophet owing to
other misleading and distorted versions of Islam which have reached them!
Alas, would there be such a true believer who, out of sheer love of the truthful
Prophet, make sure that this misleading commentary would not be able to do
the harm it is capable of doing? Perhaps such a believer could use my book
‘Namoose Rasool’ (The Honor of the Prophet’s Household) to prove to the
non-Muslim peoples that the ugly tradition of slavery and concubining (sic) was
not invented by the Messenger of God.
Some people may object to the weakness of my faith; however it is not a
question of the weakness of my faith but of the credibility of my appropriate
witnessing. We know from the Qur’an that it is correct to assume that faith can
increase and also become weaker on the basis of reason and reliable
evidence. My faith is based on the truthfulness and justice of the holy Qur’an
and the highest moral and ethical example of the messenger of God referred to
10
Tafhimul Qur’an, Vol. 4, commentary on Surah al-Ahzab, verse 50, note number 88,
pages 113-114.
in the Qur’an as ‘the pattern of excellence’. Hence imagine my mental
condition when the greatest scholar and thinker of Islam in these times comes
forward as a witness and testifies that whatever the enemies of Islam had been
saying in their malice and hate about the messenger was partially, if not
entirely true. The stories that the Prophet was a lustful person and used
women as concubines (O Allah forgive us) and that Muslims could take men as
slaves, even without war, and take women from decent households and use
them as concubines and ‘keeps’ without benefit of marriage, was being given
the seal of authenticity by a scholar of Islam.
It is clear that Mary the Copt was not taken prisoner in a war. And according to
Maudoodi, the messenger of Islam took her as his concubine without any fault
of hers and entirely according to the tradition of the unbelievers. This would go
even against what the generality of Islamic scholars say and agree upon, that
Islam did put an end to slavery that was rampant among the unbelievers and
the associates, and that whatever slavery Islam did ‘permit’, had to do only
with the prisoner of war. Even if this viewpoint is true, how would it be proper to
justify the enslavement of Mary the Copt by the great moral messenger? Was
she being treated as a prisoner of war? Or had she been taken and enslaved
merely on the basis of the established tradition of slavery among the
associates and unbelievers?
Thus when we get this witness from the greatest scholar of Islam in our time,
that ‘in fact’ the messenger of Islam had not even been forced by the
conditions of war but had merely, according to unislamic culture then
prevalent, taken Mary as a slave girl, and that too without marriage, and forced
her entry into his household, then who would conscientiously believe in the
messengership of such a person? Surely this was a deed which went against
the very Qur’an which the messenger had been sent to teach and publicize. It
is of course true that some other Muslim commentators and historians have
also written that Mary was the slave girl of the Prophet. This took the meaning
in my mind that originally she was a slave girl but the Messenger of God must
have married her. This did not leave a bad impression. But the words
Maudoodi used, that it had not been proven that the Prophet ever married her,
were shattering. Such misleading words I had not come across from a scholar
of Islam Al-Balaag, Johannesburg, Nov./Dec. issue, 1988
The sad fact is that Mary the Copt was a concubine of Muhammad. The conclusion
that ‘what must not be cannot be’ is as false as the supposition that Islam put an
end to slavery.
We can clearly see that the longing for purity in many a Muslim is indeed an
aspect, which makes the Gospel of Jesus very appealing - provided it is known to them.
Muhammad’s Affair With Zainab

Muhammad took the wife of his adopted son Zaid:
Muhammad beheld her after he had wedded her to him (Zaid), and she fell into
his soul: therefore he said, ‘Praise to God who turneth hearts upside down’
And Zainab heard the ascription of praise, and mentioned it to Zaid. He was
quick to understand that, and there occurred to his soul an
aversion from her society. Therefore he came to the Prophet and
 said, ‘I desire to put away my consort’ (Muhammad) said, ‘What

is the matter with thee? Has anything made thee doubtful of her?’
(Zaid) said, ‘No, by God, I have seen nothing (done) by her but
what is good; but truly her dignity is too exalted for me’.
Accordingly he said to him, ‘Keep thy wife to thyself’ ... ‘Therefore when Zaid
satisfied a requirement from her’, i.e. a need; since he wearied of her, and he
divorced her, and her time was completed ...’We wedded her to thee’: ... the
meaning is that He commanded him to wed her, or He made her his
(Muhammad’s) wife without the interposition of a marriage-contract. And what
confirms it (this explanation) is that she used to say to the rest of the Prophet’s
wives, ‘Verily God acted the part of a relative in my being given in marriage,
and, as for you, your relatives gave you in marriage’. And it is said that Zaid
was the go-between in her betrothal, and that was a great trial, and an evident
witness to the strength of his faith.
Mizanu’l Haqq, pp. 331-332 quotes Commentary of Al Baizawi, Vol. 2, p. 129
Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him) said to Zaid to make a mention to
her about him. Zaid went on until he came to her and she was fermenting her
flour. He (Zaid) said: As I saw her I felt in my heart an idea of her greatness so
much so that I could not see towards her (simply for the fact) that Allah’s
Messenger (may peace be upon him) had made a mention of her. So I turned
my back towards her, and I turned upon my heels and said: Zainab, Allah’s
Messenger (may peace be upon him) has sent (me) with a message to you.
She said: I do not do anything until I consult the will of my Lord. So she stood
at her place of worship and the (verses of) the Qur’an (pertaining to her
marriage) were revealed, and Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him)
came to her without permission.
Sahih Muslim Vol. 2, pp. 724-725, No 3330
And this is the “revelation” which was then given:
It is not fitting for a Believer, man or woman, when a matter has
 been decided by Allah and His Apostle, to have any option about
their decision. If anyone disobeys Allah and His Apostle, he is
indeed on a clearly wrong path.
Behold! Though didst say to one who had received the grace of Allah and thy
favour: ‘Retain thou (in wedlock) thy wife, and fear Allah’. But thou didst hide in
thy heart that which Allah was about to make manifest: thou didst fear the
people, but it is more fitting that thou shouldst fear Allah. Then when Zaid had
dissolved (his marriage) with her, with the necessary (formality), we joined her
in marriage to thee; in order that (in future) there may be no difficulty to the
Believers in (the matter of) marriage with the wives of their adopted sons,
when the latter have dissolved with the necessary (formality = Their marriage)
with them: and Allah’s command must be fulfilled.
There can be no difficulty to the Prophet in what Allah has indicated to him as
a duty. Surah 33:36-38
Muhammad’s Marriage To Aisha

11
Aisha (Allah be pleased with her) reported that Allah’s Apostle

(may peace be upon him) married her when she was seven years
old, and she was taken to his house as a bride when she was
nine, and her dolls were with her; and when he (the Holy Prophet)
died she was eighteen years old.
We remember that a Muslim may not marry more than one wife unless he
treats them all alike. This is humanly speaking impossible. One cannot love
several wives equally. This also applies to Muhammad, as we already
realized. The Traditions report scenes of jealousy. Aisha said:
I used to look down upon those ladies who had given themselves
 to Allah’s Apostle and I used to say, “Can a lady give herself (to a
man)?” But when Allah revealed: “You (O Muhammad) can
postpone (the turn of) whom you will of them (your wives), and
you may receive any of them whom you will; and there is no
blame on you if you invite one whose turn you have set aside (temporarily),”
(33.51) I said (to the Prophet), “I feel that your Lord hastens in fulfilling your
wishes and desires.” al-Bukhari Vol. 6, p. 295, No 311
‘Aisha said, “Allah’s Apostle used to take the permission of that wife with whom
he was supposed to stay overnight if he wanted to go to one other than her,
after this Verse was revealed:
‘You (O Muhammad) can postpone (the turn of) whom you will of them (your
wives) and you may receive any (of them) whom you will; and there is no
blame on you if you invite one whose turn you have set aside (temporarily).’
11
Aisha, also Ayesha
(33.51) ‘I asked ‘Aisha, ‘What did you use to say (in this case)? She said,’I
used to say to him, ‘If I could deny you the permission (to go to your other
wives) I would not allow your favour to be bestowed on any other person’.
The full text that is referred to above is:
O Prophet! We have made lawful to thee thy wives to whom thou
 hast paid their dowers; and those whom thy right hand possess
out of the prisoners of war whom Allah has assigned to thee; and
daughters of thy paternal uncles and aunts, and daughters of thy
maternal uncles and aunts, who migrated (from Mecca) with thee;
and any believing woman who dedicates her soul to the Prophet if the Prophet
wishes to wed her - this only for thee, and not for the Believers (at large). We
know what We have appointed for them as to their wives and the captives
whom their right hands possess; - in order that there should be no difficulty for
thee. And Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
Thou mayest defer (the turn of) any of them that thou pleasest, and thou
mayest receive any thou pleasest; and there is no blame on thee if thou invite
one whose (turn) thou hadst set aside.
Surah 33:50-51
All these recorded events make it difficult to accept that Muhammad’s

marriages were primarily acts of compassion as Islam maintains:
Narrated Qatada: Anas bin Malik said: ‘The Prophet used to visit
 all his wives in a round, during the day and night and they were
eleven in number’. I asked Anas: ‘Had the Prophet the strength
for it?’ Anas replied, ‘We used to say that the Prophet was given
the strength of thirty (men)’. And Sa’id said on the authority of
Qatada that Anas had told him about nine wives only (not
eleven).

Ubayd Allah Ibn Musa ... said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah
bless him, said: Gabriel brought a kettle from which I ate and I was
given the power of sexual intercourse equal to forty men
Ibn Sa’d Vol. 1, pp. 438-439
Conclusion
We are reminded of the words of Jesus:
Have you not read, he replied, that at the beginning the Creator
 ‘made them male and female’, and said, ‘for this reason will a man
leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and the two
will become one flesh’? So they are no longer two, but one.
Therefore what God has joined together, let no man separate...
Moses permitted you to divorce your wives because your hearts were hard.
But it was not this way from the beginning. I tell you that anyone who divorces
his wife, except for marital unfaithfulness, and marries another woman
commits adultery. Matt 19:4-9
He who marries a woman divorced from her husband commits adultery.
Luke 16:18
For an extensive treatment of the status of women in Islam see Chapter 11.
2.3.16 Personal Advantages - Muhammad’s great

Temptation
When we look at the ‘revelations’ of the Qur’an and the Hadith12, we
cannot fail to see that a number of passages, which are deemed to be divine
revelations, pragmatically promote personal advantages for Muhammad.
These boosted his power and influence as much as his privileges
concerning the opposite sex. Again we are tempted to compare with Christ,
of whom it is said:

Each of you should look not only to your own interest, but also to
the interests of others. Your attitude should be the same as that
of Christ Jesus: Who, being in very nature God, did not consider
equality with God something to be grasped, but made himself
nothing, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness.
And being found in appearance as a man, he humbled himself and became
obedient to death - even death on a cross! Therefore God exalted him to the
highest place and gave him the name that is above every name, that at the
name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven as on earth and under the
earth, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God
the Father. Phil 2:4-11
12
Hadith = collection of early Islamic traditions recorded between 250 - 300 years after
Muhammad
Muslims are to assume that both the Qur’an and the sayings and actions of
Muhammad, were divinely inspired. That gives the Prophet of Islam
absolute authority. We will have to take note that all these sources originate
in ONE person, Muhammad. To fortify his position we read in the Qur’an:

‘Say (O Muhammad) (to the people): If you love Allah, follow me
and Allah will love you and forgive you your sins: for Allah is
Forgiving, a Dispenser of Mercy’
Surah 3:31
Ye have indeed in the Apostle of Allah a beautiful pattern of (conduct) for
anyone whose hope is in Allah and the Final Day, and who engages much in
the praise of Allah.
Surah 33:21
Abu Hurairah reported that he heard Allah’s Apostle saying, ‘We are the last
but will be the foremost to enter Paradise.’ The Prophet added, ‘He who obeys
me, obeys Allah, and he who disobeys me, disobeys Allah.
al-Bukhari Vol. 4, pp. 128-129, No 204 and Vol. 9, p. 284, No 384
All my followers will enter Paradise except those who refuse.” They said, “O
Allah’s Apostle! Who will refuse?” He said, “Whoever obeys me will enter
Paradise, and whoever disobeys me is the one who refuses (to enter it).
al-Bukhari Vol. 4, p. 284, No 384 (al-Bukhari Vol. 4, pp. 284-285, No 385 and
Mishkat Vol. 1, p. 159, No 97)
Based on this premise Muhammad became, already in his lifetime, the sole
and absolute foundation and authority of all that concerns Islam. He is, by
that token, the mediator between man and Allah. Therefore, even his very
un-christlike behaviour in many ways is viewed by Muslims to be a God-
granted privilege.
All the utterances and deeds of the Holy Prophet (may peace be
 upon him) are thus divinely inspired, and in them alone can one
find the true meaning and the real significance of the Will of Allah
... It is indeed a boundless favour of Allah to humanity that, along
with His message, He also sent to us His Messenger to elaborate
and elucidate it, and then transmute it into practical reality under His direct
guidance:
‘And We have sent unto thee the Admonition that thou mayest expound unto
mankind that which hath been revealed towards them’. (Surah 16:44)
As a final dispenser of the Message of Allah, the Prophet alone is best fitted
and, therefore, divinely authorized to determine the meanings of the Holy
Qur’an, to unfold before humanity the deep wisdom contained in it, and then,
on the basis of his wisdom, to purify the souls of the people and elevate them
to the highest pinnacle of morality and God-consciousness:...
It is by following Muhammad (may peace be upon him) that we can achieve
the cherished goal of winning Allah’s favour.
The question arises: Did the Holy Prophet (may peace be upon him) utter not a
word besides what was revealed to him by the Lord in the form of the Qur’an?
The answer obviously is: No. He did also explain the contents of the Divine
revelations. He gave practical demonstration of their significance by leading his
life according to them, and was thus instrumental in moulding the lives of his
Companions after his own pattern of life. He did all this, of course, under
Divine inspiration.
Sahih Muslim Vol. 1, pp. 1-2, Commentary
The practical outworking of this is reflected in the Qur’an:
O ye who believe! Enter not the Prophet’s houses until leave [=
 permission] is given you - for a meal, (and then) not (so early as)
to wait for its preparation: but when ye are invited, enter. And
when ye have taken your meal, disperse, without seeking familiar
talk. Such (behaviour) annoys the Prophet: he is ashamed to
dismiss you, but Allah is not ashamed (to tell you) the truth. And when ye ask
(his ladies) for anything ye want, ask them from before a screen: that makes
for greater purity for your hearts and for theirs.
Nor is it right for you that ye should annoy Allah’s Apostle, or that ye should
marry his widows after him at any time.
Those who annoy Allah and His Apostle - Allah has cursed them in this world
and in the Hereafter, and has prepared for them a humiliating Punishment.
It is not fitting for a Believer, man or woman, when a matter has been decided
by Allah and His Apostle, to have any option about their decision. If anyone
disobeys Allah and His Apostle, he is indeed on a clearly wrong Path.
We have made lawful to thee any believing woman who dedicates her soul to
the Prophet if the Prophet wishes to wed her - this only for thee, and not for the
Believers (at large). We know what We have appointed for them as to their
wives and the captives whom their right hands possess - in order that there
should be no difficulty for thee. And Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. Thou
mayest defer (the turn of) any of them that thou pleasest, and thou mayest
receive any thou pleasest: and there is no blame on thee if thou invite one
whose (turn) thou hast set aside. Surah 33:53, 57, 36, 50-51
2.3.17 The Final Episode of the Life of Muhammad

The life of Muhammad can be divided into three distinct parts:
1. Childhood, youth, early married life, up to his calling (AD 570-609)
2. Prophethood and witness during the time in Mecca (AD 610-622)
3. Life in Medina until his death (AD 623-633)
Even if we question his divine calling, we find the life style in the first two
sections of his life quite acceptable. His humility and seeming sincerity, his
marriage with Khadijah, his concern for widows and orphans, and his
devotion to Allah, all leave a favourable impression.
However, the last part of his life seems to be in stark contrast to the time before the
‘Hijrah’. Although loved by his immediate followers, he became a dictator who
knew how to eliminate any resistance to his demands. The ‘Ridda’, the rebellion
and apostasy of many after Muhammad’s death, strongly supports the fact that he
was not just followed voluntarily. The man of peace became a man of war. The
man devoted to one wife became a polygamist. The man, who humbly endured
persecution, became a persecutor.
When scrutinizing the part of the Qur’an, which was ‘received’ before the ‘Hijrah’
in Mecca, we find much of the message psalm-like and beautiful in diction and
style (though with repeated references to occult practices). The part added in
Medina lacks these qualities. It is rather like a string of commands and rules, often
threats, lacking the poetic charm.
Not only religion but also lust for booty (see ‘Jihad’) motivated his army, which
increased during this time from 100 to 10 000! Towards the end of Muhammad’s
life he acclaimed his religion to have been ‘perfected’. His power and authority
were no more questioned.
In the 6th year after the Hijrah, Muhammad and his followers attempted to go to
hostile Mecca to perform a pilgrimage. The Meccans, probably fearing a hidden
agenda, rejected this. However, they entered into a treaty with the Muslims to
allow them in the following year. The Meccans and the Muslims together drafted
the famous ‘Treaty of al-Hudaibiyah’. Consequently, in the 7th year after the
Hijrah, an Umrah (circumbulation) was performed. This relaxed the existing
tension between the Meccans and the Muslims.
The following years were filled with diplomatic activities. Letters demanding
submission to Allah were sent to rulers far and wide, including the Emperor of
Byzanz. The acceptance of the Ka’ba and the Hajj into Islam was also lessening
the tension with the Meccan adherents of the pagan religion. Even the leading
figure among the pagan Meccans, abu Sufyan, one of Muhammad’s fathers-in-law,
negotiated with him about the possible take-over of Mecca by the Muslims.
Subsequently, abu Sufyan took over a leading role in the expanding Islamic
Empire.
Then, in the 9th year AH, Muhammad approached Mecca with an army of 10 000.
The gates opened and Mecca was taken. Islam stayed there from that time on
(January, AD 630).
Two months later Muhammad performed what has been named his “Farewell
Pilgrimage”. In his famous speech during that occasion he said:
I leave with you two things; as long as you hold fast by them both,
 you will never be misguided - the Book of Allah and Sunnah (i.e.
the model, life style, example) of His Messenger.
al-Bukharí,Vol. 2, vs. 3-4; Vol. 9, p. 284; Mishkat 1, p. 159
Around the same time the Jewish settlement of Khaibar was unexpectedly attacked
and taken. One of the Jewish widows served Muhammad a poisoned, cooked kid
goat. Her treachery was noticed, but somewhat late, for Muhammad suffered from
the consequences of this poisoning until he died.
In AD 632 Muhammad died quite unexpectedly in Aisha’s arms after a

short, but severe sickness. It has been suggested that it could have resulted
from the poison swallowed at Khaibar. Only one daughter, Fatima,
survived him. His son Ibrahim, born by his concubine Mary, the Copt, had
died shortly before him at the tender age of fifteen months. Muhammad
was well loved and respected by his friends and followers. It seems that
they, as he, were convinced of his calling as a Messenger of Allah.
2.3.18 An Evaluation
Anyone who chooses to follow and obey a leader will have to weigh the pros and
cons before making a decision about the consequences. The possible risks involved
must be considered. When truth and eternal life are part of such an allegiance, it is
incumbent to be all the more circumspect. When we are told to follow in the
footsteps and live according to the guidance of a “spiritual leader”, our confidence
must not rest on emotions, but first and foremost on observed behaviour.
That includes a scrutiny of the quality of the life of such a leader. One should not
turn a deaf ear to negative reports, provided they are substantiated. One should also
be careful not explain away visible flaws. But most of all one must have a reliable
standard by which to measure right and wrong, good and evil. As Christians we use
the standard that is found in Jesus Christ. Our concept of what is moral and what
not, is determined by Scripture.
In the light of what has been presented above - even if the presentation were to be
considered somewhat biased and unfair and the positive side of Muhammad not
stressed enough - we find it very hard, indeed impossible - to accept Muhammad as
what he claims to be, namely the final prophet of God.

• The Life of Muhammad, Sir William Muir, AMS Press, New York, 1923, 550
pages. (probably the fairest and best biographical study available; a classic)
• The Life of Muhammad (Siratu’l Nabi), Ibn Ishaq, Oxford University Press
1978, 800 pages. (a biography collated and written by a man born about 50
years after the death of Muhammad)
• The Life of Muhammad, Ibn Hisham, Vol.1 + 2, Light of Life, 1997, 217
pages. (as above, but revised and expanded by Abd al-Masih)
• Muhammad at Mecca, W. Montgomery Watt, Oxford University Press 1953,
190 pages.
• Muhammad at Medina, W. Montgomery Watt, Oxford University Press 1956,
415 pages.
• Christians ask Muslims, Gerhard Nehls, LCA 1992, 140 pages. (deals in detail
with the collection of the Qur’an, its sources and the tradition in connection
with Muhammad’s life and evaluates some basic teachings in Islam, such as
Predestination, the Role of Women and the Sunnah principle. (pp. 66-88, 108-
123)
• The Origin of Islam in its Christian Environment, Richard Bell, Frank Cass &
Co, 1968, 220 pages.
• Christianity Among Arabs in Pre-Islamic Times, J. Spencer Trimmingham,
Librairie du Liban, 1990, 340 pages.
• Holy War in Islam, Abd Al-Masih, Light of Life, 71 pages.
• Ishmael, my Brother, compiled by Anne Cooper, MARC, Evangelical
Missionary Alliance, 1993, pp. 98-112.
• Muhammad, The Prophet of Islam, John Gilchrist, MERCSA, 1994, 142
pages. (endeavours to evaluate Muhammad objectively with the purpose of
getting as close to the original as possible. In addition to a biographical
record there are chapters analysing his personality, his prophetic experience
and his image in popular Islam.)
• Textbook of Islam Vol 1+2, M.A. Quraishy, 1989, The Islamic Foundation,
Kenya. (this widely accepted Islamic textbook presents Islam in a rather
idealistic manner. Students are taught about early Islam, teachings and
practices, Islamic theology and philosophy and some famous Muslims. Even
though we may not accept everything presented here we recommend it to
discover the Muslim perception about their religion. (Textbook I, pp. 1-82)
• The Great Deception, How Muhammad tried to win the Christians for Islam,
Abd Al-Masih, Light of Life, 1995, 179 pages. (this exegesis of Surah 3:33-66
documents Muhammad’s encounter with a Christian delegation and how he
argued to win them for Islam without compromising his authority. Muslim
attitudes towards Christians are still affected by this approach)
• Handout: A Comparison between Muhammad and Jesus, LCA.
52
3 History-makers Shaping Nations

3.1 The Khalifs (Khalifahs)
The early history of Islam after the death of Muhammad is one of
successful wars and victories on the one hand, but hatred, dissension,
jealousy, intrigue and deceit on the other. After the demise of Muhammad,
the inner circle of the ‘Sahaba’, his closest associates, were unprepared for
this new situation. A successor was needed to avoid the collapse of the new
religious theocracy, which as yet had no Scripture, law or other formulated
constitution. Since Muhammad was viewed to be unique in his office as a
Messenger of Allah, a ‘Khalif’, a successor, would have to fill another
position. It was to be a ‘Commander of the Faithful’. There were three
possible successors: Ali, who was a nephew of Muhammad and his son-in-
law, being the only blood relative, was one option, and Abu Bakr and
Umar, the closest companions of Muhammad, who were also his fathers-in-
law, were the others.
Ali seems to have coveted this office, but after some internal manipulation
Abu Bakr (10-12 AH; AD 632-634) was appointed first Khalif, but he died
after only two years of reign. He
was predictably succeeded by Muhammad’s successors
Umar (12-22 AH; AD 634-644),
Abu Bakr AD 632 – 634
who was assassinated by an Iraqi Umar AD 634 – 644
slave while at prayer in the Uthman AD 644 – 656
mosque. He was probably the Ali AD 656 – 661
most gifted and respected of the
early Khalifs, and under his leadership the Arab Empire grew vastly.
Uthman (22-34 AH; AD 644-656) took over the leadership from Umar in
the face of much internal opposition. By trying to unify the disparate
components of the Empire, which was made up of independence-loving
Arabs, he fell into disfavour, particularly for his revision of the Qur’an (see
chapter ‘The Revision of the Qur’an) and was assassinated in a gruesome
fashion. He was not even allowed to be buried in the Muslim cemetery. His
wife, with some of his friends, buried him by night in the Jewish cemetery
without the ritual washings, amidst the curses of Muslims, who pelted
History-makers Shaping Nations 53
stones at them. Khalif Ali was the last of the so-called ‘four rightly guided’
Khalifs.
Soon after the news of Muhammad’s death had made the rounds, a falling
away from Islam began. It is called the ‘Ridda’. Several other ‘prophets’
contested Islam and its new leaders. It was one of the first tasks of the
Khalifs to regain control.
Then two men, Talha and al-Zubair, with the support of Aisha, rebelled
against Ali. The resulting ‘Battle of the Camel’ saw 10 000 Muslims
slaughtered. Ali and his troops won, but soon faced another contender,
Mu’awiya, the Governor of Syria, who accused him, as did Aisha, of
complicity in the assassination of Uthman. Another battle resulted again in
tremendous loss of life
and ended without a
decisive victory.
Mu’awiya and Ali agreed
to appoint arbiters and to
abide by their suggested
solution. This strongly
undermined the authority
of Ali, who eventually
was assassinated by one
of his disillusioned
followers.
3.1.1 The Early Expansion of Islam

The Byzantine Empire was defeated by the Muslim army at the Battle of
Yarmuk in AD 636, Jerusalem was taken in AD 638, the Persian Empire
was defeated at Nihavand in AD 641, and in Alexandria (North Africa) in
AD 640-641. All this happened within 9 years of the death of Muhammad.
Superior military techniques, the use of horses and camels, the incentive of
booty, and finally the superior motivation and enthusiasm of an up-coming
Arab nation, made the victories over decadent systems of ailing nations
inevitable.
In the beginning Islam was considered to be a kind of Jewish-Christian

sect. The Copts of North Africa regarded the Muslims as liberators from the
yoke of Byzantine, and they aided the Muslims in waging their war.
Under the early Khalifs, Mecca and Medina were the most important
centers. Under Mu’awiya, the founder of the so-called Ummayad Dynasty,
the center of the Islamic Empire was shifted from Medina to Damascus.
Soon this expanded as far as India, the Southern states of the former Soviet
Union and as far as the Chinese border, Spain and even Southern France.
At the Battle of Tours and Poitiers (AD 732) the Franks under the
leadership of Charles Martel turned the tide and the Muslim forces had to
withdraw to behind the Pyrenees, a mountain range separating France from
Spain.
Freedom of religion’ was granted to Jews and Christians by the Muslim
conquerors, but conversions from Christianity and Judaism to Islam were
allowed and encouraged. Conversions from Islam to Christianity, however,
were subject to the death penalty. A Muslim who testified to his faith in
Christ as saviour would at once become guilty of apostasy (‘irtidad’), the
unforgivable sin in
Islam, and would Islamic Dynasties
thus be liable to the
Name Era Capital Significance
death penalty. This
law for apostates is Ummayad 660 – 750 Damascus ‘Golden Age’ era
still in force, Abbasid 750 – 1258 Baghdad Crusades interlude
although it is not Ottoman 1300 – 1918 Istanbul Decline of power
really practiced in
most Islamic countries today. In the conquered territories the Arabic
language usually became the official medium of communication. Only
Turkey and Persia resisted this policy of Arabisation successfully.
The significance of Persia turning to Islam was that a mature culture, which
could well be considered superior to contemporary European culture and
science, was incorporated into Islam. Under Islam, during the Middle Ages,
philosophy (a revival of Greek philosophy), the sciences, particularly
medicine, mathematics and astronomy, all reached great heights. Names
like al-Kindi, al-Arabi, Avicenna (Ibn-Sina) and Averroes (ibn-Rashid)
earned fame far beyond their Muslim homelands. The Arabs became in
more than one way the mentors of Europe in its “Dark Ages.” Muslims
understood how to preserve and revive the cultural heritage of subject
nations and successfully synthesized a new Islamic culture.
During this dispensation, some 3 200 churches were destroyed or converted
into mosques in the Middle East. The population, initially 90% Christian,
eventually became largely Muslim. It seems that social and economic
advantages were the main incentives for their conversion. Biased by
tradition as we are, it is perhaps difficult for us to accept that conversions
from Christianity to Islam did not generally happen by physical force. The
Coptic, Syrian and Orthodox churches were allowed to practice their
religion, but were forbidden to conduct any missionary activities among
Muslims.
3.2 The Dynasties

3.2.1 The Ummayad Dynasty
After the death of Ali, Al-Hassan, the older son of Ali, become Khalif (41
AH). Since his lifestyle was beyond his means, he sold his Khalifat to
Mu’awiya under the condition that it would be returned to him after
Mu’awiya’s death. It has been recorded that Hassan went through 100
divorces, in spite of the fact that he entertained a Harem. Mu’awiya
accepted the condition, but appointed his son Yazid as his successor, who
had Hassan poisoned by the hand of one of his wives. The condition was
that Yazid would marry her in exchange, which he however refused to do.
To correct this act of treason, Ali’s second son, Hussein, was appointed
counter-Khalif by the Iraqis, but then killed by Yazid’s troops at Kerbela
(about 100km south of Baghdad).
This caused a split in Islam. Those who sided with Ali and his sons, whom
they declared the only legitimate Khalifs, because of their blood-
relationship to Muhammad, are now known as the Shi’ah (= ‘followers’)
Muslims. The much bigger group of Muslims (today about 80%) are known
as Sunni (= ‘followers of the Sunnah13) Muslims.
13
Sunnat or Sunnah = copying of the lifestyle of Muhammad
The assassination of Hussein is still remembered annually in a Memorial

Day among the Shi’ah Muslims. The Shi’ah venerate twelve Khalifs,
beginning with Ali and ending with a Mohammed, or ‘Imam al-Mahdi’.
According to Shi’ah belief, he still lives (since AD 873) in obscurity to
reappear in the last days as the Mahdi, foretold by Muhammad to come
before judgement day.
By now a hereditary Khalifat had been established. The Ummayad Dynasty
ruled the Islamic Empire from Damascus for 90 years to AD 749, when all
the Ummayad family were murdered, excepting Abd-ar-Rahman, who fled
to Spain and founded an independent Ummayad Dynasty there.
By AD 711 Islam had spread all over North Africa and Spain, and in 717-
718 it began to overrun France.
Already at this early stage there was a decrease in piety. Luxurious palaces
were built, and it is said of the Khalifs Yazid I and II, that they were
‘passionate friends of sport, music and lady singers’. A general spiritual
and moral decline had begun.
3.2.2 The Abbaside Dynasty

The Abbaside Dynasty
succeeded the
Ummayad Dynasty,
and lasted from 750 to
1258. Abdul Abbas, a
descendant of an uncle
of Muhammad,
became Khalif in Kufa
after the last
Ummayad Khalif,
Marwan, had been
defeated.
Under the Abbaside rule, the dominance of the Quraish (the tribe of
Muhammad) was terminated. Baghdad became the new capital of Islam.
The Khalifs, and later the Sultans, were autocratic rulers. Baghdad, initially
a small village, was built by forced labour into a great city, with palaces,
mosques and impressive government buildings. The Persian tradition of

court ceremony was adopted. After his death, Abdul Abbas was succeeded
by his brother, and he, in turn, by his sons, al-Mahdi and al-Hadi, and
thereafter by the famous Harun-al-Rashid (AD 786). Under these rulers the
greatest heights of power, economy and culture were experienced. Then a
decline set in, which eventually led to the total destruction of this empire
under Dhingis Khan in the 13th century.
The Sunni Saljuk Turks from central Asia were a threat to the Abbaside
Empire and were rapidly gaining power and control over Persia, Iraq, Syria,
and Palestine. As early as the years 1071 - 1076 Seljuk Turks had
conquered Armenia, Byzantium and the whole of Asia Minor, where their
descendants still live.
The Crusades
In 1009 al-Hakim, who was a Fatimid Khalif of Egypt, ordered many
churches to be destroyed, among them the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in
Jerusalem, which was then under his rule. Christians in general and
pilgrims in particular, including Jews, were molested and subjected to
humiliating treatment.
This triggered the first Crusade in 1095. By 1097, some 50,000 men,
mostly Francs and Normans, assembled at Constantinople and from there
marched through Asia Minor - now called Turkey - to the ‘Holy Land’. The
Crusades continued, sometimes more, sometimes less extensively, for a
period just short of 200 years.
When the ‘Saracens’, the Muslims, committed the atrocities against
Christian pilgrims, Pope Urban II proclaimed the first Crusade in 1095.
Great riches were promised to those who would survive, and plenary
absolution, a direct pass to heaven, should they die, was the incentive to go
on a Crusade. This does not sound unlike the promises made to Muslim
suicide bombers these days, but it was not backed by biblical promises.
After first conquering Antioch, the Crusaders pressed on to conquer
Jerusalem, which was accomplished in 1099. As customary in those times,
unbelievable atrocities were committed. When a town called Ma’arrat
Nu’man was conquered, over 100,000 people were killed and the town
burnt to the ground. Jerusalem fared little better. 65,000 - 70,000 were
slaughtered at the al-Aqsa mosque.

Heaps of heads and hands and feet were to be seen
throughout the streets and squares of the City.
Agiles p. 259 according to ‘History of the Arabs’ by P. K.
Hitti
Not much Islamic territory was conquered though. The knights were
satisfied to secure the ‘holy places’ and fortified places along the
Mediterranean coast for their defence. In real terms the Crusaders were
hardly more than a nuisance to the Muslims.
The Crusades
Sequence Duration Significance
1. 1096 – 1099 Pope Urban II
2. 1147 – 1149 Pope Eugene III
3. 1189 – 1191 Pope Gregory VIII (Saladin)
4. 1202 – 1204 Pope Innocent III (Constantinopel)
5. 1228 – 1229 Kaiser Frederic II
6. 1248 – 1254/70 King Louis IX
7. 1291 Fall of Acre
It needs to be said that the Muslims at that time devoted more efforts to
peacetime activities than to war, even establishing friendly relations
between Muslims and the Crusaders during the 200 years of their presence.
At that time a young Kurdish man who had advanced to leadership in
Egypt, helped overthrow the Fatimid dynasty. He became a powerful leader
who united under his rule Egypt and the Northern Arab lands. His name
was Salah-al-Din, better known as Saladin. He reconquered Jerusalem and
many of the coastal fortifications from the Crusaders (1187 - 1189), and
proved to be a man of stature. This sparked off another Crusade, which was
led by Frederick Barbarossa, who drowned en route in 1190.
After the death of Saladin the country was divided among his mediocre
leaders, who lost Jerusalem again (1229), but jealousy and dissention
among the Crusaders eroded their strength and unity. In 1244 Jerusalem fell
again to the Muslims, this time for good. The deathblow to the Crusaders
was given by al-Malik al-Zahir Baybars, a Mamluke (also a Turkish people
group) who previously had stopped the Mongols from conquering the
Middle East. He destroyed the venerated Church of Nativity in Nazareth.
Caesarea capitulated under the condition that its 2,000 knights would be
spared. Despite the Muslims’ promise, they were all executed. When
Antioch fell to the Muslims, 16.000 Christians were slaughtered and
100.000 are recorded as being sold as slaves.
A senseless venture, costing hundreds of thousands of lives, and inflicting
untold misery to millions, all in the name of religion, and under the symbol
of the cross, had ended. Had these lives been invested in evangelizing the
Muslims, the world would look different today.
We know of only one or two men, who seem to have chosen a different
course: Francis of Assissi and, somewhat later, Raymond Lull (1232 –
1315). We are told that during the Crusades, Francis crossed the enemy
lines and was led on his request to the Sultan of Cairo, al-Kamil, a nephew
of Saladin. Francis witnessed to him about Christ for a considerable time,
and apparently the Sultan listened well to the Gospel, without embracing it,
however. Al-Kamil then offered Francis a large amount of money to aid his
efforts, which he declined before returning to the Crusaders.
The Crusades not only failed, but also left a legacy of bitter enmity between
Muslims and Christians, still felt today. This era is a very sensitive chapter
in the relationship between Muslims and Christians.
Obviously, the Crusades were and are variously interpreted. Present-day
Christians feel deeply about them and condemn them as completely against
the spirit of Christ, and surely not without reason. However, one has to
consider the contemporary worldview and situation and the initial provocation in
order to form a balanced opinion14.
14
See “Islam In Conflict” by Peter Riddell & Peter Cotterell, 2003, pp. 95-102, for more
details
3.2.3 Medieval Islamic Expansion

At the beginning of the Crusades the ‘House of Islam’ had expanded to the
East beyond the Indus River deep into India, and North into Central Asia,
particularly east of the Caspian Sea. In the West, it was established all
along North Africa and in Spain. Asia Minor had been the most recent
acquisition of the Muslims.
All these areas were gained by armed conquest. Many were traditionally
‘Christian’ countries, e.g. Spain, North Africa, Asia Minor and Northern
and Southern Arabia.
3.2.4 The Ottoman Empire

Emir Osman I founded the Ottoman Empire in 1301. After the massacre of
the last Abbaside Khalif and all his relatives, Turks from near the Caspian
Sea began to build a new Islamic Empire on the ruins of the declining
Byzantine Empire. The new Sultans assumed the Khalifat and eventually
controlled almost the whole of North Africa, the Near East and the Balkans.
India was overrun and the Mogul Empire founded there. Also a peaceful
penetration of the East Indies (Indonesia and Malaysia) and the Southern
part of the Philippines took place, bringing Islam to these countries.
In 1453 Constantinople, formerly Byzantium (now Istanbul), fell to the
Muslims. In 1529 the Turks (Muslims) besieged Vienna, the very gateway
to central Europe. The military power rested on the strong armies of the
autocratic Sultans. The core of these consisted of the Janissaries (every fifth
Christian boy child had to be given to the Islamic state to be trained as
fanatical Muslim soldiers), and 20 000 Russian and African slaves. (“DTV
Atlas Zur Weltgeschichte”, p. 209)
Heavy taxes supplied the necessary finance for such an army. Nevertheless,
decline set in as a result of corruption, revolts and schisms (Persia and the
Balkan states regained their independence; Egypt fell under Napoleons
domination etc.). The Ottoman Empire disintegrated at the end of World
War I, in which the Ottoman Empire fought as an ally to Germany and the
Austria-Hungarian Empire.
3.2.4.1 The Colonial Era

In the Middle Ages the sciences and arts flourished in Muslim countries,
especially in Spain. However with the advent of the Turk invasion from
Central Asia, there was a marked deterioration of civilization. The
‘Christian’ West overtook the Islamic East in the scientific fields and
Muslim lands became increasingly irrelevant, also politically.
The Colonial era in the Middle East began with the expansion of the
Ottoman (Turkish) Empire. At its height (1550), it ruled practically the
whole of North Africa excluding Marocco and Algeria, the Western part of
the Arabian Peninsula including Mecca and Medina, the whole of Palestine
and what is now Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, the western part of Iran and,
of course, Turkey. In addition it included the Balkans. Parts of Russia,
including Crimea, were annexed.
Early in the 19th Century Napoleon conquered Egypt and briefly controlled
it. This proved to be a blessing in disguise, for it led to the opening of
Egypt to contact with the West, and marked the introduction of printing to
the Arab world. It also marked the beginning of the modern education
system there. Parallel to Egypt, the Lebanese part of the Ottoman Empire
opened its borders to Western influence, since the majority of the
population was Maronite-Catholic.
British, French, Dutch and Portuguese and to a lesser degree also German
colonial efforts brought the Middle East, India, which then included
Pakistan and Bangladesh, South-East Asia and Africa, under their
respective control. At the end of World War I (1918), the Ottoman Empire
broke up to form new countries, which were established under the League
of Nations.
Colonialism proved to be a humiliating experience, which created
resentment and left a bitter taste with these now independent states. Foreign
rule always affects a nation’s pride, particularly when the rulers belong to a
different faith. Colonialism was no invention by the European powers,
though. Muslims were colonialists long before them. One will hardly ever
hear or read comments on the Ottoman (Turkish) imperialism, which lasted
some 400 years until 1918. The colonization of Muslims by ‘Christians’
was quite an affront to the self-worth of these peoples and consequently
effected an aversion toward the religion of the foreign rulers, something

that is still evident today. Many interpreted this as an indication of the
superiority of Christianity over Islam.
3.2.5 Islam In The Modern Age

The independence of the Middle Eastern countries roughly coincided with
the discovery of oil in some of these. The resulting wealth led to very
considerable economic power and influence. It is understandable that this,
almost immediately, led to a re-awakening of religious consciousness.
Muslims now experience the removal of the domination of foreign powers
with their foreign religion as a victory. In addition, the new wealth, and
with that status, is seen as a confirmation of Allah’s presence and
superiority after all. Eventually this led to the Iranian revolution and the
resurgence of the Islam of today. However this new wealth proves to be a
mixed blessing. Islamic communities are experiencing the influx of
Western technology, Western morals and values which are being imported
into their countries. TV and the Internet open up formerly closed countries.
Islam’s response to the impact of modernity will be a crucial issue in its
future. The fundamentalists’ struggle and militancy are quite obviously, at
least partially, a negative response and directed at the Western system of
thought, which by many is perceived to be Christian.
3.2.5.1 The History Of Islam In Africa

We cannot close our eyes to the fact that the impact of Islam is no longer
restricted to the Arab-speaking countries north of the Sahara, but its weight
is also greatly felt in the 47 countries of West-, Central-, East- and Southern
Africa. To be more precise: there are more Muslims living in the sub-
Saharan region (about 180 Million in 2002) than in the traditional Islamic
states of North-Africa (about 130 Million). How and when did this happen?
Has the prophet from the desert won the hearts of Black Africans as much
as the people of the Arab-speaking world?
Since its earliest days (even before AD 622) Muslim believers have made
Africa their home. The first 150 followers of Muhammad came as refugees
who were welcomed by the ruler of Abyssinia (Ethiopia).
“Islam reached Africa through two gateways, from East and the North.
From both directions the carriers of Islam navigated across vast empty
spaces, the waters of the Indian Ocean, and the desert sands of the Sahara.”
(Levtzion and Pouwels: 1)
Conquest by force was by no means the only method of building a power
base on the vast African continent. Other factors that contributed
considerably to the spread of Islam were trading enterprises, including the
infamous slave raiding in Eastern and Central Africa, and forced and free
migration to and from the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian subcontinent and
the Far East (Malays to the Cape of Good Hope in the late 17th century).
Conversion to Islam also came about through the influence of powerful
Sufi leaders (especially in West Africa), or the persuasion of African chiefs
and kings to embrace the new religion and thus transforming their states
into an Islamic community.
Trimingham points out seven major Islamic Culture Areas in Africa that
were established over the Centuries: Egypt, the Maghrib (Western wing of
North Africa), Western, Central, Eastern (Sudan, Ethiopia) Africa, the Horn
of Africa (Somalia) and Swahili (East African Coast ruled from Zanzibar
island). In all of these areas Islam played the dominating role or represented
significant minorities, influencing the progress of the people in these areas.
The spread of Islam was, however, not accomplished by a steadily growing
impact, but rather in periodic waves, at times perhaps rather bursts, setting
free the explosive energy of an ‘Islamic volcano’.
Islam has vowed to make Africa the first Islamic continent and few would
dare to keep their eyes closed to the undeniable advances made by Muslims
to accomplish that goal. Christians in every country need to come to terms
with the Islamic challenge and determine for themselves what answers and
provision God has given them to share the risen Jesus Christ with the
followers of Islam. If census figures are to be trusted, Ghana seems to set
an example, where the Muslim population decreased by 25% during the last
decade.
3.3 The Changing Face Of Islam

3.3.1 The Socio-Economic Leap
The economic systems of all Muslim nations are presently undergoing
changes both in form and content. Even in countries like Saudi Arabia, this
socio-economic leap is visibly experienced. The process of secularization
and the material prosperity, which resulted from the oil revenue, are a
powerful influence. Secular education, technological advancement,
urbanization with the resulting loss of identity, modernization as well as
vocational success and wealth mould the minds and lives of many Muslim
people everywhere. It can hardly be predicted where this will lead. Fear of
the Islam of tomorrow causes religious leaders to struggle with the issue of
a Muslim identity, particularly in countries where Muslims are exposed to a
Western value system.
Western goods including luxury items are invading the markets and are
advertised in TV commercials. Material prosperity promises not only
comfort, but also means success, and success means power and self-
confidence. The pull of all this is very strong for any group and also for
Muslims.
Of interest is the footnote to a Hadith about ‘the present English-educated
Muslims’:
Muslims are now following the Christians and Jews step by step
 in dress, manners, eating, talking and in every particulars. The

influence of these two nations (sic) have caught the imagination
of the upper-class Muslims so much so that even Arabia, the
cradle of Islam, could not but be a prey to these tendencies.
Mishkat Vol. 1, p. 170, Fn. 106
Forces of change are present all over the world. Islam grapples with the
impact of changes on its religious structure and its practice. Christianity
had to face ‘modernity’, which challenged the Bible as Scripture,
questioned the historicity of the Bible and its sources, and was able to
convince many nominal Christians that faith in the truth of Scripture is an
outmoded belief. Islam is facing these forces now.
3.3.2 Modernity
So far Islam has vehemently and relatively successfully resisted the forces
of modernity and its attempt to secularize religion. It did not permit text-
critical work on the Qur’an or the Hadith. Unlike the biblical texts, the
Islamic scriptures will be doomed by a text-critical analysis. But with the
essential opening of the Islamic markets and society to the Western world
with its information explosion, Muslims will not escape the exposure of
their scripture’s multiple deficiencies. Fear of that process may delay, but
cannot stop a critical assessment of Islam even from among their own
members.
3.3.3 Fundamentalism
The strongest resistance against progress comes from the orthodox and
‘fundamentalist’ lobbies. To stress the maintenance of traditional forms is
one attempt to ward off ‘outside’ influences. Any innovation (bid’aa) or
change will be seen as a threat to the established rule of the Shariah. Will
orthodox Islam with the majority of rural Muslims who are part of the
traditional hierarchy and structure be able to maintain the status quo?
Unwillingness to succumb to a world that is constantly changing will yield
one of two reactions. The West is viewed by many Muslims as utterly
corrupt and by that the greatest moral opponent to Islam. Its advances must
be stopped at any cost. Many Muslims have been persuaded to fight what
seems to them to be threatening progress, if considered necessary by force.
A multitude of Islamic Jihad groupings do that. They are called
‘fundamentalists’ or ‘Islamists’.
3.3.4 Liberal Muslims

Many Muslims begin to rebel at least inwardly against demands of the
Shariah to conform to its often medieval concepts. Others, like many in
Iran and Afghanistan, are so shocked about a repressive expression of their faith,
that they reject allegiance to such a backward religion altogether. Many a Muslim
in recent decades has encountered tremendous confusion and bitter
disappointments with his religious institutions, and their leaders.
3.3.5 The Other Option

With such disappointments, fears and confusion in their hearts and minds a
number of Muslims have independently begun to search for the meaning
and purpose of life. Actually several factors need to be considered as one
reflects on what causes Muslims to turn from Islam to Christ (see ‘Called
from Islam to Christ’, by Jean-Marie Gaudeul) Dr Gaudeul investigated
hundreds of conversions from Islam to the Christian faith. He grouped
these under five headings:
o Those who feel drawn by Jesus’ personality
o Those looking for inner certainty
o Those who discover a community of believers in Christian churches
o Those who seek forgiveness and are drawn to the central message of the
Gospel
o Those who hunger for a personal experience of God in prayer
Dr. Malek adds his own observation: “Muslims themselves are looking at
things in new ways. People who once clung to long-lasting traditions now
have different attitudes...The face of Islam is indeed changing. Christians
need to understand what is happening and what positive benefits it can have
for Christian witness.” (‘Islam – Introduction and Approach’, by ICI)
3.4 The Sects within Islam

Anyone studying the history of Islam will soon become disillusioned about
the much-acclaimed unity within Islam. As we have seen earlier it did not
take long before Muslims took up arms against each other, slaughtering
ther opponents in the name of Allah. In one such battle (the Battle of
Siffien), hard-pressed Muslim soldiers on the one side decided to stick
pages of the Qur'an to the points of their swords hoping to overcome their
opposing brothers. It actually worked, for who would dare to fight against
‘the very word of Allah’! Today we find many groupings, and even within
the members of individual mosques we may find strong controversies and
each other opposing factions.
It is noteworthy that already Muhammad seems to have anticipated the
break-up of his followers into sects. A Hadith states:
If the people of Isra’il were fragmented into seventy-two sects
 my Ummah will be fragmented into seventy-three sects. All of

them will be in Hell Fire except one sect. They (the
Companions) said: Allah’s Messenger, which is that?
Whereupon he said: It is one to which I and my companions
belong.
Tirmizi, Hadith 171

The number has, however, far exceeded the Prophet’s
predictions, for the sects of Islam even exceed in number and
variety those of the Christian religion. In order to fulfil the
prophecies of Muhammad, the Ghyasu’l-Lughat divides the 73
into six groups of twelve sects (= 72) and adds a number 73, the ‘najiya’ (those
being saved), i.e. the Sunnis. Dictionary of Islam, pp. 567-569
Many attempts have been made to list these 72 sects with very different
results. None but the latest, however, mentions the Ahmediyas, the Babists
and Bahais. Admittedly most of these sects have relatively minor
theological differences, but so too have most of the Christian
denominations. A brief look into some of these sects will suffice.
3.4.1 The Sunnis

This Arabic word means: “One of the Path”, those who follow the Sunnah.
These are Muslims who acknowledge the first four Khalifs to have been
rightful successors of Muhammad. They accept the Sihahu's Sittah, or six
authentic AHadith, and belong to one of the four schools of jurisprudence
(Abu Hanifa, ash-Shafi’i, Malik or Ahmad-ibn-Hanbal). They represent the
overwhelming majority of the Muslim population, around 80%. Yet, as it
was in the beginnings of Islam, so today we find at times bitter enmity
between the ‘fundamentalists’ and the moderates even among the
‘fundamentalists’ themselves. A look at the Palestinian and wider Middle
Eastern situation and Afghanistan alone demonstrates this vividly. Even
within a congregation of a mosque we can find bitter disputing. Although
this may not be all that unusual in a church congregation, the verbal abuse
in a mosque can well exceed our imagination.
The spiritual centers of the Sunni are the al-Azar university in Cairo and the
University of Medina.
3.4.2 The Shi’ah

Meaning: “Followers”, i.e. of Ali
They believe in the hereditary succession of Khalifs. Consequently, they
believe Ali, the nephew and son-in-law of Muhammad to have been the
first rightful Khalif, and his sons (one of whom was assassinated, and the
other abdicated the throne) should have succeeded him. They base this
claim on Surah 2:124: “He said: ‘I will make thee an Imam to the Nations’.
He pleaded: ‘And also (Imams) from my offspring’!”
Many of their own AHadith are quoted by the Shi’ah to support their case.
According to tradition, the twelfth in the hereditary line, Imam-al-Mahdi (a
kind of Messiah), is still alive and hiding to appear before judgment.
The Shi’as have again split up into many splinter groups. The Ismailis play
a dominant role in East Africa. They are decidedly less fanatical than the
Iranian Shi’ah Muslims, and more devoted to philanthropic work. Their
spiritual leader is the Agha Khan who has become a well-respe
international figure.
The center of Shiite activity is in Iran where the ‘Ayatollah’ (lit. ‘sign of
Allah’) Khomeini established a new base for a Shiite Islamic missionary
thrust which is felt in almost every corner of Africa today. Even in a small
place like Lamu, known as ‘the Mecca of East Africa’ Iranian Shiite
influence and finance has gained control over one of the oldest and largest
mosques on the island; a power struggle that is quite typical for many parts
of Africa today.
3.4.3 The Mutazilah

The name means ‘Separatists’. This was a very powerful theological lobby
dating back to the very early period of Islam, but is an extinct sect. It was
founded in AD 732. The Mutazilah rejected all eternal attributes to Allah,
and regarded the Qur'an as created and not eternally pre-existing, as the
orthodox do. In contrast to traditional Islam, they also rejected the Islamic
doctrine of predestination.
They correctly reasoned: “In that case God must be the author of evil!”
Consequently, they believed in the free will of man, and that a believer,
when he commits a grievous sin and dies without repentance, is lost.
The Mutazilah maintained that His righteousness would limit the
omnipotence of God and therefore restrain himself to act within his own
ethical norms. Their opponents heavily criticized this point.
After approximately 100 years of sometimes severe persecution, the
Mutazilah movement was suppressed.
3.4.4 The Wahhabi

Abd’ul Wahhabi was born AD 1691 and advanced to be a diligent scholar
of Islam in Mecca, Basra and Baghdad. He became a reformer within Islam
who rejected all occult practices like the acceptance of omens, all auguries
(divination by omens), the worship at ‘sacred’ shrines and tombs, the
smoking of intoxicating drugs, as well as the fine clothing of the wealthy.
His aim was to revert Islam to its original form. Although he had a devoted
following, the rulers opposed him. Asylum was granted to him by
Muhammed-ibn-Sa’ud, an influential chief in Arabia. Wahhabi was
determined in the pursuance of his aims, and let the sword do what could
not be accomplished by eloquence. Sa’ud married Wahhabi’s daughter, and
their son, Abd-ul-Aziz, led the Wahhabi army to victory over Arabia.
However, he was murdered while praying, and his son, also named Sa'ud,
continued to lead the Wahhabi movement to prominence, threatening the
whole Turkish Empire. His aim was the conversion of the whole world to
Islam. The battle cry of the Wahhabi was “Kill and strangle all infidels,
who add companions to Allah”. This, no doubt, included Jesus.
In the early 19th Century Mecca the Wahhabi in undertook a forceful
reform. Whips were used to drive the people to the mosques to attend the
five daily prayers. But Sa'ud's son was taken prisoner by the Turks and
executed in Istanbul. Even so, the Wahhabi influence is still strong, not
only in Arabia and Northern India, but even worldwide.
3.4.5 The Ahmadiyya

The Ahmadiyya are a sectarian group founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
(1865-1908 in the Punyab, then India), who claimed to have been called as
a prophet. The Ahmadiyyas differ from the teachings of traditional Islam,

in that they do not believe in miracles. While the Qur’an denies the
Crucifixion of Jesus, Mirza Ahmad said, that Christ was actually on the
cross, but was taken down unconscious, but alive, nursed to full health and
then migrated to Srinagar in Kashmir, where he died in old age. His
supposed grave there is on display. Ahmad claimed to be the expected
Mahdi or Messiah, “the one expected by all nations in whom the return of
Christ is symbolized.” His followers call him Khalifa. They are very
missionary-minded, have a more intellectual approach than their Sunni
counterparts and make extensive use of literature. Consequently they have
pursued the translation of the Qur'an into various African languages even
before the Sunnis ever permitted such translations. In an attempt to make
Islam palatable to modern man, they appear to be open minded and offer
socialism as an Islamic tenet, ‘an economic principle already practiced for
1 300 years’. Monogamy is also advocated. Ahmadiyyas are totally rejected
by the rest of the Muslim world as sectarians and not considered to be part
of Islam.
3.4.6 The Bahai

This movement was founded by Mirza Hussein-ali-Nuri (1817-1892). He
came from Persia and called himself the “Shrine of God.” In his book
"Kitab-al-akdas" he even attains the title “a Radiation from God.” Claiming
his teaching to be universal, he promoted mutual love and good works to
introduce a universal language and religion. He proclaimed himself to be
the returning Christ, the reincarnation of Krishna, the fifth Buddha and the
embodiment of Hussein, the son of Ali. He died after twenty-eight years of
imprisonment. (“Der Islam” by Kellerhals, pp. 119+120). Bahai is an
accommodating, universalistic and strongly occult sect with a relatively
small following. Obviously, Islam does not recognize it as part of its
religion.
3.4.7 The Tabligh Movement

This is a recent addition to the Sufi movement and has gained worldwide
significance. It calls itself the ‘jamiah tabligh’. It originates from and is
well established in India, but deleloped several beachheads on the African
continent. The meaning of ‘tabligh’ is ‘propaganda, particularly of the

religious sort’ (B. Jones) or the ‘endeavour for the revival and regeneration
of faith’ (S. Nadwi). The founder Maulana Mohammad Ilyas (1885-1944)
claimed to present “a living force in almost every country where Muslims
live, thus attracting millions of souls to its revolutionary program for total
rejection of all accretions and innovations; inculcating a living awareness
of God for leading a simple, unostentatious and truly Islamic way of life.”
(Nadwi)
A summary of the life-story of its founder and his ideals will throw some
light on the characteristics of this movement. Mohammad Ilyas was born as
the third son into a very religious family of Maulanas (‘learned man’,
Muslim doctor of law) and spent much of his childhood with his father at
the Sufi holy shrine of Nizam-ud-din in Delhi, India. Moreover his mother
is highly praised to have been a woman of great learning who not only had
committed the whole of the Qur’an to memory, but reportedly made it her
custom to recite the Qur’an forty times during the month of Ramadaan.
Apart from that practice during Ramadaan her daily routine of worship is
said to have included repeating ‘dhikr’ (a kind of ‘mantra’) (such as “Allah-
u-akbar” or “Bismillah ar-rahman, ar-rahim”) over 17,500 times daily! The
boy’s childhood was soon occupied with memorizing the Qur’an for
himself and to follow the example and instructions of several Sufi mentors
in India until he moved back to Nizamuddin to become Maulana in his own
right. His first mission was to a low-class farming community at the
outskirts of Delhi where at great personal cost he initiated hundreds of
religious schools for this partly Hindu, partly Islamic community. But it
was not before he returned from his second pilgrimage to Mecca at age 40
that he called upon others to support him in extensive tabligh tours
preaching and propagating the basic tenets of Islam, like kalima (creed) and
namaaz (ritual prayer). Muslim believers who responded to the call
immediately were drawn into Jama’ats (congregations) who in turn were
urged to set out on tabligh efforts to other towns and villages. This tabligh
ideal became the all-consuming purpose of his life, often knocking at the
doors of mosques until he received a favourable response to his appeal. He
was always prepared to give himself fully to his cause, no matter the cost.
“I believe it would be the worst kind of sin if I showed concern for my
well-being“, he once resumed. And even under great physical suffering
during the last months of his life his motto was: “Apart from the pain of
tabligh all is well with me”. He died at the age of 59 in July 1944 repeating
time and again the words of a prayer he had taught so many during his life:
“Oh Allah! Thy forgiveness is more extensive than mine iniquities and I
have better hope in Thy mercy than in my deeds.” Here he reckoned with a
Gospel, which Islam does not offer. One can only pray and wish that many a
Christian would show such zeal in response to what Christ has done for us!
Today the tabligh movement reportedly brings together hundreds of
thousand of volunteers (tablighis) from all corners of the world for mass
conventions in Pakistan, which has become the heartland of the movement.
Tabligh missionaries are recruited during rallies in mosques. They are
challenged to commit themselves for extended periods of tabligh work in
other countries. Many zealous adherents readily volunteer to give their time
and resources as the writer (WE) has personally witnessed during an all-
night campaign in a mosque in Cape Town, South Africa.
Tabligh teaching consists of a myriad of moral appeals. Thousands of
fantastic stories about their religious heroes (the two major text-books
‘Faza’il-e-a’maal’ comprise some 2000 pages of such material) are to
remind today’s Muslims of an idealized early Islam. It is therefore not
surprising that many modern Muslims reject what they consider a backward
and primitive propaganda, which misrepresents true Islam.
3.4.8 Sufism
This is the mystical expression of Islam. Its various groups may be
pantheistic, ascetic (Fakir from Fakr = poor) and/or monastic. They all
seem to have a strong hinduistic element in their teaching and practice and
seem to have an affinity to the New Age perception, which they obviously
preceded. Small groups of disciples form themselves around a Shaikh
(guru), their spiritual leader. Motivated by fear of judgment, they seek to
mortify their bodies, purify their hearts, and show a desire for secluded
contemplation. Sufis try to flee from the ‘bad world’ into a union with God
by way of exercises that lead to ‘experiences’, followed by direct contact
and communication with Allah.
The components of Sufism are renunciation (‘holiness’ by personal effort)
and ecstasy. The aim is the ‘experience’ of ‘annihilation of self in god.’
This ‘experience’ is partly promoted by religious techniques, such as

rhythmic dancing, chanting and music (the dervishes). As Hindus use a
‘mantra’ - a kind of religious, secret word, which is to be repeated
thousands of times - Sufis use ‘dhikr’ (pronounced ‘zikr’), which has the
same function: to induce ecstasy. They aim is to 'see the inner light'.
Not unlike developments in the Church (Augustine, Master Eckehardt,
Thomas a Kempis and others) pious Muslim believers were so appalled by
the worldliness and pomp of (the Umayyad) Khalifs that they sought peace
of soul in a life of seclusion. These early Islamic mystics lived as hermits a
life of poverty and renunciation.
The desire for religious experiences often was and is a reaction to cold
orthodoxy and legalism within Islam. The highly regarded Qur’anic
scholar and philosopher, al-Ghazzali (AD 1056-1111), helped to make the
Sufi movement acceptable within traditional Islam.
The name Sufism may come from the word ‘suf’, which was a coarse
woolen cloak the Sufis wore, or perhaps from ‘safu’, which means purity,
or perhaps from the Greek word ‘sofia’, meaning wisdom, or ‘sufa’, an
Arabic tribe serving in the mosque in Mecca. In essence, Sufism always
existed. We see obvious parallels to Buddhism, Hinduism, the medieval
mystics of Europe, and even in the existentialism and certain 'charismatic'
movements of our time.
Sufism demands complete submission to a ‘guide.’ Somewhat illogically
even to their own perceptions, it claims that there is no difference between
good and evil, all is unity, and unity is God. The ‘guide’ determines the will
of his followers, who consequently have no responsibility of their own. The
body is seen to be the cage of the soul, so a devoted Sufi longs to die. His
journey begins as a searcher and then advances to a traveler. The following
stages are service, love, seclusion, knowledge, ecstasy and truth, union with
God and then extinction. The perfect man is one who has lost his identity.
Some monastic orders in Sufism live in community of property, including
their women. Others live with all types of vices, deeming the body, which
is defiled, as ‘only a miserable robe of humanity, which encircles the pure
soul.’
Understandably many Muslims are rather negative about the influence of
Sufism on the course of Islam. Dr. Isma’il al Faruqi comments:
Mysticism succeeded in reorientating the Muslims away from life,
 from the world, from reason and common sense, and delivered
them to introspective meditation. Mysticism dulled the Muslim
sense of realism and drew Muslims away from society, from their
businesses, even from their families. Instead of pursuing the will
of God as law, Sufism taught the Muslim to run after the dream of union with
God in gnosis, or ‘mystical experience’.
Islam, by Isma’il R. Al Faruqi, Argus Communications, Illinois
Having looked at the framework, we should, however, also take note of
intense sincerity and devotion by many a Sufi. An instance of history may
illustrate this best: Rabi’a was a Sufi mystic. She seems to be the only
recognized female Sufi saint. A slave girl from Basra (died in Jerusalem
AD 801), she so impressed her master by the sincerity of her ascetic mode
of life that he freed her to devote her days completely to the love of God.
She used to pray: “O my Lord, if I worship You from fear of hell, burn me
in hell. And if I worship You from hope of paradise, exclude me from it.
But if I worship You for Your own sake, then withhold not from me Your
Eternal Beauty.” We cannot, but admire such devotion.
Many of the early Sufis were men of remarkable wisdom, extraordinary
contentment, humility and humour. Some examples may illustrate this:
A Sufi teacher was once offered by one of his followers a bag containing
five hundred gold coins. “Have you any more money than this?” asked the
Sufi. – “Yes, I have.” – “Do you desire more?” – “Yes, I do.” – “Then you
must keep it, for you are more in need than I; for I have nothing and desire
nothing. You have a great deal and still want more.”
On a more humourous side, Hasan of Basra was once asked: “What is
Islam, and who are the Muslims?” to which he simply replied: “Islam is in
the books, and Muslims are in the tomb.”
Yet while some Sufis were men of great learning and wisdom others were
just seeking to enter a state of ecstasy aiming for the ultimate stage of
extinction or ‘annihilation of self in god.’ The recorded prayer of a man by
the name of Bayzid is typical for this mystical desire: “O God, how long
will there be ‘I’ and ‘Thou’ between me and you. Take this away, that my
‘I’ may become ‘Thou’, and ‘I’ be nothing.” He scandalized the orthodox
by exclaiming while in a state of ecstasy: “Glory to me! How great is my
majesty! Verily I am God, there is no god except me, so worship me”

(compare with Surah 21:25). That is pure Pantheism, of course, and not at
all in line with Islam.
It is therefore not surprising, that when Mansur al–Hallaj (died 922)
claimed: “I am the truth”, the orthodox Ulama were so outraged that he was
first imprisoned for 10 years, then crucified, and then dismembered alive.
In Africa Sufism has found its way from both the Indian subcontinent into
Southern and Eastern Africa, and via North Africa into West African
communities. Particularly in West Africa, a strong network of Sufi
brotherhoods (marabouts) has left a mark upon the political, communal and
religious face in the francophone countries.
Features among Sufis from the many brotherhoods were visions of the
Muhammad and at times of the founder of a particular ‘tariqa’ (as a Sufi
brotherhood is called), and at other times a supposedly direct revelation
from Muhammad.
In closing it must be mentioned that Sufis, being less orthodox, seem to be
more open to the Gospel than most other Muslims.
3.4.9 Folk Islam

Without any question what is termed ‘Folk Islam’ is the most popular
expression of religion in Islam. It would be wrong to call it a sect, for it
operates within, and is sanctioned by official Islam.
What is ‘Folk Islam’? It is a syncretism of Islam with the ‘natural religion’
of the people who originally turned to Islam. The basic religious elements
and practices of the pagan people were integrated with the new religion of
Islam. The forms of Islam and the practice of the Five Pillars may well be
observed everywhere, but in reality, belief in the spirit-world and practices
related to it, determine the actual faith and dependence. Ancestor
veneration and dependence, use of spells, charms and amulets and the
like, and dependence on Shamans, constitute the real religious life. Islam is
far more accommodating in this field than biblical Christianity could ever
be. For a pagan to become a Muslim, he really only needs no more than a
confession of faith in the existence of one God, and then say the shahada,
“There is no god except Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger.”
The Occult Aspect of Folk Islam

All pagan religions have an occult background. Spirit involvement and
ancestor worship - which amounts to much the same - is the dominating
factor in all tribal religion. Shamans (witchdoctors) claim to be in contact
with the spirit world in order to pacify or even manipulate spirits by their
magic influence. Spells, charms and amulets are used for protection against
negative forces from the spirit world. In order to assist a person seeking
freedom from bondage or sickness, Shamans will resort to the finding of
more potent charms or spells than those who caused their dilemma.
Subsequently the adherents to ‘natural religions’ are doomed to live under
constant fear of the spirit world and live in total dependency of the
Shamans.
Not counting a few exceptions like the Wahhabi, Islam has little reservation
toward the occult. It is either tolerated, accommodated or islamised. By that
they open wide the door to more spiritual bondage.
Islamic Shamans
All over Africa and Asia Shaikhs, Marabouts, Hajjis, Pirs, Walis, Imams or
whatever their title may be, act as Shamans. They use charms and amulets
and cast spells, just like the pagans, but do it in the name of Allah (the
practice of 'Mubahala' is outlined in the Qur'an in Surah 3:61). Shaikhs who
are considered powerful (!) are often consulted even after they have died;
especially so among the so-called ‘grave worshippers.’
May a few Hadith and their comments help us realize the occult practice
even commended by Muhammad himself:
Aisha reported that when any of the members of the household
 fell ill Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him) used to blow
over him by reciting Mu’awwidhatan, (the last two Surahs in the
Qur’an) and when he suffered from illness of which he died I
used to blow over him and rubbed his body with his hand for his
hand had greater power than my hand.
Sahih Muslim, Hadith 5432
Surahs 113 and 114 represent a kind of incantation for refuge from
witchcraft, from “the evil blowers upon knots” and “the evil sneaking
whisperer.”
The footnote (2578) explains:

That some words have the healing power is a fact which has
 been substantiated by evidence. This is the reason why

incantation (the practice of curing diseases and removing the evil
effect of magic) is almost universal. The mere fact that this
process is supersensory does not prove it to be a superstition.
There are so many facts for which no causative relationship can be traced in
the realm of physical world, but still they are facts. Same is the case with
incantation. Islam has, however, purged incantation from all evil practices. It
has forbidden the recitation of words and phrases which run counter to the
spirit of Islam and has exhorted its followers to recite the name of Allah and
some other verses of the Holy Qur’an, e.g. Surah al-Fatiha and Mu'awwidhatan
for the purpose of incantation.
To a Christian who has experience with the occult, this simply constitutes
“white” magic, i.e. the practice of witchcraft in the name of God instead of
the devil. It is still witchcraft, though.
Aisha reported that when any person fell ill with a disease or he
 had any ailment or he had any injury, the Apostle of Allah (may
peace be upon him) placed his forefinger upon the ground and
then lifted it by reciting the name of Allah (and said): The dust of
our ground with the saliva of any one of us would serve as a
means whereby our illness would be cured with the sanction of Allah.
Sahih Muslim, Hadith 5444
A footnote (2579) explains:

According to some scholars, it refers to the sacred dust of
 Medina on which had fallen the saliva of the pious Muslims.
We will be careful not to compare the happening of John 9:1-7 with the
above. There is a clear line of difference!
Aisha reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him)
 commanded the use of incantation for curing the influence of an

evil eye. Sahih Muslim, Hadith 5445
Incantation has a particular meaning: “Ritual recitation of magical words or

sounds, a magic spell.” (Collin's Dictionary)
Those who practice such, claim, like all spiritists, to be able to differentiate
between good and evil spirits or jinns. The Bible condemns such practices
altogether:
Let no one be found among you who ... practices divination or
 sorcery, interprets omens, engages in witchcraft, or casts spells,

or who is a medium or spiritist. Anyone who does these things
is detestable to the Lord. Deut. 18:10-12
Shaikhs, or any other person, may be ‘blessed’ with ‘karamat’, i.e. the gift
of power or miracle. After their demise their graves become centers of
pilgrimage and the visitors offer prayers and gifts, asking for intercession
or assistance.
Leaders within folk Islam in many countries are the Walis (= protector,
friend, benefactor). According to traditions (the Qur'an does not promote
this) there are always a number of Walis operating on earth. Others replace
those that die. One tradition discloses their numberto be 4 000.
Walis may be somewhat likened to ‘saints’. They claim to have the power
to bind and to loosen, to heal, speak a variety of languages, read thoughts,
practice telepathy and telekinesis (= psychic transportation of certain
objects), make rain and have psychic powers. Anyone even faintly
acquainted with demonology, will at once realize the source thereof: Satan
and his demons.
The author (GN) has at various occasions met Muslims, who were afflicted
by demons and who invariably were aware of the source thereof. Most
Muslims seem to be strongly intimidated and fearful of such powers and
what they may do.
It is indeed good to know that, as Christians, we serve the King of kings
and Lord of lords and have been delegated authority over all these powers.
(Luke 10:19!)
From Islamic source material we know that “Muhammad sanctioned the
use of spells and incantations as long as the words used were only those of
the names of Allah, or of the good angels, and of the good genii (spirits).”
According to a Hadith Muhammad said: “There is nothing wrong with

using spells so long as you associate nothing with Allah” (Dictionary of
Islam, quoting Mishkat 21, c.i.). Since we have to assume that Muhammad
had an occult background, we need not wonder, how it got a foothold in
Islam. “The Dictionary of Islam” also quotes from the book ‘Jawahiru’l-
Khamsah’ by Shaikh Abu’l-Muwayyid of Gujerat, India:
In order to explain this occult science, we shall consider it under
 the following divisions:

1. The qualifications necessary for the ‘amil, or the person who
practices it.
2. The tables required by the teacher and their uses. (These
include Zodiac etc.)
The methods employed for commanding the presence of the genii (=
spirits).
When anyone enters upon the study of the science, he must begin by paying
the utmost attention to cleanliness. No dog, or cat, or any stranger, is
allowed to enter his dwelling place, and he must purify his house by
burning wood-aloes, pastilos, and other sweet-scented perfumes. He must
take the utmost care that his body is in no way defiled, and he must bathe
and perform the legal ablution constantly. A most important preparation for
the exercise of the art is a forty-days fast (chilla), when he must sleep on a
mat spread on the ground, sleep as little as possible, and not enter into
general conversation.
Previous to reciting any of the names or attributes of God for the
establishment of friendship or enmity on behalf of any person, it is
necessary to ascertain the initials of his or her name in the Arabic alphabet,
which letters are considered by exorcists to be connected with the twelve
signs of the Zodiac, the seven planets, and the four elements.
The exorcist must first ascertain if the elements, the signs of the Zodiac,
and the planets are amiably or inimitably disposed to each other in the cases
of these two individuals, and also if there is a combination expressed in the
ism or name of God connected with their initial letters.
If the exorcist wishes to command the presence of genii on behalf of a

certain person, it is generally supposed to be effected in the following
manner. He must, first of all, shut himself up in a room and fast for forty
days. He should besmear the chamber with red ochre, and, having purified
himself, should sit on a small carpet, and proceed to call the genius or
demon. He must, however, first find out what special genii are required to
effect his purpose.
The exorcist should then, in order to call in the help of the genii, recite the
following formula, not fewer then 24 800 times:
Ya Danushu! for the sake of the Eternal One!
Ya Hushu! for the sake of the Guide!
Ya Rabushu! for the sake of the Lord!
Ya Qayupushu! for the sake of Allah!
Ya Majbushu! for the sake of the King!
The exorcist will perform this recital with his face turned towards the
house of the object he wishes to affect, and burn the perfumes
indicated according to the table for the letters of Bahram’s name.
All this is blatant witchcraft - and is done in the name of Allah! We

can easily see that Islam has by no means the uniformity it tries to
propagate. It may well be that many orthodox Muslims will totally
distance themselves from above practices and declare it unislamic.
We are well advised not to assume that all Muslims are alike. Islam
has many forms.

• The History of Islam in Africa, Levtzion, Nehemia and Randall L.
Pouwels, Ohio University Press, Athens, 2000.
• Islam in Tropical Africa, Lewis, I.M., International African Institute,
Indiana University Press, Bloomington and London, 1966, 1980.
• The New Vitality of Islam in Black Africa and its pastoral implications,
Aid to the Church in Need, Mertens, Victor, S. J., Koenigstein, 1980.
• Islam in East Africa, Trimingham, Spencer, Edinburgh House Press,

Edinburgh, 1962.
• Islam in Conflict, Riddell,Peter G. & Peter Cotterell, IVP, Leicester,
2003.
• Muslims in Kenya: Problems and Possible Solutions, Al Islam, June
1983.
• The Islamic Da’wah: How to Carry it to Christians, Al Islam, June
1983.
• Islam: Introduction and Approach, ICI course by Sobhi Malek, Irving,
Texas, 1992.
• Called from Islam to Christ - Why Muslims become Christians, by
Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Monarch Books, London, 1999.
• Life and Mission of Maulana Mohammad Ilyias, S. Abul Hasan Ali
Nadwi, Academy of Islamic Research and Publications, Lucknow,
1983, 2nd ed.
• Six Points of Tabligh, Maulana Ashiq Elahi, Rasheed Publications,
Delhi, undated.
• Faza’il-E-A’maal, Shaikhul Hadith Maulana Muhammad Zakariyya,
Idara Ishaat E Diniyat LTD., New Delhi, 1998 (1990).
• The Way of the Sufi, Idries Shah, Dutton Paperback, New York, 1970.
• The People of the Mosque, L.Bevan Jones, ISPCK, Delhi,1998(1stiss.
1932)
• Sufi Brotherhoods in Africa, Knut S. Vikor, in A History of Islam in
Africa, 2001.
• Battle for the Hearts, Episode 2, Muhammad – The prophet of
Islam.TWR & LCA, 2001.
82
4 Books that Matter to Muslims

We all know that the ‘Holy Book’ of Islam is the Qur’an. Lesser known is
the fact that the Traditions about Muhammad, the so-called AHadith, in real
terms play a more important role in the daily life of a Muslim than the
Qur’an. We investigate both.
4.1 The Qur’an

4.1.1 An Introduction
The Qur’an is “The Book” of the Muslim believers. It is considered to have
been existent in the highest (7th) heaven, but was from time to time brought
down to the third heaven from where the Angel Gabriel took it piece by
piece to reveal it on earth, first to the biblical prophets and then to
Muhammad, the “illiterate” prophet (see The Prophet And His World). He
recited it and by that shared it with the people around him. Many of his
companions could quote large passages of the Qur’an from memory. There
is and has been a heated theological debate on whether the heavenly
existence of the Qur’an has been created, or is eternal and by that token
uncreated. Yet today there is almost unanimous consent about its eternal
origin.
4.1.2 The Meaning of the Word “Qur’an”

The word ‘Qur’an’ is derived from the word ‘kara’a’, meaning to ‘recite’ or
‘read’. The whole Qur’an is considered by every Muslim as being ‘nazil’
(i.e. sent down) and given by ‘wahy’ (i.e. inspiration).
4.1.3 Chapter Divisions of the Qur’an

The Qur’an was divided into 114 Surahs (chapters), which were given over
a period of twenty-three years. A verse is called ‘aya’, meaning ‘sign’. The
numbering of verses is not uniform in the various versions of the Qur’an
(particularly in Surah 5). We use the numbering introduced by Yusuf Ali.
In addition the Qur’an is subdivided into 30 parts, each of these is to be
read on one day during the fasting month Ramadaan. Unfortunately, the
Books that Matter to Muslims 83
Surahs have not been collated in chronological order. Apart from Surah 1,
which is in the form of a prayer and enjoys particular popularity, they are
roughly ordered according to length, the second Surah being the longest,
the 114th the shortest. A chronological reconstruction can essentially only
be a coarse attempt, since the longer Surahs have been pieced together,
possibly over years.
4.1.4 A Chronological List of the Surahs

We have already noted that the Qur’an was given over a period of 23 years,
part of it in Mecca and the other part in Medina. Here is
96, 74, 111, 106, 108, 104, 107,
102, 105, 92, 90, 94, 93, 97, 86,
91, 80, 68, 87, 95, 103, 85, 73,
Surahs from
101, 99, 82, 81, 53, 84, 100, 79,
the first period:
77, 78, 88, 89, 75, 83, 69, 51,
52, 56, 70, 55, 112, 109, 113,
114, 1
Mecca 54, 37, 71, 76, 44, 50, 20, 26,
Surahs from
15, 19, 38, 36, 43, 72, 67, 23,
the middle period:
21, 25, 17, 27, 18
32, 41, 45, 16, 30, 11, 14, 12, 40,
Surahs from
28, 39, 29, 31, 42, 10, 34, 35, 7,
the latter period:
46, 6, 13
Surahs from 2, 98, 64, 62, 8, 47, 3, 61, 57, 4,
Medina the Medinan 65, 59, 33, 63, 24, 58, 22, 48,
period: 66, 60, 110, 49, 9, 5
Other scholars have produced similar lists, with slightly varying results,
e.g. Jalalu’d-din Sayuti, J. M. Rodwell and Sir W. Muir.
4.1.5 Important Criteria Concerning the Qur’an
Regarding the Old Testament
Although we must assume that Muhammad never read the Bible or even
parts thereof, we find in the Qur’an many and extensive reflections on
biblical stories. These, however, differ widely, not only in form but also in
content, from the biblical text. Many of the Old Testament stories in the
Qur’an can be traced back to the Jewish Talmud, which often adds fanciful
deviations from the sober record of the Bible. Although Muhammad
reflects on many historical accounts, such as the lives of Noah, Abraham,
Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses and others, we find these virtually devoid of
the spiritual message of the Bible.
Regarding Muhammad’s authority

On numerous occasions the message of the Qur’an is interrupted with
promises of bliss for those who obey Allah and his Messenger, and fearful
condemnation of those who do not “fear Allah and obey his Messenger.”
Part of the Qur’an is taken up with the defence of the Prophethood of
Muhammad and his polemics against those who rejected him as a prophet.
We find several Qur’anic passages, in which the arguments of the
‘unbelievers’ concerning Muhammad’s prophethood are quoted, e.g. “He
has forged it!” (Surah 10:38) or “It is a man that teaches him” (Surah
16:103). In many places we find interwoven ‘revelations’ that secure his
own position and influence and justify his actions.
The Effect of the Recitation and Chanting of the Qur’an in

Arabic
Non-Muslims may not be aware that the recitation of the Qur’an in the
Arabic language has a definite effect on the mind of the Muslims. They do
seem to get an emotional elation from such recitation, although, in the
majority of cases, they do not understand the content since they do not
speak Arabic.
The Literary Quality of the Qur’an

Its literary quality was and is a constant argument by Muslims in their
effort to ‘prove’ the divine origin of the Qur’an. That is why Muhammad
repeatedly challenged his contemporaries: “Present some other book of
equal beauty” (Surah 2:23 and 17:88). Several scholars have very
successfully done that, however with no response from the Muslim world.
(e.g. ‘The True Furqan’, Omega 2001, P.O. Box 293627, Sacramento, CA
95829, USA).
Compared with other pieces of contemporary Arabic literature, the Qur’an

is not necessarily considered the best, but in the Arabic original, at least
parts of it reflect a beautiful literary style. However, philologists certify that
its grammar is quite imperfect and that a number of foreign words, which
suggest foreign thought, were introduced to it.
The style of the Qur’an is another matter. We find neither a chronological
sequence nor any topical order in it. It is hardly more than a collection of
myths interspersed with warnings and threats.
The Alleged Superiority of the Qur’an

Another alleged reason for the ‘superiority’ of the Qur’an is the order in
which it was revealed in relation to the other ‘Holy Books’, for it is seen as
the final one in a series of revelations. Muslims will reason that of the
‘revealed books’ the Qur’an is the only one which is fully preserved and by
that the only reliable ‘Book’. All the ‘former Books’ are considered to be
corrupted. The Qur’an mentions the following Scriptures:

1. Taurat (Torah)
2. Zabur (Psalms)
3. ‘That given to (all) prophets by their Lord’ (Surah 2:136) (we
assume this to mean the rest of the OT)
4. Injil (the Gospel = New Testament), and last and finally
5. Qur’an
The Qur’an is named the ‘Mother of Books’ (Surah 43:3) and it is called
glorious, because it is preserved on an eternal tablet in heaven (Surah
85:22).
Muslims cannot accept a critique of the Qur’an

Muslims may accept a critique of their behaviour, their teachers, even their
religious practices, traditions, and many other things. But they will
absolutely not tolerate any form of critique of the Qur’an and their Prophet,
whether by historians, scientists, orientalists or theologians. The Muslim
believes the Qur’an to be the absolute identical copy of the eternal heavenly
book; even so far as the punctuation, titles and divisions are concerned.
Regarding the assessment of Scripture Muslims have taken up a very

improper position: While totally refusing to recognise the need to subject
the Qur’an and the AHadith to scholarly scrutiny and evaluation, they quote
Western critics of the Bible to declare our Scripture to be corrupt.
4.1.6 An Introduction to the Qur’an as given in the

Mishkat15
The Holy Qur’an is the guide of the Muslims. It is the complete
 code of their every day life - economic, political, religious, social

and moral. It is a revelation from the Almighty with the exact
words as are now found embodied therein. The Qur’an lays
down: ‘And certainly it is a revelation from the Lord of the worlds
in plain Arabic language. The Faithful Spirit has come down with it upon your
hearts that you may be one of the warners’ - Surah 26:192-195. The verses of
the Qur’an were uttered by the Holy Prophet to whose heart they were
revealed by God through the Archangel Gabriel. The Qur’an is not the Hadith,
because the former was revealed to the Prophet with words, while the Hadith
was revealed to him in ideas. The Qur’an was revealed not at a time but
piecemeal in the course of the Prophet’s apostolic career covering over twenty
three years, thirteen years at Mecca and ten years at Medina. The first verse
(97Q)[ should be Surah 96] was revealed in the Cave Hira at Mecca in Lailatul
Kadr (Blessed Night) which is one of the last ten nights of Ramzan, and in the
pure dialect of the Quraish which is chaste written Arabic. The Qur’an was
arranged into chapters by the Prophet himself. It contains 114 chapters, each
chapter containing some sections called Ruku and each Ruku containing some
verses. There are 30 parts, 114 chapters, 6616 verses, 77943 words and
338606 letters in the Holy Book. 86 chapters were revealed at Mecca, while 28
chapters covering nearly one third of the Book were revealed at Medina. The
Meccan chapters are generally short and the Medinan long. For convenience
of reading, the Qur’an has been divided in to 30 equal parts with seven manzils
for reading the whole Qur’an in at least seven days.
The Qur’an – Revelation, but by whom?

Before we look at the source material of the Qur’an, we will have to
consider seriously the following options:
15
The Mishkat is a selection of the most trustworthy Islamic traditions (Hadith)
1. Muhammad was a prophet in the biblical succession. (In that case the
Qur’an would not contradict the Bible.)
2. Muhammad had hallucinations (illusions) caused by psychic or occult
influences.
3. Muhammad was a liar (which we must rule out, as we have
convincing evidence that he had revelations).
4. Muhammad had revelations, but not from the same source as the
Bible, i.e. not from Yahweh Elohim.
We may safely exclude possibilities 1 and 3. So we have to consider the
other two. There are reports, which strongly suggest an occult background:
Al-Harith ibn Hisham asked the Messenger of Allah, may Allah
 bless him and grant him peace, ‘How does the revelation come to
you?’ and the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant
him peace, said, ‘Sometimes it comes to me like the ringing of a
bell, and that is the hardest for me, and when it leaves me I
remember what it has said. And sometimes the angel appears to me in the
likeness of a man and talks to me and I remember what he says.
Malik’s Muwatta 15, No 4.7
Aisha added, ‘I saw it coming down on him on an intensely cold day, and when
it had left him his forehead was dripping with sweat.
Malik’s Muwatta 15, No 4.7
Obadah-b-Swamet reported that when a revelation came unto the prophet, he
used to become greatly perturbed and his face became changed.
Mishkat, 4, p. 359
Muslim [a tradition collector] relates the following Tradition:
 ‘Whenever Inspiration was sent down upon him, the Prophet

grew troubled thereat, and his countenance changed’.
Ibn Ishaq says that, before the Revelation first began to descend
upon him, Muhammad’s friends feared that he was suffering from the evil eyes:
and that, when it came upon him, almost the same illness attacked him again.
What this particular malady was we can perhaps infer from the statements of
the Traditionalists. Ali Halabi, in his Turkish work entitled ‘Insanu’l Uyun’,
informs us that many people declared that Aminah, Muhammad’s mother, used
a spell in order to recover him from the influence of the evil eye. On the
authority of Amr ibn Sharhabil it is stated that Muhammad said to Khadijah,
‘When I was alone I heard a cry: O Muhammad, O Muhammad’. In tradition it

is stated that he said, ‘I fear lest I should become a magician, lest one should
proclaim me a follower of the Jinn’; and again: ‘I fear lest there should be
madness’ (or demonic possession) in me’. After an accession of sh4ering and
shutting his eyes, there used to come over him what resembled a swoon, his
face [mouth?] would foam, and he would roar like a young camel. Abu
Hurairah says: ‘As for the Apostle of God, when inspiration descended on him,
no one could raise his glance to him until the inspiration came to an end’. In
Tradition it is stated that ‘He was troubled thereat, and his face foamed, and he
closed his eyes, and perchance roared like the roaring of the young camel’.
Umar ibnu’l Khattab says: ‘When inspiration descended on the Apostle of God,
there used to be heard near his face as it were the buzzing of bees’.
Somewhat similarly we read in the Turkish work, Mira’at i Kainat: ‘When
inspiration came with a message of threatening and warning, it descended with
a terrible sound like that of a bell ... On the authority of Abu Hurairah, too, it is
related that, when inspiration descended on the Apostle, they used to bathe his
sacred head with henna, because of the headache that used to come on’.
In the Turkish Insanu’l Uyun of ‘Alt Halabi we read: Zaid ibn Thabit relates:
‘When inspiration descended on the Prophet, he became very heavy. Once his
leg fell upon mine, and, by God, there is no such heavy leg as was that of the
Apostle of God’. Sometimes a revelation would come to him when he was on
his camel. Then it shuddered as if it would collapse, and it usually knelt down
... As often as the Prophet received inspiration, it seemed as if his soul were
being taken from him, for he had always a kind of swoon and looked like one
intoxicated.
Mizanu’l Haqq – Balance of Truth, C.G. Pfander D.D., pp. 345-346, freely quoted
This is confirmed elsewhere. Someone had asked Muhammad a question

about the Umrah (minor pilgrimage):
A man came to the Prophet (peace be upon him) ... He said:
 Apostle of Allah, what do you command me to do while

performing my Umrah. In the meantime, Allah, the Exalted, sent a
revelation to the Prophet (peace be upon him). When he (the
Prophet) came to himself gradually, he asked: Where is the man
who asked about Umrah? (When the man came) he (the Prophet) said: Wash
the perfume which is on you, ... take off the tunic, then do in your Umrah as
you do in your hajj. Abu-Dawood 10, No 1815
It is clear that Muhammad at that time was in a trance. This is precisely the
condition in which religious performances in Animistic, Hindu and
Buddhist traditions are done. Before his first revelation, Muhammad

already suffered under eerie, occult experiences. It says that
…he saw prophetic dreams and heard unseen voices and calls.
 Before he received the first revelation, he took himself in

complete seclusion to the Mount of Light and there applied
himself in ardent divine service which consisted only of deep
meditation. Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 354 - Commentary
What appears indeed very strange to us is the mode by which the source of
revelation was determined:
Ismail b. Abu Hakim, a freedman of the family of al-Zubayr, told
 me on Khadija’s authority that she said to the apostle of god, ‘O

son of my uncle, are you able to tell me about your visitant, when
he comes to you?’ He replied that he could, and she asked him to
tell her when he came. So when Gabriel came to him;, as he was
wont, the apostle said to Khadija, ‘This is Gabriel who has just come to me’.
‘Get up, O son of my uncle’, she said, ‘and sit by me left thigh’. The apostle did
so, and she said, ‘Can you see him?’ ‘Yes’, he said. She said, ‘Then run round
and sit on my right thigh’. He did so , and she said, ‘Can you see him?’ when
he said that he could she asked him to move and sit in her lap. When he had
done this she again asked if he could see him, and when he said yes, she
disclosed her form and cast aside her veil while the apostle was sitting in her
lap. Then she said, ‘Can you see him?’ And he replied, ‘No’. She said, ‘O son
of my uncle, rejoice and be of good heart, by God he is an angel and not a
satan’.
I told Abdullah b. Hasan this story and he said, ‘I heard my mother Fatima,
daughter of Husayn, talking about this tradition from Khadija, but as I heard it
she made the apostle of God come inside her shift16.
Equally strange to us is the triviality of some of Muhammad’s revelations:

Aisha reported that Sauda (Allah be pleased with her) went out
 (in the fields) in order to answer the call of nature even after the
time when veil had been prescribed for women. She had been a
bulky lady, significant in height amongst the women, and she
could not conceal herself from him who had known her. Umar B.
Khattab saw her and said: Sauda, by Allah, you cannot conceal from us.
Therefore, be careful when you go out. She (Aisha) said: She turned back.
Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him) was at that time in my house
having his evening meal and there was a bone in his hand. She (Sauda) came
16
Shift = loose piece of clothing or underwear
and said: Allah’s Messenger, I went out and Umar said to me so and so. She
(Aisha) reported: There came the revelation to him and then it was over; the
bone was then in his hand and he had not thrown it and he said: ‘Permission
has been granted to you that you may go out for your needs’.
Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu’minin: “The Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him)
was using the tooth-stick, when two men, one older than the other, were with
him. A revelation came to him about the merit of using the tooth-stick. He was
asked to show proper respect and give it to the elder of the two.
Abu-Dawood Vol. 1, No 50
If we look at all these AHadith, a picture begins to form. Anyone

acquainted with the occult has become aware of the phenomena that one
expects at a séance. Besides his occult experiences in childhood,
daydreams, the hearing of voices and calls, nightly meditations, excessive
perspiration during trance, and subsequent exhaustion and swoon-like
conditions - even the ringing of bells - are not uncommon. The condition
that looked like intoxication is equally revealing. Anyone being in a trance
has that look. (On a number of occasions the author [GN] witnessed this
personally).
Another telling phenomenon is a reported suicidal inclination. It occurred
when there was a silence after the first revelations.
And revelation broke off. Bukhari added: ‘Until the Prophet felt
 grief about what has reached us, such a grief that he went out
several mornings in that mood, so that he might destroy himself
from the midst of the hills. Whenever he ascended on the summit
of a hill in order to cast himself down therefrom.
al-Bukhari, Hadith, 9.111, also Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 358
With this occult background, we are not surprised at the aversion

Muhammad had to the Cross:
The Prophet was of a highly strung and nervous temperament.
 So afraid was he of darkness, that, on entering a room at night,

he would not sit down till a lamp had been lighted for him; and Al-
Wakidi adds that he had such a repugnance to the form of the
cross that he broke everything brought into the house with the
figure upon it. The Life of Mohammed, by William Muir, p. 200
The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: There is no prophet

between me and him, that is, Jesus (peace be upon him). He will
 descent (to the earth). ... He will fight the people for the cause of
Islam. He will break the cross, kill swine, and abolish ‘jizyah’.
Allah will perish all religions except Islam. He will destroy the
Antichrist and will live on the earth for forty years and then he will
die. The Muslims will pray over him.
Abu-Dawood 37, No 4310 (al-Bukhari Vol. 3, pp.233-234, No 425 and Sahih
Muslim Vol. 1, p. 92, No 287)
The footnote 289 (in Sahih Muslim) explains:
Cross is a symbol of Christianity. Jesus will break this symbol
 after the advent of Muhammad. Islam is the din [religion] of

Allah and so no other religion is acceptable to Him.
4.1.7 The Collection of the Qur’ an

The Mishkat tells us in a commentary:
The Collection Of The Qur’an In A Book. No complete written
 copy of the Qur’an existed at the time of the Holy Prophet. It was
not also possible as it was revealed during a course of 23 years.
So during his time, it was kept in tablets, on parchment, papers,
leaves and skins. After the holy demise, it was for the first time
that the question of its collection in a book form was raised by Hazrat Omar
before the first Caliph Abu Bakr. At first, the aged Caliph was not willing to do
what the Prophet had not done. Afterwards he thought the propriety of
collection and undertook the onerous task. The copy thus prepared by Abu
Bakr was with Omar’s daughter Hafsah (Prophet’s wife) after his death. The
public had then no written copies. Mishkat Vol. 3, p. 664, commentary
Zaid bin Thabit reported:

Abu Bakr sent for me owing to the large number of casualties in
 the battle of Al-Yamama, while ‘Umar was sitting with him. Abu
Bakr said (to me), (Umar has come to me and said, ‘A great
number of Qaris [pl. of Qurra, people who had memorised the
Qur’an] of the Holy Qur’an were killed on the day of the battle of
Al-Yamama, and I am afraid that the casualties among the Qaris of the Qur’an
may increase on other battlefields whereby a large part of the Qur’an may be
lost. Therefore I consider it advisable that you (Abu Bakr) should have the
Qur’an collected.’ I said, ‘How dare I do something which Allah’s Apostle did
not do?’ Umar said, By Allah, it is something beneficial.’ Umar kept on pressing
me for that till Allah opened my chest for that for which He had opened the
chest of Umar and I had in that matter, the same opinion as Umar had.’ Abu
Bakr then said to me (Zaid), “You are a wise young man and we do not have
any suspicion about you, and you used to write the Divine Inspiration for
Allah’s Apostle. So you should search for the fragmentary scripts of the Qur’an
and collect it (in one Book).” Zaid further said: By Allah, if Abu Bakr had
ordered me to shift a mountain among the mountains from one place to
another it would not have been heavier for me than this ordering me to collect
the Qur’an. Then I said (to Umar and Abu Bakr), “How can you do something
which Allah’s Apostle did not do?” Abu Bakr said, “By Allah, it is something
beneficial.” Zaid added: So he (Abu Bakr) kept on pressing me for that until
Allah opened my chest for that for which He had opened the chests of Abu
Bakr and Umar, and I had in that matter, the same opinion as theirs.
So I started compiling the Qur’an by collecting it from the leafless stalks of the
date-palm tree and from the pieces of leather and hides and from the stones,
and from the chests of men (who had memorized the Qur’an). I found the last
verses of Sirat-at-Tauba: (Verily there has come unto you an Apostle
(Muhammad) from amongst yourselves... (9.128-129) from Khuzaima or Abi
Khuzaima and I added to it the rest of the Sura. The manuscripts of the Qur’an
remained with Abu Bakr till Allah took him unto Him. Then it remained with
Umar till Allah took him unto Him, and then with Hafsa bint Umar.
al-Bukhari Vol. 9, pp. 228-230, No 301 (al-Bukhari Vol. 6, p. 162-164, No
201)
It is very doubtful that this Codex17, kept by Hafsa, ever played a role in the
lives of the Muslims at that time. Other codices were more widely used.
The Mishkat continues:
So Osman, during his Caliphate, ordered Za’d-bin-Saber,
 Abdullah-bin-Zubair, Sa’d-bin-alA’s and Abdur Rahman to

examine independent sources [of the Qur’an] and to test the
veracity of Hafsah’s copy. Thus they prepared some copies
which he distributed throughout the then Muslim world. These
copies were exactly similar [sic] to the copy of Hafsah and that text is now
extant throughout the Muslim world. The purity of the Qur’an has thus been
kept intact and it is now what it was 14 hundred years ago.
17
Codex = manuscript in book form
As we shall see, the above report is not correct - or it is, to say the least, a
very romantic interpretation of the historic situation.
The Revision of the Qur’an Under Uthman

A little later, when contention arose between believers caused by differing
recitations of the Qur’an (in the salat prayer), Uthman ordered the text to be
edited “according to the dialect of the Quraish.” This was done and it is
now called the Uthmani text. It remained the standard text to this day.
Al-Bukhari fills in some detail:
Narrated Anas bin Malik:
 Hudhaifa bin Al-Yaman came to Uthman at the time when the

people of Sham and the people of Iraq were waging war to
conquer Arminya and Adharbijan. Hudhaifa was afraid of their
(the people of Sham and Iraq) differences in the recitation of the
Qur’an, so he said to Uthman, “O chief of the Believers! Save this nation
before they differ about the Book (Qur’an) as Jews and the Christians did
before.” So Uthman sent a message to Hafsa saying, “Send us the
manuscripts of the Qur’an so that we may compile the Qur’anic materials in
perfect copies and return the manuscripts to you.” Hafsa sent it to Uthman.
Uthman then ordered Zaid bin Thabit, ‘Abdullah bin AzZubair, Said bin Al-As
and ‘Abdur-Rahman bin Harith bin Hisham to rewrite the manuscripts in perfect
copies. Uthman said to the three Quraishi men, “In case you disagree with
Zaid bin Thabit on any point in the Qur’an, then write it in the dialect of
Quraish, as the Qur’an was revealed in their tongue.” They did so, and when
they had written many copies, Uthman returned the original manuscripts to
Hafsa. Uthman sent to every Muslim province one copy of what they had
copied, and ordered that all the other Qur’anic materials, whether written in
fragmentary manuscripts or whole copies, be burnt. Said bin Thabit added, ‘A
Verse from Surat Ahzab was missed by me when we copied the Qur’an and I
used to hear Allah’s Apostle reciting it. So we searched for it and found it with
Khuzaima bin Thabit Al-Ansari. (That Verse was): ‘Among the Believers are
men who have been true in their covenant with Allah’. (33.23)
Unfortunately this report is not explicit enough to mention the number of variant
readings in other copies of the Qur’an existent before the revision under
Uthman. Fortunately, much of that detail has been recorded by ibn Abi-Dawud
Dawud (AD 824-897) in his ‘Kitab al-Masahif’ (‘Book of Documents’). It is not
available in English, but the content became the basis of the book ‘Materials
for the History of the Text of the Qur’an’ by Arthur Jeffrey. It lists on over 350
pages the acknowledged different readings of Qur’anic manuscripts before its

editing. These deviations had been extracted, compiled and preserved by ibn
Abi Dawud. When Uthman destroyed the evidence of the r4al texts, the
original, which was in Hasfa’s care, was saved at that time, but did not escape
destruction a little later.

That the material in the Codex of Hafsa was considerably
different from that in the Uthmanic text is evident from the
anxiety of Marwan to destroy it. The story tells of how when
Marwan was Governor of Medina he sent to Hafsa demanding
her Codex that he might destroy it, but she refused to give it up.
When she died Marwan assisted at her funeral and at its conclusion sent and
with much insistence demanded the Codex from Abdallah b.Umar, Hafsa’s
brother. Abdallah finally sent it to him and he had it destroyed, fearing, he said,
that if it got abroad the variety of readings that Uthman desired to suppress
would recommence.
Materials for the History of Text of the Qur’an, by A. Jeffrey
It is often reasoned by Muslims that the differences had to do
 with different ‘readings’, or better reciting. They had nothing to

do with different meanings, but rather different ‘dialects’. The
prescribed form was the recitation in the dialect of the Quraish,
the tribe of Muhammad, and that had not been observed.
Of course, we are aware of different dialects. Classical Arabic is

pronounced quite differently by people of Morocco, Egypt or Syria. But the
written language is alike. The same applies to English. Noticeable spoken
differences occur between American, Australians, English, Scottish or
Irish. But with few exceptions they write the same.
In the case of the revision of the Qur’an, it was the different written texts
that were scrutinized, revised and then destroyed - not the dialects.
Muslims claim: “The Qur’an has never been Changed”
This is contradicted by the undeniable fact that we have detailed knowledge
of 15 Major Codices (= plural of codex) and 13 Minor Codices that differ
somewhat in length and content from the text of the Uthmani version.
(‘Materials of the History of the Text of the Qur’an’ by A. Jeffrey)
The most prominent four of these are:
● The Codex of Zaid ibn Thabit (Medina)
● The Codex of Abdullah ibn Masud (Kufa)

● The Codex of Ubai ibn Ka’b (Syria)
● The Codex of Abu Musa (Basra)
In ibn Abi-Dawud’s ‘Kitab al-Masahif’ we read:
Ibn Mas’ud is reported to have said: ‘The Prophet taught me to
 recite seventy Surahs which I had mastered before Zaid had

even become a Muslim’. Or again: ‘Am I to be debarred from
18
copying the mushafs and the job given to a man who was an
infidel in his father’s reins when I first became a Muslim?’
Abdullah is supposed to have enjoined his followers: ‘Lay up your Qur’an! How
can you order me to recite the readings of Zaid, when I recited from the very
mouth of the Prophet some seventy Surahs? ‘Am I’, asks Abdullah, ‘to
abandon what I acquired from the very lips of the Prophet?
Masahif, by Ibn abi Dawood, pp. 12, 14
Like ancient Hebrew, the original Arabic writings contained no
 vowels. The diacritical marks indicate where vowels were

introduced later. This compounds the problem, for without
19
diacritical marks a word could read active or passive and many
consonants could not be distinguished without the diacritical dots
which were added afterwards, when and by whom we do not know.
Collection of the Qur’an, by John Burton
The Qur’an Was Revealed in ‘Seven Forms’

While the Qur’an consists of one text, the Hadith tell us of seven
distinguishable text revelations:
Narrated ‘Umar bin Al-Khattab: I heard Hisham bin Hakim bin
 Hizam reading the chapter Distinction (25Q) other than (different

from) what I read [= recited] it and what the Apostle of Allah read
[= recited] it over to me. I was about to hasten (attack) on him,
but then I gave him time till he finished. Then I tied him with his
cloth and came with him to the Apostle of Allah. I said: O Apostle of Allah! I
heard him reading [= recite] the chapter ‘Distinction’ other than what you read
18
Mushaf = original manuscript
19
Diacritical marks = ‘relating to signs placed above or below a character or letter to
indicate that it has a different phonetic value, is stressed, or for some other reason’ (“The
Collins Dictionary”)
[= recited] over to me. The Apostle of Allah said: Let him read [= recite]. Then
he read as I had heard him read [= recite].
The Prophet said: Thus it has been revealed. Then he asked me: Read. I read
[= recite]. He said: Thus it has been revealed: This Qur’an has been revealed
upon seven modes of reading [= reciting]. So read [= recite] what appears easy
therefrom.” al-Bukhari Vol. 3, p. 355, No 601
Ubayy ibn Ka’b reported: I was in the mosque when a man entered, and
prayed and recited (the Qur’an) in a style to which I objected. Then another
man entered (the mosque) and recited in a style different from that of his
companion. When we had finished the prayer, we all went to Allah’s
Messenger (may peace be upon him) and I said to him: This man recited in a
style to which I objected, and the other entered and recited in a style different
from that of his companion. The Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him)
asked them to recite, so they recited and the Apostle of Allah (may peace be
upon him) expressed approval of their affaires (their modes of recitation), and
there occurred in my mind a sort of denial which did not occur even during the
Days of Ignorance. When the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him)
saw how I was affected (by a wrong idea), he struck my chest, whereupon I
broke into sweating and felt as though I were looking at Allah with fear. He
(the Holy Prophet) said to me: Ubayy, a message was sent to me to recite the
Qur’an in one dialect, and I replied: Make (things) easy for my people. It was
conveyed to me for the second time that it should be recited in two dialects. I
again replied to him: Make affairs easy for my people. It was again conveyed
to me for the third time to recite in seven dialects. And (I was further told): You
have got a seeking for every reply that I sent you, which you should seek from
Me. I said: O Allah! Forgive my people, forgive my people and I have deferred
the third one for the day on which the entire creation will turn to me, including
even Ibrahim (peace be upon him) (for intercession).
What were these seven forms, or ‘dialects’ (‘ahruf’)? Did they just represent
different pronunciations? Or did they carry different meanings? Why fuss
over a dialect, when the meaning is clear? Muslim scholars are divided over
this issue. There is simply no information on what these ‘ahruf’ actually
were. The early Qur’an commentator and historian at-Tabari (born 224 AH)
believed all but one of these forms were burnt by Uthman20. Both the
20
‘A ‘Perfect’ Qur’an’, p. 28, by Bro. Mark,
http://www.callnetuk.com/home/aperfectQur’an
differing codices and differing forms bear witness that the Qur’an is not the
unchanged book Muslims would like it to be.21
4.1.8 Additions and Omissions in the Qur’an

Passages Added to the Qur’an
Besides the parallel texts and the seven different forms of the Qur’an there
is also evidence of interpolations (additions) and omissions in the now
existing text of the Qur’an.
A curious story is told about ‘Abd-Allah ibn-Abi-Sarh. While
 Mohammed was dictating to him the passage beginning with

Surah 23:12, he was carried away by wonder at this description
of the creation of man; and, when Mohammed paused after the
words ‘another creature’, exclaimed: ‘Blessed be God, the best of
creators’. Mohammed accepted this as the continuation of the revelation and
told him to write it down.
This aroused doubt, however, in ibn-Abi-Sarh, and later he gave up Islam and
returned to Mecca; at the conquest of Mecca he was one of those prescribed
[to be killed], but was pardoned on the intercession of Uthman.
Introduction to the Qur’an, by R.Bell, p. 37 - quoted from al-Baidawi’s and
Zamaksharis’s commentaries.
The canonical traditionists report that Surah 4:95 was
 dictated by the prophet to his amanuensis (= scribe or secretary)

Zayd thus: ‘Those believers, who sit at home, are not equal to
those who fight in the way of God with their goods and their
persons’. A blind man was present and heard the words. He
immediately interjected that were he as other men, he would certainly fight;
whereupon the prophet interposed the words: ‘except those who suffer from a
grave impediment’ which stand in the text today.
Islam, by A. Guillaume, p. 191; see also al-Bukhari, Hadith 6.118
All these facts are, of course, little, if at all, known to Muslims. What is the
point of making them aware of these problems? Certainly not to undermine
their faith and trust in God! But it is helpful for any person to be aware of
possible cracks in the foundation of their lives, particularly when these
affect their eternal destiny. Because there are no adjustments possible after
21
For a fuller response to these claims refer to Evaluation of the Qur’an later in this chapter.
death, compassion, kindness and love dictate that we should point to a

questionable foundation of the faith of our human fellow travellers, while it
is still possible. But let us take note:
Unless it hurts us more to say this to a Muslim
 than it will hurt him to hear and perceive it,

we have the wrong attitude toward him!
Passages Omitted in the Qur’an

The Hadith (tradition) collector Muslim gives us the following information
in one of the traditions:
We used to recite a Surah which resembled in length and
 severity (Surah) Bara’at. I have, however, forgotten it with the

exception of this which I remember out of it: ‘If there were two
valleys full of riches, for the son of Adam, he would long for a
third valley, and nothing would fill the stomach of the son of
Adam but dust’. And we used to recite a Surah which resembled one of the
Surahs of Musabbthat, and I have forgotten it, but remember (this much) out of
it: ‘O people who believe, why do you say that which you do not practise’ (61:2)
and ‘that is recorded in your necks as a witness (against you) and you would
be asked about it on the Day of Resurrection (17:13).
The Footnote explains:
The words of this Surah have been abrogated in the Qur’an; its
 meaning has, however, been preserved in other verses of the

Qur’an, e.g. in Surah 17:100: ‘If you possess the treasures of the
mercy of my Lord, you would then withhold (them) from fear of
spending (it away). And man is ever niggardly.
Sahih Muslim Vol. 2, p. 501, Fn. 1416
Abdullah b. Abbas reported that Umar b. Khattab sat on the pulpit of Allah’s
Messenger (may peace be upon him) and said: Verily Allah sent Muhammad
(may peace be upon him) with truth and He sent down the Book upon him, and
the verse of stoning was included in what was sent down to him. We recited it,
retaining it in our memory and understood it. Allah’s Messenger (may peace be
upon him) awarded the punishment of stoning to death (to the married
adulterer and adulteress) and, after him, we also awarded the punishment of
stoning. I am afraid that, with the lapse of time, the people (may forget it) and
may say: We do not find the punishment of stoning in the Book of Allah, and
thus go astray by abandoning this duty prescribed by Allah. Stoning is a duty
laid down in Allah’s Book for married men and women who commit adultery
when proof is established, or if there is pregnancy, or a confession.
A commentary tries to explain this:
Here is an example of an abrogation of Qur’anic verses in which
 the words are abrogated whereas the ordinance has been

conserved for all time to come in the Shariah through the words
of the Holy Prophet (may peace be upon him) such as his
judgments in such cases of adultery. This also shows how
closely the Qur’an and the Sunnah are interlinked.
Sahih Muslim Vol. 3, p. 912, Fn. 2155
These verses are not in the Qur’an. The commentator explains this to be
due to abrogation.
Narrated Ibn Abbas: ... “Allah sent Muhammad with the Truth
 and revealed the Holy Book to him, and among what Allah
revealed, was the Verse of the Rajam (the stoning of married
person (male & female) who commits illegal sexual intercourse,
and we did recite this Verse and understood and memorized it.
Allah’s Apostle did carry out the punishment of stoning and so
did we after him.
I am afraid that after a long time has passed, somebody will say, ‘By Allah, we
do not find the Verse of the Rajam in Allah’s Book,’ and thus they will go astray
by leaving an obligation which Allah has revealed
al-Bukhari Vol. 8, No 817, pp. 539-540
There is a tradition from Aisha, the prophet’s wife, that a certain chapter, which
now consists of 73 verses, once contained no less than 200, and that when
Uthman compiled the Qur’an the missing verses could not be found. One of
them was called the Verse of Stoning, and is said to have contained the order
to stone a man or woman who had committed adultery ... This verse is said to
have been part of the original Qur’an. Many early authorities say so, and what
is very significant is, that the first Caliphs punished adulterers by stoning. This
is still penalty prescribed [sic] in Muslim law books, whereas the Qur’an (Surah
24:2) prescribed a hundred stripes.
Islam, by A. Guillaume, p. 191
There is the ... verse (53:19f.) ‘ Have you considered al-Lat and al-Uzza and
Manat the third other?’ Which was once followed by the words: ‘Verily they are
the exalted maidens [Gharaniq, also translated ‘cranes’] and their intercession
is to be hoped for’ [‘is approved’ in another version]. The earliest authority on

the life of Muhammad [i.e. Ibn Ishaq] asserts that these words were uttered by
Muhammad at the instigation of Satan.
Islam, p. 189 and “New Light in the Life of Mohammed”, by A. Guillaume, p. 38
The Qur’an has made a slight alteration and a significant omission to the first
text: instead of saying ‘By al-Lat, etc., it reads, ‘Have you considered al-Lat’
etc. and the sentence about the exalted maidens is dropped altogether.
Subsequently Gabriel came to the prophet and denied that he had revealed
the word to him.
The polytheists of Mecca were delighted about this, for these words were
those of the chant of the Quraish as they processed around the Ka’ba.
References in the Siratu’l Nabi, as revised by Ibn Hisham, vs. 239. Tabari, pp.
1192 ff., al Suhayli, p. 229, according to A. Guillaume (our emphasis).
Other Inconsistencies in the Qur’an

From quite a number, we would like to sketch some contradicting
statements within the Qur’an:
Some Prophets excel above others
Those apostles we endowed with gifts, some above others. To
 one of them Allah spoke, others He raised to degrees (of honour).

Surah 2:253
Allah did choose Adam and Noah, the family of Abraham, and the
family of Imran above all people. Surah 3:33
BUT: Prophets are without distinction between them

Say ye: ‘We believe in Allah, and the revelation given to us, and
 to Abraham, Ismail, Isaac, Jacob and the Tribes, and that given
to Moses and Jesus and that given to (all) prophets from their
Lord: WE make no difference between one and another of
them... Surah 2:136
The Apostle believeth in what hath been revealed to him from his Lord, as do
the men of faith. Each one (of them) believeth in Allah, His angels, His books,
and His messenger. We make no distinction (they say between one and
another of His apostles). And they say, ‘We hear, and we obey: (We seek) thy
forgiveness, our Lord, and to Thee is the end of all journeys’. Surah 2:285
Say: ‘We believe in Allah, and in what has been revealed to us and what was
revealed to Abraham, Ismail, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes. And in (the Books)
given to Moses, Jesus, and the prophets, from their Lord: We make no
distinction between one and another among them. Surah 3:84
Judgment will be according to deeds
The balance that day will be true (to a nicety). Those whose
 
scale (of good) will be heavy, will prosper: Those whose scale
will be light, will find their souls in perdition, for that they
wrongfully treated our Signs. Surah 7:8-9
BUT: Forgiveness will be given to whom Allah wills
 Of the men He hath created: He forgiveth whom He pleaseth,

and He punishes whom He pleaseth. Surah 5:20
Heavens and earth were created in six days

He it is Who created the heavens and the earth in six days - and
 his Throne was over the waters - that He might try you, which of
you is best in conduct. Surah 11:7
Verily your Lord is Allah, Who created the heavens and the earth
in six Days, and is firmly established on the Throne (of authority).
Surah 10:3
BUT: Heavens and earth were created in eight days
Say: Is it that ye deny Him Who created the earth in two days?
 And do ye join equals with Him? He is the Lord of (all) the worlds.
He set on the (earth), mountains standing firm, high above it, and
bestowed blessings on the earth, and measured therein all things
to give them nourishment in due proportion, in four days, in accordance with
(the needs of) those who seek (sustenance).
Moreover He comprehended in His design the sky, and it had been (as
smoke): He said to it and to the earth: ‘Come ye together, willingly or
unwillingly’. They said: ‘We do come (together) in willing obedience.
So he completed them as seven firmaments in two days and he assigned to
each heaven its duty and command. Surah 41:9-12
4.1.9 The Problem of Abrogation

Based on the Qur’an, Islam has developed the doctrine of abrogation. This
affected an unidentified number of verses to be removed (the so-called
Mansukh-Verses) and then replaced (by the so-called Nasikh-Verses)
during the lifetime of Muhammad. The Qur’an teaches that
None of our revelations do we abrogate or cause to be forgotten.
 But we substitute something better or similar. Knowest thou not

that Allah hath power over all things? Surah 2:106
When we substitute one revelation for another - and Allah knows
best what he reveals (in stages) - they say, ‘Thou art but a forger’. But most of
them understand not. Surah 16:101
Allah does, in fact, threaten to withdraw all revelation!
If it were Our Will, we could take away that which we have sent
 thee by inspiration: then wouldst thou find none to plead thy affair
in that matter as against Us.
Surah 17:86
Allah is considered to be the absolute sovereign ruler over all and
everything. Of course, God would not be God, if He did not have this
power. However, in the Bible God has restricted Himself in accordance
with His nature and character. God is good and will not be evil. He Himself
by His Nature and character, His goodness excludes capricious action (see
“Predestination”). Thus the relationship between Allah and a Muslim is not
like the one described in the Bible, in which God reveals Himself as our
compassionate Father. The Islamic version rather declares that Allah is the
ruler and the believer his slave. This is corroborated by the concept of ta-
abudi, a statement, which disallows search and questioning, but rather
demands unquestionable submission. This is why Islamic theology cannot
allow any critical research in its books. They are ta-abudi. In such kind of
submission fear silences every attempt to search for objective established
Truth. Therefore most Muslims do not even remotely consider the
possibility of questioning the Qur’an and its validity.
We should take note, however, of a striking challenge to such a concept:

Do they not consider the Qur’an (with care)? Had it been from
other than Allah, they would surely have found therein much
discrepancy. Surah 4:82
We do consider! The first ‘discrepancy’ we notice is, that

verses were taken out and replaced by others within a very brief time span
of, at the most, 23 years.
Muslim scholars try to explain this by suggesting that it is ‘progressive
revelation’, like in the Bible, in which Yahweh revealed some of His
thoughts to Noah, Abraham and others. Then He sent the Law to Israel
through Moses (500 years later). When Christ came He introduced the New
Covenant of Grace. This, however, did not happen over a period of 23, but
rather 1500 years, and was dictated by the historical and spiritual
development of the people of God.
In addition, the Qur’an produces another problem by declaring the very
opposite, namely that

No change can there be in the Words of Allah. Surah 10:64
There is none that can alter the Words (and decres) of Allah.
Surah 6:34
We note that it says:
“We substitute” (i.e. exchange) in Surahs 2:106 and 16:101, and
“No change” in Surahs 10:64 and 6:34.
We do know of changes, however:
Jalalu’d-Din as-Sayuti (born 1445 in Cairo), a very well accepted
 Islamic theologian and commentator, said that the number of

abrogated verses has been variously estimated to range from 5
to 500.
In his commentary ‘Itqan’ he furnished a list of 20 verses, which
are acknowledged by all commentators to be abrogated.
Dictionary of Islam, p. 520
Let us mention a few abrogations here:
Issue Before After

The Qib’la (prayer To Jerusalem to Mecca (Surah 2:142
direction) -145)
The Division of had to be equal (a share Males must get
Inheritance left by and a share which has to double the share of
parents or other relatives be determined) (Surah 4:7) females. (Surah 4:11)
The Fast of Ramadaan fasting during Ramadaan The Fast of Ramadaan
may be replaced by feeding (Surah 2:185)
a poor man (Surah 2:184)
The Night of Prayer reciting the Qur’an during Ought to be more or
the whole night less half the time of
the night or as long
as it is easy (Surah
73:2-4 and vs. 20)
The Treatment of life imprisonment (Surah Flogging with 100
Adulteresses 4:15) At first it was strokes (Surah 24:2)
apparently stoning to death.
This despite the leniency
prescribed for homosexuals
(Surah 4:16) after repenting.
Provision for Widows One year’s maintenance One third of inheritance
The Retaliation in Cases to be confined to people of Retaliation is allowed
of Crime, particularly equal rank (slave for slave; against a murderer only.
murder free for free etc.)(Surah (Surah 5:48 and 17:33)
2:178)
The Jihaad or Holy War forbidden in the sacred Allowed, even en-
months (Surah 9:5) couraged (Surah 9, 36)
The much discussed ‘verses of the sword’: ‘... fight and slay the
 pagans wherever ye find them and seize them, beleaguer them

and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war)’. (Surah 9:5),
and ‘... when you meet the unbeliever (in fight) cut off their necks
...’ (Surah 47:5), are said to have cancelled no less than 124
verses which enjoined toleration and patience.
Islam, by A. Guillaume
4.1.10 Claims for the Uniqueness of the Qur’an:

Produce a Surah like it!
The following evaluation of the Qur’an and its challenge to prove it to be
true, is found as a commentary in the Mishkat:
The Qur’an is a miracle and a Universal Book. The Qur’an is the
 greatest wonder among the wonders of the world. It repeatedly

challenged the people of the world to bring a chapter like it but
they failed and the challenge remains unanswered up to this day.
The Qur’an declares: And if you are in doubt as to that which We
have revealed to Our servant, then produce a chapter like it and call on your
helper besides Allah if you are truthful - Surah 2:23. Say: If men and Jinn
should combine together to bring the like of this Qur’an, they cannot bring the
like of it, though some of them help others. And certainly We have made
distinct for men every kind of description but the majority of men do not
consent but denying - Surah 17:89. As the Qur’an was revealed, no credit is
given therefore to the Prophet, but the fact remains that this book is second to
none in the world according to the unanimous decision of the learned men in
points of diction, style, rhetoric, thoughts and soundness of laws and
regulations to shape the destinies of mankind. It is an epitome in itself. It is a
universal book like the vast page of Nature. Worlds of nature are subject to
laws. Nature is mute and does not explain the reason of such laws, while the
Qur’an explains them and says that there is one God who is regulating the
government of this universe with these laws with an object in view. The Qur’an
is a perfect code of human life. It is a Divine Light that dissipates darkness
from all around. Man-made lights are insufficient to remove the all-pervading
darkness and hence man-made laws are insufficient as a panacea for all
problems of the world. By the divine Light of the Qur’an, all darkness is
removed from the soil of the mind just as by the sun all darkness of the
universe is removed. It is therefore a solution of the world problems both
temporal and spiritual, and is thus a Universal Book for the guidance of
mankind. Mishkat Vol. 3, pp. 664-665, commentary
Or do they say, ‘He forged it’? Say: ‘Bring then a Surah like unto
 it, and call (to your aid) anyone you can, besides Allah, if it be ye
speak the truth!’ Surah 10:38
And if ye are in doubt as to what we have revealed from time to
time to Our servant, then produce a Surah like thereunto: and call your
witnesses or helpers (if there are any) besides Allah, if your (doubts) are true.
But if ye cannot - and of a surety ye cannot - then fear the fire whose fuel is
men and stones - which is prepared for those who reject Faith.
Surah 2:23-24
Say: If the whole of mankind and Jinns were to gather together to produce the
like of this Qur’an, they could not produce the like thereof, even if they backed
up each other with help and support. And We have explained to man, in this
Qur’an, every kind of similitude: yet the greater part of men refuse (to receive
it) except with ingratitude! Surah 17:88-89
This Qur’an is not such as can be produced by other than Allah. Surah 10:37
We accept the challenge!

In an ad hoc fashion, we made a quick effort to ‘produce’ some ‘Surahs’.
Anyone can add to that. We have taken just five portions of Christian
writing and mixed them with six Surahs (or portions thereof) and six
Scriptures from the Bible for comparison.
You, the reader, be the judge. We invite you to make your own honest
assessment of the literary quality, and separately of the truth and devotional
value of each of the passages quoted. After your judgement find out who
the writers were. Authors are shown at the end.
1. Lord, make me an instrument of your peace.
That I practice love where I am hated, That I forgive where I am offended,
That I heal where there is strife, That I speak truth where there is error,
That I bring faith where doubt oppresses, That I rouse hope where despair
torments,
That I kindle your light where darkness reigns, That I bring joy where
sadness is dwelling.
Lord, let me not seek to be comforted, But that I may comfort others also;
Not seek to be understood, But understand others also;
Not seek to be loved, But to love others also;
For he that gives shall receive, He that forgets himself shall find,
He that forgives shall be forgiven, He that dies shall awake to eternal life.
2. To the Thamud people (we send) Salih, one of their own brethren:
He said: ‘O my people! Worship Allah; ye have no other god but Him. Now
hath come unto you a clear (sign) from your Lord! This she-camel of Allah is
a sign unto you. So leave her to graze in Allah’s earth, and let her come to
no harm, or ye shall be seized with a grievous punishment. And remember
how He made you inheritors after the Ad people and gave you habitations in
the land: ye build for yourselves palaces and castles in (open) plains, and
carve out homes in the mountains; so bring to remembrance the benefits (ye
have received) from Allah, and refrain from evil and mischief on the earth.
3. He is no fool that gives what he cannot keep to gain what he cannot lose.
4. Suppose one of you has a hundred sheep and loses one of them. Does he
not leave the ninety-nine in the open country and go after the lost sheep until
he finds it?
I am the good shepherd; I know my sheep and my sheep know me...and I
lay down my life for the sheep ... No-one takes it from me, but I lay it down of
my own accord.
My sheep listen to my voice; I know them, and they follow me. I give them
eternal life, and they shall never perish.
5. If Allah so will, He could make you all one people: but He leaves straying
(should read: ‘leads astray’) whom he pleases, and He guides whom He
pleases: but ye shall certainly be called to account for all your actions.
6. The Lord is my shepherd, I shall lack nothing. He makes me lie down in
green pastures, he leads me beside quiet waters, he restores my soul. He
guides me in paths of righteousness for his name’s sake. Even though I walk
through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil, for you are with
me; your rod and your staff, they comfort me. You prepare a table before me
in the presence of my enemies. You anoint my head with oil; my cup
overflows. Surely goodness and love will follow me all the days of my life,
and I will dwell in the house of the for ever.
7. Grant me, Almighty God that I may circumspectly explore your will for my life,
that I may truly know it and completely fulfill it.
Arrange my life that it may bring honour to You and salvation to me.
Add to this, O Lord, a free heart, a strong heart, a vigilant heart, an
unchangeable heart.
Make me modest without presumption, serious without sadness, truthful
without deceit, brave without fear, active without being thoughtless.
Let my way reach its purpose safely. Let me set my hope on You forever,
You the loving God of my life.
8. Perish the hands of the Father of Flame! Perish he! No profit to him from all
his wealth, and all his gains! Burnt soon will he be in a fire of blazing flame!
His wife shall carry the (cracking) wood - as fuel! A twisted rope of palm-leaf
fibre round her (own) neck!
9. It is not important what people think or say to us, but what we are before
God. - It is not important what we do, but how we do it. - It is not important
that we escape suffering, but that suffering fulfils its purpose. - It is not
important when we die, but that we are ready to meet God!
10. Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not
proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no
record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It
always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres.
11. Fight those who believe not in God nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden
which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Apostle, nor acknowledge the
Religion of Truth (even if they are) of the people of the Book, until they pay
the Jizya5 with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.
12. God our Saviour... wants all men to be saved and to come to a knowledge of
the truth.
13. O ye that reject Faith! I worship not that which ye worship. Nor will ye
worship which I worship. And I will not worship that which ye have been wont
to worship, nor will ye worship that which I worship. To you be your Way,
and to me mine.
14. You know that the rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their high
officials exercise authority over them. Not so with you. Instead, whoever
wants to become great among you must be your servant, and whoever
wants to be first must be your slave - just as the Son of Man (Jesus) did not
come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many.
15. By the Sun and his (glorious) splendour; by the Moon as she follows him; by
the Day as it shows up (the Sun’s) glory; by the Night as it conceals it; by the
firmament and its (wonderful) structure; by the Earth and its (wide) expanse;
by the Soul and the proportion and order given to it; and its enlightenment as
to its wrong and its right. (should read as in older translations (according to
the Mishkat): ‘... and breathed into it (i.e. the soul) wickedness and piety’.).
Truly he succeeds that purifies it. And he fails that corrupts it!
16. God, Who needs nothing, loves into existence wholly superfluous creatures
in order that He may love and perfect them.
17. The teachers of the law and the Pharisees brought in a woman caught in
adultery. They made her stand before the group and said to Jesus, ‘Teacher,
this woman was caught in the act of adultery. In the Law Moses
commanded us to stone such women. Now what do you say?’ They were
using this question as a trap, in order to have a basis for accusing him.’
But Jesus bent down and started to write on the ground with his finger.
When they kept on questioning him, he straightened up and said to them, ‘If
any one of you is without sin, let him be the first to throw a stone at her.’
Again he stooped down and wrote on the ground.
At this, those who heard began to go away one at a time, the older ones first,
until only Jesus was left, with the woman still standing there. Jesus
straightened up and asked her, „Woman, where are they? Has no one
condemned you?’ ‘No one, sir,’ she said.
Then neither do I condemn you,’ Jesus declared. ‘Go now and leave your life
of sin.
Sources:
1. Francis of Assissi 1182- 2. Surah 7:73-74 3. Jim Elliot – “Martyr for the
1226 AD Gospel in the Amazon
Jungle”, 1956
4. Luke 15:3-4, John 10:14, 5. Surah 16:93 6. Psalm 23
18, 28
7. Thomas Aquinas 1224- 8. Surah 111:1-5 9. Eva von Thiele-Winkler
1274
10. 1 Corinthians 13:4-7 11. Surah 9:29 12. 1 Timothy 2:4
13. Surah 109:1-6 14. Matthew 20:25-28 15. Surah 91:1-10
16. C.S. Lewis (‘The Four 17. John 8:3-11
Loves’)
The Qur’an is claimed to be the Final Revelation and to

Abrogate all Former Ones
According to present day Islam the Qur’an is now replacing all former
revelations. They got lost or were corrupted, it is said. All ‘former
revelations’, including the Bible, are assumed to have formerly been
synonymous with the message of the Qur’an. The Word of God exists
eternally, and is uncreated in heaven. All Scriptures were replicas thereof.
But only the Arabic Qur’an is viewed to be a true replica of this now. This
is the Islamic response to the dilemma that ‘the former Scriptures’ carry
very differing messages as compared with the Qur’an.
4.1.11 The Sources Of The Qur’an

Islam builds its faith and practice on the assumption that the Qur’an is a
revelation from God (it is considered ‘nazil’, i.e. come down from heaven).
Every religion with such a claim must be prepared to provide evidence
supporting its ‘nazil’ character.
The very word revelation suggests that something hitherto unknown and/or
inaccessible to the human mind, is now, by supernatural means, made
accessible. In the case of the Qur’an, a substantial part can be shown to
have been existing knowledge that was accessible to Muhammad.
We are aware of a very substantial number of Bible stories which are

contained in the Qur’an. They often differ greatly from their biblical
originals. We shall find these to be Talmudic, Apocryphal or heretical
stories, which, in addition, can be proven to be historically and/or biblically
untrue. Jews and Christians criticized Muhammad for this. In return he
attacked them by claiming that they perverted their Book.
There is among them a section who distort the Book with their
 tongues; (as they read) you would think it is a part of the Book but
it is no part of the Book; and they say ‘That is from Allah’ but it is
not from Allah: it is they who tell a lie against Allah and (well) they
know it! Surah 3:78
Commendably, Muhammad differentiated between

the ‘Book’ (i.e. the Bible) and what the Jews
‘knowingly distorted with their tongues’. This does
not even faintly suggest in any way that the Qur’an
claims the Scripture to have been changed. We
have no choice but to conclude that the Qur’an is
to a large extent an inaccurate conglomerate of
often ill-perceived religious stories, which
circulated in Arabia at the time of Muhammad.
The Jewish Talmud
Concepts taken from the Pagan Arabian Past

Allah
Allah is the Arabic word for God, which the local pagans, as also the Jews
and Christians, used. This name was no innovation of Muhammad, as can
be deduced from the names of some of his contemporaries. His father’s
name was Abd-allah (slave of Allah), and his uncle was called Obeid-allah.
Besides, the infidels of Mecca never objected to Muhammad’s reference to
Allah, for this was a kind of chief deity among the others.
The Ka’ba
The Ka’ba (today also called the ‘Holy Masjid’) was already described as a
shrine of worship by Deodorus Sicolus in 60 BC. It was used for idol
worship and occult practices long before the time of Muhammad, who then
linked it to Abraham and Ishmael, even Adam, to give it credence.
The Hajj
The pilgrimage to the Ka’ba was also practiced long before Muhammad’s
time. Like today, it included circumambulating the Ka’ba, the kissing of the
Black Stone, visits to the hills of Safa and Marwa including the run
between the two hills, and also the throwing of stones against a stone pillar,
symbolizing Iblis (the devil), in Wadi Mina. Also the slaughtering of
sacrifices at Mina was a heathen practice. Muhammad attributed a new
history and meaning to this pagan cult.
The Ritual Prayers

The now extinct tribe of the Sabaeans22, who lived in the Arabian
Peninsular, observed seven daily prayers at appointed times. Muhammad
selected five of these for his followers, including their names and gave it
legitimacy by claiming that this was ordained by God, while on his nightly
journey to heaven (‘miraj’). The Sabaeans also prayed for the dead, a
custom that has been adopted by Islam.
Fasting During Ramadaan

The Sabaeans fasted thirty days every year and celebrated the Eid-festival
at the end as the breaking of the fast. The fast was prolonged by one day,
should the new moon not be clearly visible on Eid. This practice was also
incorporated into the new religion of Islam. In the Mishna Berkhoth
(Jewish Talmud) it is said that fasting should begin and stop at the time
when one can begin to distinguish between a white and black cotton-thread.
This custom has also been incorporated into Islamic traditions.
We cannot accept that these imitations are purely coincidental. We hold
that they were known to Muhammad, and that he incorporated them into
the Qur’an, while others were incorporated into the Hadith.
The assumption that the Ka’ba, the Hajj, the Fast and the Prayer regulations
date back to Abraham and Ishmael, who introduced them to Arabia, cannot
possibly be established. It is unbiblical and highly unlikely to have survived
22
See Bible, Job 1:15
2 500 years of verbal transmission in a pagan society, when no acceptable

source provides any evidence for this.
Qur’anic Concepts taken from the Jewish Talmud

In the Arabian Peninsula a number of Jewish communities had settled in
the diaspora following the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. These seem
to have largely been guided by legends (Haggada etc.) and Talmudic
writings, rather than the Torah. Many Jews at the time believed that the
Talmud had been added to the ‘preserved tablets’ (i.e. the Ten
Commandments, which were kept in the Ark of the Covenant and were
believed to be replicas of the heavenly books). Muhammad edited these
sources, and not the Bible, into the Qur’an.
Satan’s Refusal This report from Surah 2:34 can be traced to the Talmud
to worship Adam (“Islam” by A. Guillaume, p. 62).
Cain and Abel The way the story of Cain and Abel is related in Surah
5:30-35 shows quite clearly that this is copied from the
Targum of Jonathan-ben-Uzziah, the Targum of Jerusalem
and Pirke Rabbi Eleazar.
Abraham Whatever Muhammad knew about Abraham is not from the

Bible, but from Jewish legends, the source being the
Midrash Rabbah (Surahs 2:260; 6:74-84; 19:42-50; 21:52-
72; 26:70-82; 29:16+17; 37:83-89; 43:26-30; 60:4).
The Visit of the This is fancifully described in Surah 27:17 ff. Like the other
Queen of Sheba stories, it does not reflect the Bible at all. We can
nd
determine the source, however, which evidently is the 2
Targum of the Book of Esther (paraphrased translation),
although Muhammad reports this as to be from the Bible.
Harut and Marut These two angels are mentioned in Surah 2:102. Harut and
Marut were idols worshipped in Armenia. Their existence
was inspired by Marut, the Hindu god of the wind. We find
this story related in the Talmud (Midrash Yalzut, Chapt. 44).
Seven Heavens The reports of these in Surahs 15:44 and 17:44 have their
and Seven Hells source in the Jewish tradition called Hagigah and Zuhal.
Qur’anic Concepts taken from the Apocrypha

The Apocrypha is a collection of legends and stories about Jesus, mainly
from the second Century, which were not accepted as Scripture by the early
Church, because they could not be linked to the Apostles, and consequently
lacked authenticity. Christian sectarians that had accommodated the
Apocrypha and their teaching must have found their way to the Arabian
Peninsula. Muhammad had obviously heard these fables, believing they
were part of the Gospel. Also one of Muhammad’s concubines, Mary, the
Copt, could have related these stories to him, as well as Waraqqa ibn
Naufal, a cousin of Muhammad’s first wife Khadijah, who is called a
Christian in the Hadith. It is undeniable that these legends rather than the
authentic Bible found their way into the Qur’an.
Jesus
Jesus’ name in the Arabic Qur’an is Isa. In Surah 19:16-31 it is related that
He was born under palm trees. This story can be traced back to the ‘History
of Nativity’, an apocryphal writing. When, according to the Qur’an, Mary’s
family rebuked her for having a child outside a marriage bond, the newborn
Jesus speaks out of the cradle in defence of his mother. The source of this
legend is the so-called ‘Gospel of Infancy’. (Both sources are not biblical,
but are apocryphal).
In Surahs 3:49 and 5:113 it is related that as a child Jesus formed a bird out
of clay. By breathing on it, he made it come alive so that it flew away. This
story comes from the so-called ‘Gospel of Thomas’ (Apocrypha). In Surah
4:156 it is related that Jesus was neither killed nor crucified. The source is a
Docetic or Gnostic heresy, promoted by Basilides, an early Christian
heretic of the second century.
The Hadith speaks of the return of Jesus in a way that is foreign to the
Bible. At his return to earth, he will supposedly live forty years, marry and
have children, then die and be buried next to Muhammad in Medina.
The Trinity
Christians are surprised to discover in Surahs 5:116 and 5:75+76 that the
Trinity comprises of God, Mary and Jesus. This thought is foreign to
Christians and the Bible, but no doubt finds its origin in the veneration of
Mary as ‘The Mother of God’, something still practiced in the Catholic and
Orthodox communities.
The Virgin Mary

Christians read with astonishment in Surah 19:28+29 that Mary, the Mother
of Jesus, was a sister of Aaron. Learned men of Islam, who are aware that
Miriam, the sister of Aaron, and Miriam or Mary, the mother of Jesus, are
separated by a gap of 1 500 years, try to explain that Mary, the mother of
Jesus, also had a brother who was also named Aaron. Since Mary is also
called the daughter of Imran (Surah 66:12), the Amram of Exodus 6:20, we
have to dismiss this attempt to cover up a historic blunder in the Qur’an.
Amram was indeed the father of Aaron, Moses and Miriam. To top it all,
Jalalu’d Deen had stated that Mary’s mother was Hannah, as mentioned in
1.Sam.1. If that would be correct, she would have lived about 1 000 years
before her ‘daughter’.
‘The Gospel of James’, another apocryphal book, was the source of the
report that the girl Mary lived in the Temple, receiving food from angels,
and that Joseph was chosen to be her husband by miraculous rods, as the
Qur’an reports (Surah 3:35+36.42-47).
Miraj
This describes the ascension of Muhammad to the Seventh Heaven during a
miraculous nightly journey from Mecca to Jerusalem on a horse-like beast,
called Buraq. This story is related to us in Surah 17. More detail is
furnished by al-Bukhari (4.429, 4.462, 6.240, 7.482, 7.508, 8.583, 8.610)
and Tirmizi (1445, 5920). We can trace this story back to a fictitious book
called the ‘Testament of Abraham’, which was written in Egypt (200 BC)
and then translated into Greek and Arabic.
The Cave of the Seven Sleepers

It is not difficult to detect the striking resemblance of this story from Surah
18:9-26 to a book called the ‘Story of Martyrs’ by Gregory of Tours. It is a
legendary tale of Christians under persecution who fell asleep in a cave for
200 years. The Qur’an prolongs this to 309 years.
All this is a hopeless mix-up of historical events. Why should we, in the
light of this, believe the Qur’an to be true and the Bible to be corrupted?
All the evidences point to the opposite.
Qur’anic Concepts taken from Eastern Sources

Paradise
The description of Paradise in Surahs 55:56 and 56:35+36, which speak of
“wide-eyed Houris with eyes like pearls, a recompense for what they
laboured”, has interesting parallels in the Zoroastrian religion of Persia,
where their name is not Houris, but Paaris.
Balances
For some strange reason, people of the Western World entertain the
unbiblical idea of a set of balances, which God will operate on the Day of
Judgement to weigh our good and bad deeds against each other, to
determine whether we qualify for heaven or hell. In stark contrast to this
the Bible teaches explicitly and repeatedly that justification is by faith, and
not by good deeds, although these will be the outflow of their faith.
Although the balance and judgement concept is found in the Qur’an in
Surahs 101:5+6 and 42:7, we discover that the original source is the
‘Testament of Abraham’. ‘The Book of the Dead’, also from Egypt, refers
to judgement by Osiris, an Egyptian deity, and here the same concept of
judgement by balances is used.
The Sirat
This is a bridge that supposedly leads over an abyss with hell below on the
way to Paradise, and which only the good people will be able to cross. This
concept was well known in Persia, and is called Chinavad (the connecting
link) in the Zoroastrian book ‘Dinkart’.
Qur’anic Concepts borrowed from the Hanifs (Hanifites)

Hanifs are supposed to have been followers of the true religion of
Abraham, men who rejected the polytheistic worship prevalent in pre-
Islamic Mecca. In contrast to the pagans they believed in one God, the
‘God of Abraham’. While the Qur’an makes no direct mention of these

men, and only one or two AHadith refer to them, the biography of
Muhammad by Ibn Ishaq gives some detail. Four men are mentioned by
name. We must assume that their knowledge about the one God of
Abraham did not have its source in oral transmission from the time of
Abraham, but rather from their contact with the Jews who lived in their
neighbourhood.
The Hanifs, the Qur’an and the Hadith, had a common belief. All three
rejected idol worship and the burying of infant girls, which was an Arabian
practice. They accepted the ‘unity of God’, whatever that is supposed to
mean, believed in Paradise and hell, and call Allah ‘Lord Most Merciful
and Compassionate’. It is most probable that Muhammad, when he
withdrew to the cave of Hira, met Zaid-ibn-Amr, one of them. The
Meccans too rejected him. It was for the statement ‘I worship the God of
Abraham’. He had been expelled from Mecca and lived on Mount Hira. In
pre-Islamic Arabia the word Hanif meant ‘unclean’ or ‘apostate’, because
Hanifs had abandoned their former religion. Muhammad gave this word a
positive connotation. It now means ‘one that is inclined to God’, or is
simply taken to mean ‘orthodox’. By implication Abraham was a Hanif
(Surahs 4:125; 3:95 and 6:161). The Meccans were strongly admonished by
Muhammad:

Verily my Lord hath guided me to a way that is straight, a religion
of right the path (trod) by Abraham the true in faith and he
(certainly) joined not gods with Allah. Surah 6:161
It is sad to realize that today’s Muslims do not follow the faith of Abraham.
Had they turned to the Taurat for their knowledge about him, history would
have taken another course.
It is revealing to consider the lives and fate of the four Hanifs as told in the
“Siratu’l Nabi” by ibn Ishaq, the earliest biographer of Muhammad:
One day when the Quraysh had assembled on a feast day to

venerate and circumambulate the idol to which they offered
sacrifices, this being a feast which they held annually, four men
drew apart secretly and agreed to keep their counsel in the
bonds of friendship. They were Waraqa b.Naufal, Ubaydullah
b.Jahsh, whose mother was Umayma d.’Abdu’l Muttalib, Uthman
b.al-Huwayrith and Zayd b.’Amr. They were of the opinion that their people had
corrupted the religion of their father Abraham, and that the stone they went
round was of no account; it could neither hear, nor see, nor hurt, nor help.
‘Find for yourselves a religion’, they said, ‘for by God you have none’. So they
went their several ways in the lands, seeking the Hanifiya, the religion of
Abraham.
Waraqa attached himself to Christianity and studied its Scriptures until he had
thoroughly mastered them. ‘Ubaydullah went on searching until Islam came;
then he migrated with the Muslims to Abyssinia taking with him his wife who
was a Muslim, Umm Habiba. When he arrived there he adopted Christianity,
parted from Islam, and died a Christian in Abyssinia. After his death the
apostle married his widow Umm Habiba. Uthman b.al-Huwayrith went to the
Byzantine emperor and became a Christian. He was given high office there.
Zayd b.’Amr stayed as he was: he accepted neither Judaism nor Christianity.
He abandoned the religion of his people and abstained from idols, animals that
had died, blood, and things offered to idols. He forbade the killing of infant
daughters, saying that he worshipped the God of Abraham, and he publicly
rebuked his people for their practices.
Hisham b.’Urwa from his father on the authority of his mother Asma d.Abu
Bakr said that she saw Zayd as a very old man leaning his back on the Ka’ba
and saying: ‘O Quraysh, By Him in whose hand is the soul of Zayd, not one of
you follows the religion of Abraham but I’. Then he said: ‘O God, if I know how
you wished to be worshipped I would so worship you; but I do not know’. Then
he prostrated himself on the palms of his hands.
Siratu’l Rasul, by Ibn Ishay, pp. 98-100:‘Four Men Who Broke With
Polytheism’
Most significant is perhaps a statement of Ubaid Ubaydullah b.Jahsh:
While living there [i.e. Ethiopia], he converted to Christianity and
 died a Christian. After his conversion, he said to his companions

who had migrated with him to Abyssinia, ‘We have clearly come
to know the truth, but you still search for it and have not yet seen
anything ‘.
With these words he employed an expression that is used when a young dog
opens its eyes for the first time, seeing nothing clearly. Siratu’l Nabi
Can one reasonably assume that the many similarities between the Qur’an
on the one hand, and the Apocrypha, Talmudic, Persian and other writings
are purely coincidental? The odd one may well be. Knowing that there was
contact between Muhammad and Jews and sectarian Christians, who used
the stories which reappeared in the Qur’an, we have little choice but to
assume that the Qur’an was authored by Muhammad. The dissimilarities
between the Bible text and its fanciful and incorrect appearance in the
Qur’an cannot be explained other than that Muhammad’s knowledge of the
Bible was at best scanty and poor, and that he was misled into believing
that the legendary tales he heard were actually biblical.
We also remember Salman, the Persian, who is mentioned in the Siratu’l
Nabi and indirectly in the Qur’an. He was suspected by the contemporary
Arabs of being someone who taught Muhammad (Surah 16:102,103).
(Much of the above information has been gleaned from “The Sources of
Islam” by W. St.Clair-Tisdall.)
4.2 The Hadith

4.2.1 Introduction and Definition
The aHadith (pl. of Hadith) are a collection of traditions about
Muhammad’s life. The purpose is twofold:
● to interpret the meaning of the Qur’an rightly (called Tafsir).
● to be able to imitate the life style of Muhammad. Such imitation
is considered to be highly meritorious. This is called Sunnah (=
‘path’, ‘way’, ‘manner of life’).
“Since only a few people are sure of the morality of their actions, it has always
been considered a ‘good’ way to do what most people do. To copy the one who
was Allah’s chosen Prophet, who must have been well-pleasing to Allah, is surely
to follow the best example.” (Jens Christensen)
In the Hadith the Muslim seeks guidance for his life-style. According to
Islam, good deeds and right action earn eternal life in Paradise, and these
are obtained by ‘al-hidaya’, ‘right guidance’. Since Muslims consider
Muhammad’s life and everyday walk and talk to have been inspired,
copying what he did, seems to Muslim believers the safest way to please
Allah. In real terms the religious life of Muslims centers more on the
Hadith than on the Qur’an:
Some of us met to exchange Hadith reports. One fellow said:
 ‘Enough of this! Refer to the Book of Allah’. Imran b. Husain said:

‘You are a fool! Do you find in the Book of Allah the prayers
explained in detail? Or the Fast? The Qur’an refers to them in
general terms only. It is the Sunnah which supplies the detailed
explanation’. L’tibar, by al Hamda
Although the aHadith were collected and written down much later (about
250-300 years), the imitation of Muhammad’s life was encouraged by him
from the beginning:
Yahya related to me from Malik that he heard that the
 Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace,
said, ‘I have left two matters with you. As long as you hold to
them, you will not go the wrong way. They are the Book of Allah
and the Sunna of His Prophet. Al-Muwatta, 46.3
Narrated Abu Huraira that he heard Allah’s Apostle saying, ... “He who obeys
me, obeys Allah, and he who disobeys me, disobeys Allah.
al-Bukhari Vol. 4, p. 128-129, No 204
In practical terms it looks somewhat like this:
Narrated by Zaid bin Aslam from his father who said: Umar bin
 Al-Khattab addressed the Corner (Black Stone) saying, ‘By Allah!

I know that you are a stone and can neither benefit nor harm.
Had I not seen the Prophet touching (and kissing) you, I would
never have touched (and kissed) you.’ Then he kissed it.
al-Bukhari Vol. 2, p. 394-395, No 675
Abdullah ibn-Umar was seen riding his camel in a circle at a certain place.
When questioned about the purpose of this exercise, he said: „That I know
not, only I have seen the Prophet do so here.”
Ahmad-ibn-Hanbal would not eat watermelon, because although he knew
the Prophet ate them, he did not know whether he ate them with or without
the rind, or whether he broke, bit or cut them. Even so, his action was not
Sunnah, for Muhammad did eat watermelons!
4.2.2 The Contents of the Hadith

These cover just about every aspect of life:
The Qur’an and its revelation and collection, faith, knowledge, ablution
(ritual washings), prayers, funerals, charity, the pilgrimage, fasting,
business of all kinds, slavery, testaments, the ‘holy war’, prophets,
particularly the virtues of Muhammad, marriage, divorce, food and eating,
medicines, sacrifices, dress and manners, pre-destination, oaths,
inheritance, punishment, treatment of apostates from Islam, dreams,
cleanliness and eternal judgment, but also trivial things such as sneezing,
yawning, the trimming of a beard, the use of perfume, the cleaning of the
teeth and nose and the use of a toilet.
Other aHadith deal with dietary prescriptions, hygiene, perfume and an
insight into paradise:
Ibn ‘Abbas reported Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him)
 as saying: ‘When any one of you eats food he should not wipe his
hand until he has licked it or got it licked by someone else’. Jabir
reported that Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him)
commanded the licking of fingers and the dish, saying: ‘You do
not know in what portion the blessing lies’.
Ibn ‘Abbas reported Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying:
‘When any one of you eats food he should not wipe his hand until he has licked
it or got it licked by someone else’.
Sahih Muslim Vol. 3, p. 1119-1120, No 5037-5038
Umm Sulaym reported that ‘Allah’s Apostle (peace be upon him) visited her
house and (took rest) and she spread a piece of cloth for him and he had a
siesta on it. And he sweated profusely and she collected his sweat and put it in
a perfume and in bottles. Allah’s Apostle (peace be upon him) said: Umm
Sulaym, what is this? She said: It is your sweat, which I put in my perfume.
Jabir reported: ‘I heard Allah’s Apostle (peace be upon him) as saying that the
inmates of paradise would eat and drink but would neither spit, nor pass water,
nor void excrement, nor suffer catarrh. It was said: Then, what would happen
with food? Thereupon he said: They would belch and sweat (and it would be
over with their food), and their sweat would be that of musk and they would
glorify and praise Allah as easily as you breathe.
Sahih Muslim Vol. 4, p. 1479-1480, No 6798
On a more serious level, all that Muslims should and should not do is laid
down. Some selected aHadith may convey to us the spirit of the legalism
involved.
Narrated Abu Talha: The Prophet said, ‘Angels do not enter a
 house in which there is a dog or there are pictures.’

Narrated Aisha: ‘I purchased a cushion with pictures on it. The Prophet (came
and) stood at the door but did not enter. I said (to him), ‘I repent to Allah for
what (the guilt) I have done.’ He said, ‘What is this cushion?’ I said, ‘It is for
you to sit on and recline on.’ He said, ‘The makers of these pictures will be
punished on the Day of Resurrection. al-Bukhari Vol. 7, p. 543, No840
“Narrated Aisha: ‘the Prophet entered upon me while there was a curtain
having pictures (of animals) in the house. His face got red with anger, and then
he got hold of the curtain and tore it into pieces. The Prophet said, ‘Such
people as paint these pictures will receive the severest punishment on the Day
of Resurrection.” al-Bukhari Vol. 8, p. 83-84, No 130
These aHadith are responsible for Muslim homes being decorated almost
exclusively with pictures of the Ka’ba or Qur’an verses in calligraphic
(ornamental) writing. All other motifs are ‘haraam’, that is forbidden.
Ironically we see Muslims use a camera and watching TV!
Buraida reported on the authority of his father that ‘Allah’s
 Apostle (peace be upon him) said: He who played chess is like

one who dyed his hand with the flesh and blood of swine.’
Jabir b. ‘Abdullah reported Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him) as
saying: None of you should lie on his back and place one of his feet upon the
other.
Narrated Asma: A woman asked the Prophet saying, ‘Oh Allah’s Apostle! My
daughter got measles and her hair fell out. Now that I got her married, may I let
her use false hair?’ He said (to her), ‘Allah has cursed the lady who lengthens
hair artificially and the one who gets her hair lengthened artificially.
al-Bukhari Vol. 7, pp. 536-537. No 824
Yahya related to me from Malik that Humayd ibn Qays al-Makki said, ‘A man
came to the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace,
with the two sons of Jafar ibn Abi Talib. He said to their nursemaid, ‘Why do I
see them so thin?’ Their nursemaid said, ‘Messenger of Allah, the evil eye
goes quickly to them. Nothing stops us from asking someone to make
talismans (using ayats of Qur’an) for them, except that we do not know what of
that would agree with you.’ The Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and
grant him peace, said, ‘Make talismans for them. Had anything been able to
precede the decree, the evil eye would precede it. Malik’s Muwatta 50, No 2.3
Abd Huraira reported Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying:
‘Let there be the curse of Allah upon the thief who steals an egg and his hand
is cut off, and steals a rope and his hand is cut off.
Some aHadith will cause us to smile. We obviously have to take them with
a ‘pinch of salt’:
Ibn Umar reported Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him)
 as saying: that a non-Muslim eats in seven intestines whereas a

Muslim eats in one intestine.
Sahih Muslim Vol 3, p. 1137, No 5113
Abu Hurairah reported that the Messenger of Allah said: ‘When a fly falls in
[sic] the utensil of some one of you, immerge [sic] it, because there is disease
in one of its wings and cure in another, and also because it first throws its
wing wherein there is disease. So immerge [sic] it entirely.
Mishkat Vol. 2, p. 152, No 109
Another Hadith records:

Narrated Abu Huraira: The Prophet said, ‘Allah loves sneezing
 but dislikes yawning; so if anyone of you sneezes and then

praises Allah, every Muslim who hears him (praising Allah) has
to say ‘Tashmit’ to him. But as regards yawning, it is from Satan,
so if one of you yawns, he should try his best to stop it, for when
anyone of you yawns, Satan laughs at him
The commentator of the Mishkat explains:
Yawning is the result of sloth and sluggishness and has
 therefore been termed coming from the devil, and sneezing is

the result of sound brain and sound health and is therefore
termed as coming from an angel. Whenever a man yawns, he
should cover his mouth with cloth or hands, as something
injurious may enter there.
The Hadith collector Muslim in another footnote throws more light on this
topic:
Sneezing was spoken of as good as it makes the brain clear, and
 yawning was spoken of as coming from the devil as it comes out

as a result of sloth and idleness.
Mishkat Vol. 1, p. 590, Fn. 497
The son of Abu Sa’id al-Khudri reported on the authority of his father that
Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: ‘When one of you yawns,
he should try to restrain it with the help of his hand since it is the Satan that
enters therein. Sahih Muslim Vol. 4, p. 1540, No 7131
4.2.3 The Collection and Trustworthiness of the

Hadith
As soon as Muhammad had died, questions regarding the fulfilment of the
demand to live according to the Sunnah, arose. And from that time the
Traditions were used to find the respective answers. It became an oral
tradition, which was handed down from generation to generation for 250
years and more.
One can hardly expect distortions or inaccuracies to be avoided. And that
happened. In addition, theologians who needed backing for certain
interpretations of their own, supported what they wanted to propagate, with
aHadith of their own making.
Sober scrutiny will cast doubt on the reliability of many a Hadith. The
mode of collection, selection and collation by the recognized Hadith
collectors adds to the dilemma. To give an example: Abu Da’ud, one of
them, accepted only 4 800 traditions out of a mass of 500 000. Although he
must have been very critical in his assessment and selection, he states that
he has written down only “those which seem to be authentic and those
which are nearly so.” (Ibn-Khalikan, Vol. 1, p. l59)
Of 40 000 Hadith transmitters, who had been instrumental in handing down
Traditions, al-Bukhari acknowledges only 2 000 as reliable authorities.
From 600 000 aHadith that he had gathered, he selected a mere 7 200, of
which about half are duplicates of others. Each selection was done
according to the judgement of only the one individual collector. Al-Bukhari
selected 1.2% of the available material well over 200 years after the
recorded events supposedly took place. By comparison we would today
have to think of the reconstruction of happenings that had been orally
transmitted from the time of George Washington and the American War of
Independence, or the composer Frederick Haendel.
Strangely, the chief method for establishing the trustworthiness a Hadith, is
the identification of the ‘chain of transmitters’ (arab.‘isnad’). This is
supposed to detect any unreliable Tradition. A typical ‘isnad’ looks
somewhat like this: “Abu Hurairah reported on the authority of Zaid ibn
Sabet who told Nu’man ibn Amr who heard it from Safwan ibn Solaim
that: ...”
The actual Hadith content (arab. matn) then follows such a chain of
reference.
A grading into degrees of reliability was introduced. A Hadisu’s-Sahih is a
‘genuine tradition’, handed down by truly pious persons, distinguished for
their integrity. Then we find the Hadisu’s-Za’if, which is a ‘weak tradition’.
Another school divides them into ‘exhorted traditions’, ‘restricted
traditions’ and ‘intersected traditions’. Yet another one divides the Hadith
into ‘undoubted tradition’, ‘well-known tradition’, ‘rare tradition’, ‘poor
tradition’ and a ‘single saying’. All this after having been extensively sifted
by the collectors!
From the host of Tradition-collections (some 1465!), Muslim scholars have
selected six, which, according to their judgment, were authentic. These are
now called the ‘correct books’ (Sihahu’s Sittah) and are named after their
collectors:
1. al-Bukhari (256 AH) = AD 871

2. Muslim (261 AH) = AD 876
3. at-Tirmizi (279 AH) = AD 894
4. Abu-Da’ud (275 AH) = AD 889
5. Abu-Abdi’r-Rahman (303 AH) = AD 916
6. Abu Abdi’llah Muhammad (273 AH) = AD 886
In addition we also have to mention the Mishkat (or more exactly, the
‘Mishkatu’l-Masabih’):
...being a collection of most authentic sayings and doings of the

Prophet Muhammad selected from the most reliable collections of
Hadith literature...
The whole of the theological and judicial system and its

practical application is, apart from the Qur’an, based on these books.
4.2.4 Islamic Teaching on Obedience to the

Traditions
The commentary of the ‘Mishkat’ teaches Muslims:
The traditions of the Holy Prophet have got paramount
 importance side by side with the Qur’an in the formation of a

religious life of a human being for the attainment of perfection.
Indeed the Qur’an minus Hadis remains unintelligible in many
cases in the work-a-day life of a man. It is the very injunction of
the Qur’an to follow the Prophet in all his deeds and sayings. Therefore, if the
Qur’an is believed, there is no other alternative, but to believe in the Hadis of
the Prophet. Some of the verses that have been revealed in this connection
are as follows: ‘Say, if you love Allah, then follow me, Allah will love you (Surah
3:30).
Most certainly it is the word of an honoured Apostle, the possessor of strength,
having an honourable place with the Lord of the Throne - one to be obeyed,
and faithful in trust…
‘And whatever the Apostle giveth you, accept; and whatever he forbiddeth you,
keep back, and be careful of your duty to Allah’. (Surah 59:7)…
And it behoves not a believing man and a believing woman that they should
have any choice (in their matter) when Allah and His Apostle have decided a
matter; whoso disobeys Allah and His Apostle, he surely strays off a manifest
straying. (Surah 33:36)…
Jaber reported that the Messenger of Allah said on the Farewell Pilgrimage:
‘And I have left among you a thing which if you adhere to, you will never be
misguided after me - the Book of Allah and what you get from me by
questions.’ (1:118) This refers to Hadis…
‘Whoso obeys me shall enter Paradise and whoso disobeys me, has indeed
rejected truth. (1:97) Once a copy of the Torah was seen in the hand of a
companion. The prophet got enraged and said: By One in whose hand there is
my life, had Moses come to you and you would have followed him and left me,
you would have certainly gone astray from the right path. Had Moses been
alive and would have reached my prophethood, he would have certainly
followed me.’ (I:20w)...
Jalalud-din Sayuti says: ‘If one seeks the Qur’an he shall seek ‘Sunnah’
because it is the commentary of the Qur’an and its explanation. Darimi
reported that Hasan said: Gabriel revealed ‘Sunnah’ to the Holy Prophet as He
revealed the Qur’an to him. He says also that ‘Sunnah’ is a judge upon the
Qur’an and not the Qur’an upon Sunnah. Hedayah says: Hadis is a hidden
revelation and that which differs from Hadis to the extent of a hair shall be
given up.
From the above verses, traditions and sayings of theologians, it is now beyond
question that all Muslims to whatever ages and climes do they belong, must
necessarily follow the Hadis of the Holy Prophet.
Mishkat Vol. 1, p. 3-5, introduction
The commentator of the Hadith of Sahih Muslim exhorts:
We have been told in clear terms that the Holy Prophet (may
 peace be upon him) neither said anything nor did anything of his
own accord; whatever he said and whatever he did emanated
from the Lord:
‘He does not speak of his own desire’ Surah 53:8
‘Say, I follow only that which is revealed to me from my Lord’ (Surah 7:203).
All the utterances and deeds of the Holy Prophet (may peace be upon him) are
thus divinely inspired, and in them alone can one find the true meaning and the
real significance of the Will of Allah.
Mere transmission of the Book of Allah to the people faithfully and sincerely
does not exhaust the Prophet’s duties. On him also lies the responsibility of
explaining the real purpose of the Qur’anic teachings and then giving them a
visible shape so that mankind may see, along with the injunctions of Allah, the
process of their transformation into reality and the outward forms in which they
are to be crystallised.
Words alone, however powerful and however pointed, cannot be fully
comprehended unless these conjure before our minds definite forms and
shapes. Similarly, precepts, however valuable, can be best understood only
when these are supported by living examples.
It is indeed a boundless favour of Allah to humanity that, along with His
message, He also sent to us His Messenger to elaborate and elucidate it, and
then transmute it into practical reality under his direct guidance.
And We have sent unto thee the Admonition that thou mayest expound unto
mankind that which hath been revealed towards them.
As a final dispenser of the Message of Allah, the Prophet alone is best fitted
and, therefore, divinely authorized to determine the meanings of the Holy
Qur’an, to unfold before humanity the deep wisdom contained in it...
The Prophet is no doubt human, but his leadership is divinely inspired and
none can be called a Muslim who does not accept this basic doctrine of the
Holy Qur’an.
Say (O Muhammad): If you love Allah, follow me and Allah will love you and
forgive you your sins; for Allah is Forgiving, a Dispenser of Mercy
(Surah 3:31).
It is by following Muhammad (may peace be upon him) that we can achieve
the cherished goal of winning Allah’s favour...
Some of the misguided people suggest that the commands of the Holy Prophet
(may peace be upon him) were valid only during his lifetime, and that now
when he is no more amongst us, we need follow only the injunctions of the
Holy Qur’an and treat the Hadith as an account of the past which has some
allusions to the life of the Holy Prophet (may peace be upon him), having no
practical value as a code of life. These so-called pseudo-reformers [sic] little
realise that a denial of the eternal validity of the Sunnah amounts to a denial of
the Holy Qur’an’s claim that the prophethood of Muhammad (may peace be
upon him) is not time-bound; it is universal and the Prophet’s words and deeds
are the timeless expressions of the Will of Allah.
Say: O mankind! Surely I am the Messenger of Allah to you all, of him Whose
is the Kingdom of the heavens and the earth. There is no god but He: so
believe in Allah and His Messenger, the ummi Prophet, who believes in Allah
and His words, and follow him so that you may be guided aright (Surah 7:158).
Muhammad (may peace be upon him) is the Messenger of Allah for the whole
of mankind; no new prophet is to be raised after him. His prophethood is thus
both universal and eternal. It is, therefore, an integral part of one’s faith in the
prophethood of Muhammad (may peace be upon him) that his words and
deeds should always be taken as one of the two most reliable sources of right
guidance...
The study of the records of the AHadith and the life-history of those who
maintained them proves beyond any shadow of doubt that the preservation of
the Hadith was not an after-thought, conceived long after the death of the Holy
Prophet (may peace be upon him). It started right during his lifetime and was
continued immediately after him with full earnestness and religious fervour,
because it had to serve eternally as the fountain-head of right guidance.
Sahih Muslim, Vol. 1, p. 1-4, introduction
4.2.5 A Christian Evaluation Of The Hadith

The system of thought in Islam has at all times focused on what a Muslim
must do. Performance is seen to be the key to redemption. Submission and
the gaining of merit are the focal point of its religion.
Instead, the focus should be on God. Who is He? What is He like? How can
we relate to Him? Will He be satisfied with man’s effort to score a little
better, or by submissiveness, which is expressed in a thousand forms? A
relationship of love is reciprocal. It rests on the devotion of our hearts and
not a slavish submission.
We cannot fail to discover how the strict observance of the Traditions puts
a Muslim into a legalistic straightjacket of “Do’s” and “Don’ts”. Questions
of what is ‘halaal’ (= permitted), and what is ‘haraam’ (= forbidden) direct
the everyday life of a Muslim.
Christians are no longer under the law. The following passages will remind
us that Christ has ‘set us free’ (Galatians 5:1).
Jesus said:
Don’t you see that whatever enters the mouth goes into the
 stomach and then out of the body? But the things that come out
of the mouth come from the heart and these make a man
‘unclean’. For out of the heart come evil thoughts, murder,
adultery, sexual immorality, theft, false testimony, slander. These are what
make a man ‘unclean’, but eating with unwashed hands does not make him
‘unclean’. Matt 15:17-20
See to it that no-one takes you captive through hollow and deceptive
philosophy, which depends on human tradition and the basic principle of this
world rather than on Christ ... Therefore do not let anyone judge you by what
you eat or drink or with regard to a religious festival, a new moon celebration or
a Sabbath day. These are a shadow of the things that were to come; the
reality, however, is found in Christ....
Since you died with Christ to the basic principles of this world, why, as though
you still belonged to it, do you submit to its rules: ‘Do not handle! Do not taste!
Do not touch?’ These are all destined to perish with use, because they are
based on human commands and teachings. Such regulations indeed have an
appearance of wisdom, with their self-imposed worship, their false humility and
their harsh treatment of the body, but they lack any value in restraining sensual
indulgence. Col 2:8, 16-23
... gifts and sacrifices being offered were not able to clear the conscience of
the worshipper. They are only a matter of food and drink and various
ceremonial washings - external regulations applying until the time of the new
order. When Christ came as high priest of the good things that are already
here, he went through the greater and more perfect tabernacle that is not man-
made, that is to say, not a part of this creation. He did not enter by means of
the blood of goats and calves; but he entered the Most Holy Place once for all
by his own blood, having obtained eternal redemption. Heb 9:8-12

• An Introduction to Qur’anic Studies, The true Guidance 4, Light of Life, 1994,
155 pages.
• Introduction to the Qur’an, Bell and M. Watt, Edinburgh Un4. Press 1970, 250
pages.
• The Teaching of the Qur’an, H.U.W. Stanton, Biblo & Tannen, N.Y. 1969, 130
pages.
• Christians ask Muslims, Gerhard Nehls, LCA 1992, pp. 89-102, 124-132. (a
critical investigation of the claims of Islam regarding its Books, faith and
practices)
• Ishmael, my Brother, Anne Cooper, MARC, Evangelical Missionary Alliance,
1993, pp. 77-97.
• Jam’ Al-Qur’an, The Codification of the Qur’an Text, John Gilchrist,

MERCSA, 1989, 154 pages. (proves that there were several phases in the
compilation of the standardised form of the Qur’an by surveying the earliest
records. This detailed study rejects the claim that the Qur’an is of divine
origin)
• The Qur’an - the Scripture of Islam, John Gilchrist, MERCSA, 1995, 147
pages (the structure and teaching of the Qur’an, its impact on modern
Muslims, but also the Qur’an’s origin and collection are dealt with
respectfully but not without putting forward some pertinent questions)
• The Collection of the Qur’an, John Burton, Cambridge University Press 1977,
270 pages. (a scholarly investigation in the composition of the Qur’an)
• The Sources of Islam, W. St. Clair-Tisdall,transl. And abridged by Sir W.
Muir, Edinburgh: Light of Life, 1900
• Materials for the History of the Text of the Qur’an, Arthur Jeffrey, Brill,
Leiden 1937, 360 pages. (a compilation of the variant readings of the early
Qur’an collections from the ‘Kitab al-Masahif’ by ibn Abi Dawud)
• A ‘Perfect’ Qur’an, Brother Mark, aperfectQur’an_bookqueries@iname.com,
400 pages. (a critical assessment of the claim that the Qur’an was never
changed)
• The Qur’an and its Exegesis, Helmut Gatje, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London
1971, 300 pages. (a concise application of Islamic Theology)
• Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law, Ignaz Goldziher, Princeton Univ.
Press 1981, 300 pages. (a study of the development of Islam and its theology
and law)
• Do’s and Do Not’s in Islam, Abdur Rehman Shad, Yaj Publishers, Bombay
1992, 300 pages. (a compilation of aHadith for the Muslim reader to outline
his religious duties)
• Battle for the Hearts, Episode 3, The Qur’an – The book of Islam.TWR &
LCA, 2001.
• Battle for the Hearts, Episode 4:1, The Hadith – The traditions of Islam.TWR
& LCA, 2001.
• Handout: Comparison between the Qur’an and the Bible
131
5 Allah – His Nature and Essence

The Word “God” has Many Meanings
Let us be aware of the word God. It is a ‘multi-cultural’ name, used for a
great number of deities (gods) or concepts. Buddha of the Far East, Vishnu,
Krishna, Shiva, and thousands of others in India, not to mention the many
deities in Africa, South America and Australia, are all called gods. Are they
all the same? Of course not!
Recognizing the True God

We recognize a person by his or her features. Our friends know us by our
looks and our voice, and we recognize them the same way. We may well
say we all have a head with two ears, a nose, a mouth and hair etc. We all
have a body with two arms and hands, two legs and feet, and inside us
blood, flowing in veins, a heart, lungs, a stomach, intestines etc. etc. So we
are all the same. Are we really? Can we distinguish one from another? Of
course we can, and we do.
We cannot recognize Yahweh or Allah in the same, physical manner. We
can recognize them only by what they reveal of themselves. Both claim to
be the Creator of the world. Both claim to be almighty, all knowing, and
present everywhere. Both have given mankind rules of behaviour, and both
claim to be the Judge at the ‘Last Day’. Both speak of themselves as being
merciful and forgiving. Both mention in their revelations Adam and Noah,
Abraham and Moses, David and Jesus and many others. So far the
similarities go.
But we can easily detect existential differences. These may be subtle, but
are important indeed and need to be formulated and recognized; not to be
difficult or sow dissention; not to create unnecessary boundaries or to
create enmity; but to avoid deception.
5.1 The Nature and Essence of God in

Islam and the Bible
Islam assumes that Allah is the biblical Yahweh Elohim, the God of
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Muhammad thought so, and the Qur’an
expresses that in no uncertain terms:
Dispute ye not with the People of the Book [Jews and Christians],
 except with means better (than mere disputation), unless it be

with those of them who inflict wrong (and injury); But say: ‘We
believe in the Revelation which has come down to us and in that
which came down to you; our Allah and your Allah is One; and it
is to Him we bow (in Islam)’. Surah 29:46
Say ye: ‘We believe in Allah, and the revelation given to us, and to Abraham,
Ismail, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes, and that given to Moses and Jesus and
that given to (all) prophets from their Lord; We make no difference between
one and another of them; and we bow to Allah (in Islam)’. Surah 2:136
We can read similarly in Surahs 3:2-3; 4:136; 5:47, 71; 10:17, 94; 6:92;
4:47; 21:7! These statements are supposed to be believed and accepted by
every Muslim. But this is generally not done.
5.1.1 Had the Knowledge of God been Kept Alive in

Arabia since Hagar and Ishmael?
Muslims are made to believe that knowledge of God (Allah) was
transmitted within their Arab society and culture of old by word of mouth,
from the time of Hagar and Ishmael to Muhammad (2000 BC - AD 610). It
was suppressed for a time by idol worship prior to the coming of
Muhammad, but was upheld by the Hanifs, the people who kept on
believing in the God of Abraham. This assumption cannot be substantiated
and is a highly unlikely proposition. We will rather have to assume that the
knowledge of Abraham and the rest of the biblical characters was
transmitted to both the Hanifs and Muhammad, and by that to the Muslim
world, through the Jews and Christians in Arabia.
Allah – His Nature and Essence 133
5.1.2 The historical roots of the word ‘Allah’

Throughout the Middle East, from Turkey via Mesopotamia to Egypt, by
the Sabaeans, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians and Canaanites, a moon-
god was worshiped. His wife was the sun and their daughters were the
stars. This is reflected in Scripture (Deut 4:19, 2 Ki 3:5, Jer 8:2); for even
the Israelites were tempted to worship them.
In the middle of the last Century (1950) archaeologists G. Caton
Thompson, Carlton S. Coon, Wendell Phillips, the famous W.F. Albright
and Richard Bower were at work at Qataban, Timna, Marib, the former
capital of Sheba, and other places. They found thousands of inscriptions on
walls and rocks in Northern Arabia, as well as reliefs and pictures of the
three daughters of the moon-god al-Lat, al-Uzza and Manat with the
Crescent Moon above them. The name of the moon-god was Sin, but his
title was al-Ilah, i.e. ‘the god’. (This information is supplied by Dr. Robert
Morey). So ‘al-Ilah’, later transformed to ‘Allah’, became the common
name for God, also among the Christians and Jews in Arabia. Muhammad
most likely drew his concept of God largely from these.
5.1.3 Who is Allah?

Allah, as understood in Islam, is ‘taweed’’, absolute singular. He has no
partners! (Surah 6:22-24.136-137.163). He also has no son! (Surahs 2:116;
6:100; 19:85; 23:91; 112:1-4). His attributes emphasise that he is merciful,
gracious and all-forgiving. That again is flatly contradicted by the Islamic
doctrine of Predestination (Surah 5:20; see also chapter ‘Predestination’).
He is understood to be distant from man, although the Qur’an also says:
“We [i.e. Allah] are nearer to him [i.e. man] than his jugular vein” (Surah
50:16).
Muslims interpret this to mean the closeness to Allah. In a sense this is true.
But why speak of jugular vein and not that he is nearer than ones skin, or
hair, or perhaps heart, or a friend? The context suggests that this closeness
inspires a threat rather than comfort. A jugular vein is cut to kill!
1. Allah was known and worshipped by pagans long before
 Muhammad’s time as a chief deity, somewhat representative of

his ‘daughters’ or minor deities. Through the teaching of
Muhammad he became a somewhat misunderstood or
misrepresented form of the God of Abraham, and was given a
somewhat biblical appearance.
2. The description of Yahweh Elohim (in the Bible) and Allah (in the Qur’an) vary
strongly in much of the finer detail. However, both are viewed to be the creator,
almighty etc., and the judge of mankind on the Last Day.
3. Muhammad - the only witness to the Qur’an, and by that also of Islam - does not
biblically qualify for prophethood, particularly since his message differs
fundamentally from biblical Scripture, which was revealed to many prophets over a
period of 1400 years. There is also no other acceptable, evidenced reason by which
Muhammad should be classified as a messenger from God among the biblical
writers whom he contradicts. (Read: ‘The Islamic-Christian Controversy).
4. There is no convincing evidence for the divine origin of the Qur’an.
5. Arab Christians use the name Allah for the God of the Bible, because it is the
Arab word for God. In the Arabic Bibles the Word Elohim or Theos (= God) is
always translated as Allah. This goes far back in history!
It follows that:

If the revelation, nature and expression of Allah in the Qur’an,
does not coincide with those of the Bible, the Qur’anic Allah
cannot be Yahweh Elohim, the God of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob
and Israel, the father of our Lord Jesus Christ.
In fairness to both, Muslims and Christians, we would like to present three

assessments or presentations on the topic “Who is Allah.” First a
theological investigation followed by statements of two of the foremost
theologians of Islam, Al-Ghazzali and Al-Barqawi.
In the Dictionay of Islam (by T.P. Hughes) we read:

Allah is supposed to be derived from ilah, a deity or god with the
addition of the definite article al-Al-ilah, “the God” - or, according
to some authorities, it is from lah, i.e. Al-lah, “the secret one”. But
Abu Hanifah says that just as the essence of God is
unchangeable, so is His name, and that Allah has ever been the name of the
Eternal Being.
Allah may be an Arabic rendering of the Hebrew El, and the unused root Ul, “to
be strong”, or from Eloah, the singular form of Elohim... Another word very
frequently used for the Almighty in the Qur’an is Rabb, which is generally
translated in English versions of the Qur’an, “Lord”. It seems to stand in the
relative position of the Jehovah of the Old Testament and the kyrios of the New
Testament. The word is understood by Muslims to mean “the sustainer”, but it
is probably derived from the Hebrew rabbah, “a stronghold”, or from its root
rab, which, according to Gesenius, means “a multitude”, or anything of size or
importance...
A belief in the existence of God, His Unity, His Absolute Power, and in the
other essential attributes of an Eternal and Almighty Being, is the most
important part of the Muslim religion, and is supposed to be expressed in the
two clauses of the well-known formula: There is no deity but Allah.
The first clause, ‘There is no deity’ is known as the Nafi, or that which is
rejected, and the second clause, ‘but Allah’, as the Isbat, or that which is
established, the terms Nafi wa-Isbat being applied to the first two clauses of
the Muslim’s Kalimah, or creed.
The teaching of Muhammad in his Qur’an as to the nature of God forms such
an important consideration in an exposition of Islam, that no apology is
needed...
The following verses are arranged in chronological order according to
Jalalu’ddin as-Sayuti’s list: [- for full and lengthy quotations from that book on
the subject.] (Surah 112:1-4 [one of the earliest chapters of the Qur’an])
Say, He is God, One (God) God the Eternal, Absolute. He begetteth not, nor is
He begotten. And there is none equal unto Him.
Dictionary of Islam, by T. P. Hughes, pp. 141-144
They say, ‘(Allah) Most Gracious hath begotten a son!’ Indeed ye
 have put forth a thing most monstrous. At it the skies are ready to
burst, the earth to split asunder, and the mountains to fall down in
utter ruin. That they should invoke a son for (Allah) Most
Gracious. For it is not consonant with the majesty of (Allah) Most
Gracious that he should beget a son. Not one of the beings in the heavens and
the earth but most come to (Allah) Most Gracious as a servant. He does take
an account of them (all) and hath numbered them (all) exactly. And every one
of them will come to Him singly on the Day of Judgement. On those who
believe and work deeds of righteousness, will (Allah) Most Gracious bestow
love. Surah 19:88-96
And your Allah is One Allah. There is no God but He, Most Gracious, Most
Merciful. Behold! In the creation of the heavens and the earth; in the
alternation of the night and the day; in the sailing of the ships through the
ocean for the profit of mankind; in the rain which Allah sends down from the
skies, and the life which He gives therewith to an earth that is dead; in the
beasts of all kinds that he scatters through the earth; in the change of the
winds, and the clouds which they trail like their slaves between the sky and the
earth; (Here) indeed are signs for a people that are wise.Yet there are men
who take (for worship) others besides Allah as equal (with Allah). They love
them as they should love Allah. Surah 2:163-165
Allah! There is no god but He - the Living. The Self-subsisting, Eternal. No
slumber can seize Him nor sleep. His are all things in the heavens and on
earth. Who is there [sic. should read ‘there who’] can intercede in his presence
except as he permitteth? He knoweth what (appeareth to His creatures as)
Before or After or Behind them. Nor shall they compass aught of his
knowledge except as he willeth. His throne doth extend over the heavens and
the earth, and he feeleth no fatigue in guarding and preserving them for he is
the Most High, the Supreme (in glory). Surah 2:255
Say: ‘O Allah! Lord of Power (and Rule), Thou givest Power to whom Thou
pleasest, and Thou strippest off Power from whom Thou pleasest.’ Thou
enduest with honour whom thou pleasest, and Thou bringest low whom Thou
pleasest; in Thy hand is all Good. Verily, over all things Thou hast power.
Thou causest the Night to gain on the Day, and Thou causest the Day to gain
on the Night; Thou bringest the Living out of the Dead, and Thou bringest the
Dead out of the Living; and Thou givest sustenance to whom Thou pleasest
without measure. Surah 3:26+27
Let us follow this up with extracts written by two well-known and

generally accepted Islamic theologians of old. For the sake of brevity we
have selected the passages that are in contrast to a biblical understanding.
Al-Ghazzali (1058-1111) in his book ‘al-Maqsadu’l-asna’ describes the
attributes of Allah, namely His power, His knowledge, His will, His word,
and His works:

(His word) He does speak, command, forbid, promise, and
threaten by an eternal, ancient word, subsisting in His essence.
Neither is it like to the word of the creatures, nor does it consist in
a voice arising from the commotion of the air and the collision of
bodies, nor letters which are separated by the joining together of the lips or the
motion of the tongue. The Qur’an, the Law, the Gospel, and the Psalter, are
books sent down by Him to His apostles, and the Qur’an, indeed, is read with
tongues, written in books, and kept in hearts.
(His works) He, praised be His name, exists after such a manner that nothing
besides Him has any being but what is produced by His operation, and flows
from His justice after the best, most excellent, most perfect, and most just
model. He is, moreover, wise in His works, and just in His decrees. But His
justice is not to be compared with the justice of men. For a man may be
supposed to act unjustly by invading the possession of another; but no
injustice can be conceived by God, inasmuch as there is nothing that belongs
to any other besides Himself, so that wrong is not imputable to Him as
meddling with things not appertaining to Him. All things, Himself only excepted,
genii (spirits), men, the devil, angels, heaven, earth, animals, plants,
substance, accident, intelligible, sensible, were all created originally by Him.
He created them by His power out of mere pr4ation (necessity), and brought
them into light, when as yet they were nothing at all, but He alone existing from
eternity, neither was there any other with Him. Now He created all things in the
beginning for the manifestation of His power, and His will, and the confirmation
of His word, which was true from all eternity. Not that He stood in need of
them, nor wanted them; but He manifestly declared His glory in creating and
producing, and commanding, without being under any obligation, nor out of
necessity. Loving kindness, the showing of favour and grace, and beneficence,
belong to Him; whereas it is in His power to pour forth upon men a variety of
torments, and afflict them with various kinds of sorrows and diseases, which, if
He were to do, His justice could not be arraigned, nor would he be chargeable
with injustice.
Yet he rewards those that worship Him for their obedience on account of his
promise and beneficence, not of their merit nor of necessity, since there is
nothing which He can be tied to perform; nor can any injustice be supposed in
Him, nor can He be under any obligation to any person whatsoever. That His
creatures however, should be bound to serve Him, arises from His having
declared by the tongues of the prophets that it was due to Him from them. The
worship of Him is not simply the dictate of the understanding, but He sent
messengers to carry to men His commands, and promises, and threats, whose
veracity He proved by manifest miracles, whereby men are obliged to give
credit to them in those things that they relate.
Al-Maqsadu’l-asna, by Al-Ghazzali
Imam al-Barqavi was a celebrated Qur’an commentator and Tradition
collector (died 1132). He wrote in his “Haft sifat”:

God Most High is alone to be adored. He has neither associate nor
equal. He is free from the imperfections of humanity. He is neither
begotten nor does He beget. He is invisible. He is without figure,
colour or parts. His existence has neither beginning nor end. He is immutable.
If He so wills, He can annihilate the world in a moment of time and, if it seems
good to Him, recreate it in an instant. Nothing is difficult to Him, whether it be
the creation of a fly or that of the seven heavens. He receives neither profit nor
loss from whatever may happen. If all the Infidels became believers and all the
irreligious pious, He would gain no advantage. On the other hand, if all
Believers became infidels, He would suffer no loss…
He can do what he wills, and whatever He wills comes to pass. He is not
obliged to act. Everything, good or evil, in this world exists by His will. He wills
the faith of the believers and the piety of the religious. If He were to change His
will there would be neither a true believer nor a pious man. He willeth also the
unbelief of the unbeliever and the irreligion of the wicked and, without that will,
there would neither be unbelief nor irreligion. All we do we do by His will; what
He willeth not does not come to pass. If one should ask why God does not will
that all men should believe, we answer: ‘We have no right to enquire about
what God wills and does. He is perfectly free to will and to do what he pleases’.
In creating unbelievers, in willing that they should remain in that state; in
making serpents, scorpions and pigs; in willing, in short, all that is evil, God
has wise ends in view which it is not necessary that we should know.
5.1.4 The Essence of Allah

Allah Is The All-Powerful
He is the creator of all, as we already noted. “All things...genii (= spirits),
men, the devil, angels, heaven, earth, animals, plants, substance, accident,
intelligible, sensible, were all created originally by Him. Everything, good
or evil, in this world exists by His will. He is perfectly free to will and to do
what he pleases, in creating unbelievers, in willing that they should remain
in that state. He wills also the unbelief of the unbeliever and the irreligion
of the wicked. He is perfectly free to will and to do what he pleases.”
That must be the reason, why we find a prayer of Muhammad in the
Qur’an, which reads:

Say: I seek refuge with the Lord of the dawn, from the mischief of
created thing Surah 113:1-2
While Christians emphasize God’s foremost attribute in the Bible, which is

love, Muslims emphasize Allah’s foremost attribute, and that is power.
Whether it is in prayer, in the call to prayer from the minaret, or in political

gatherings, we hear “Allah-u-aqbar!” - Allah is the greatest.
Allah Is One
The so-called ‘unity of Allah’, ‘tawhid’, is possibly the most fundamental
theme in Islamic theology. A condensed concept of this is found in the
“Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam”:
Tawhid, means literally ‘making one’ or ‘asserting oneness’
 (Lane, p. 2927). In consequence, it is applied theologically to the

oneness (wahdaniya, tawahhud) of Allah in all its meanings. The
word does not occur in the Kur’an ... But unity is far from being a
simple idea; it may be internal or external; it may mean that there
is no other god except Allah, who has no partner (sharik); it may mean that
Allah is a Oneness in himself; it may mean that he is the only being with real or
absolute existence (al-hakk), all other beings having merely a contingent
existence; it may even be developed into a pantheistic assertion that Allah is
All. Again, knowledge of this unity may be reached by the methods of
systematic theology (‘ilm) or by religious experience (ma’rifa, mushahada); and
the latter, again, may be pure contemplation or philosophical speculation.
H. A. R. Gibb and J. H. Kramers, p. 586
Whatever ‘unity’ in essence means, the chief purpose is obviously to

exclude any other deity - and Jesus, as he is portrayed in the Bible, is one of
them, according to Islam.
Allah Is Altogether Different

He is ‘mukhalifa’. Any description or attribute that one can apply to man
cannot be used for Allah.
Allah Is Distant
He is ‘tanzih’, i.e. far removed from man and lives detached in his glory.
5.1.5 Yahweh Elohim

Over against the Islamic view of God we have the biblical one. Yahweh (=
Lord) revealed Himself as Elohim (= plural form of God), implying His
triune essence: God the Creator and Father, God the Son and Restorer or
Redeemer, and the Spirit of God, the guide for His people (Isa 63:8-10).
Yahweh is holy. Because holiness and unholiness cannot be harmonised

nor can they exist alongside each other, He wants and expects us to be holy
as well (Heb 12:14). Therefore, Yahweh revealed His righteous standards
to man.
These are foundational and conditional to our relationship with Him. But
man - every man - fell short of this standard, either by choice or being
compelled by his ‘fallen nature’ (Rom 1:18-32; 2:12-16; 7:10-24).
This caused the separation of man from God, which is all too obvious when
we observe mankind with its thoughts and deeds. Unfortunately, man
cannot do anything to remedy that! However, in His love and compassion,
God, right from the beginning, made a plan to reconcile and rescue man
from this dilemma (Ge 3:1-15, 21; 2Co 5:19).
May we try to illustrate in simple terms what the mind cannot really
fathom. Being holy and righteous, God utterly condemns sin. Every sin!
Condemnation will be followed by the execution of the judgement. Because
of His love and mercy, however, the holy Judge took our sin on Himself,
and He was executed in our stead. “In Christ” God was the “Lamb of God,
who carries away the sin of the world” (John 1:29). In this way Yahweh’s
holiness and righteousness were met in that sin was punished. And
Yahweh’s love and mercy were satisfied: He rescued and purified us by
placing our sin on Jesus, who carried our punishment, so that we may have
peace with Him and live with Him forever. This is the great theme of the
Bible!
On the cross the holiness and righteousness of God and His love met. Now
every sinner has the chance to find forgiveness and reconciliation with
God. The only condition is to trust in what God has revealed and done.
That is what biblical faith actually implies.
5.1.6 Islam’s Reaction To The Triune God

Yahweh revealed Himself as the One, but triune God. What does that
imply? That Christians worship three gods, as many Muslims seem to
assume? Certainly not! From the very first verse in the Bible and
throughout the ‘Old Testament’, God calls Himself ‘Elohim’, that is exactly
translated ‘Gods’. Yet, God is a unity, God is one (Deut 6:4-5; see also Eph
4:5-6): “The Lord our God, the Lord is one!” Very revealing is the way this
text is rendered in the original Hebrew: “Yahweh eluhenu Yahweh echad”,
which verbally translated means: “The Lord, our Gods, the Lord is one (or
a unity)”.
Some time later (Isa 63:7-10) God explained this mystery. This text speaks
of “the kindness of the Lord”, who “became their Yeshua (i.e. Saviour).”
When Jesus lived here on earth, his Hebrew name was actually ‘Yeshua
haMashiach’, in English ‘Jesus the Messiah’. The text goes on to tell us that
the people “rebelled and grieved his Holy Spirit”, that is God’s Holy Spirit.
So the name Elohim is rather an explanation of God’s essence than a
statement of polythetism.
So one ‘facet’ of this triune God is the Lord Jesus Christ, also called the
Son of God, and another is the Holy Spirit. We state this without apology!
This is how God revealed Himself in Scripture. This is strongly
contradicted by the Qur’an:
They do blaspheme who say: ‘Allah is Christ the son of Mary’.
 But said Christ: ‘O Children of Israel! Worship Allah, my Lord and

your Lord’. Whoever joins other gods with Allah, Allah will forbid
him the garden, and the fire will be his abode. There will for the
wrong-doers be no one to help.
They blaspheme who say: Allah is one of three in a trinity; for there is no god
except One Allah...
Christ the son of Mary was no more than an apostle; many were the apostles
that passed away before him. His mother was a woman of truth, they had both
to eat their (daily) food. Surah 5:75-78
This spells out the perception Muhammad had of the Trinity: God + Mother
Mary + Christ, the son. The response is also notable: “They (i.e. Mary and
Christ) had both to eat their (daily) food”. Since one cannot assume that
God has any physical needs, it was clear to Muhammad that the two could
not have been divine.
O people of the book! Commit no excesses in your religion: nor
 say of Allah aught but truth. Christ Jesus the son of Mary was (no
more than) an apostle of Allah. And His Word, which he bestowed
on Mary, and a spirit proceeding from Him: so believe in Allah and
His apostles. Say not ‘Trinity’: desist. It will be better for you: For Allah is One
Allah. Glory be to Him; (For exalted is He) above having a son. To Him belong
all things in the heavens and on earth. And enough is Allah as a Disposer of
affairs. Surah 4:171
It is not befitting to (the majesty of) Allah that He should beget a son. Glory be
to Him! When He determines a matter, He only says to it, ‘Be’, and it is.
Surah 19:35
The Jews call ‘Uzair a son of Allah, and the Christians call Christ the Son of
Allah. That is a saying from their mouths; (In this) they but imitate what the
Unbelievers of old used to say. Allah’s curse be on them: how they are
deluded away from the Truth! Surah 9:30
There appears to be no way to reconcile the Biblical and the Qur’anic view
of God.
5.1.7 The Mercy and Grace of God

The Mercy And Grace Of Allah In Islam
Every Surah (chapter) in the Qur’an (except Surah 9, which seems to have
been part of Surah 8 before), begins with the ‘Bismillah’: “In the name of
Allah, most gracious and most merciful.” Ibn-Hazm, another theologian,
observes:
While the Qur’an uses the name Allah, which means ‘the most
 merciful of those who show mercy’, this cannot mean that he is

merciful in the way we understand the word, for Allah is evidently
not merciful. He tortures his children with all manner of
sicknesses, warfare and sorrow. What then does the Qur’an
mean? Simply that ‘merciful’ is one of Allah’s names. A name that is not in any
way descritive of Allah or man to throw light on his nature. We must use it
because the Qur’an uses it, but not pretend to understand what is meant by it.
The word originally used in the Qur’an must have had a different meaning in
that day, which we cannot really understand today. Nevertheless, we must
continue to use the word, because we cannot change the words of the Qur’an.
The words ‘mercy’ and ‘grace’ have, no doubt, a meaning different to the Bible.
According to the Qur’an, this means a host of things. Beginning with Paradise
(Surah 3:107), the Knowledge of Allah (Surah 18:65), the Qur’an (Surahs
7:204; 17:82; 10:57), the Books of Moses (Surah 11:17), the biblical Apostles
(Surah 12:11), livelihood in this world (Surah 43:32; 35:3), not to drown (Surah
36:43-44), ships sailing on the sea (Surah 30:46; 42:32), the cycle of seasons
(Surah 30:48-50), hearing, sight, intelligence, affection, homes, garments and
even armour (Surah 16:78-81), women for the men (Surah 30:22), marriage
(Surah 25:54), purity of heart (Surah 14:21), comfort and ease (Surah 18:16),
domestic animals (Surahs 16:5-13; 42:29; 36:71-73), night and day (Surahs
28:73; 25:47), rain, wind and clouds (Surahs 25:48; 42:28; 2:164; 31:31),
averted penalty (Surah 6:16), honour (Surah 19:50), guidance through
darkness on land and sea (Surah 27:63) are all called mercy or grace and are
obtained by regular prayer (salat) and charity (Surah 14:56). It is granted to
those who do good (Surah 7:50), because of righteousness (Surah 21:75, 86),
and is ordained for all Christians (Surah 57:27). Allah’s revelation is mercy, but
admission to Allah’s mercy is granted only to whom he wills (Surah 48:25).
Mercy is a treasure (Surah 18:82) and prevents the sky from falling onto the
earth (Surah 2:65). In Surah 55 we find a condensation of some of these.
The Mercy And Grace Of God In The Bible

Grace, according to the Bible, is God’s unmerited favour to man. Because
all men have trespassed against God’s Law, which constitutes His will for
us, grace is God’s means to effect reconciliation with Him.
In addition we know what in theological language is termed ‘common
grace’. This more or less coincides with the Qur’anic list. But foremost and
in addition, God offers His ‘saving grace’. While common grace is God’s
provision for our livelihood, saving grace is concerned with the rescue from
the consequences of sin. It constitutes God’s offer to forgive and pardon us.
‘I will frown on you no longer, for I am merciful,’ declares the
 LORD, ‘I will not be angry forever. Only acknowledge your guilt-

you have rebelled against the LORD your God, you have
scattered your favors to foreign gods under every spreading tree,
and have not obeyed me,’ declares the LORD. ‘Return, faithless
people,’ declares the LORD, ‘for I am your husband.
Jer 3:12-14
The offer is mercy and grace. Man’s positive response leads to forgiveness
and restoration. In His saving grace God demonstrates his love, mercy and
compassion. Jesus had to suffer and die to effect this salvation.
As for you, you were dead in your transgressions and sins, in
 which you used to live when you followed the ways of this world
... , gratifying the cravings of our sinful nature and following its
desires and thoughts. Like the rest, we were by nature objects of
wrath. But because of his great love for us, God, who is rich in
mercy, made us alive with Christ even when we were dead in transgressions-it
is by grace you have been saved. And God raised us up with Christ and
seated us with him in the heavenly realms in Christ Jesus, in order that in the
coming ages he might show the incomparable riches of his grace, expressed in
his kindness to us in Christ Jesus. For it is by grace you have been saved,
through faith-and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God-not by works, so
that no one can boast. Eph 2:1-9
I am the good shepherd; I know my sheep and my sheep know me-just as the
Father knows me and I know the Father-and I lay down my life for the sheep. I
have other sheep that are not of this sheep pen. I must bring them also. They
too will listen to my voice. John 10:14-16
I did tell you, but you do not believe. The miracles I do in my Father’s name
speak for me, but you do not believe because you are not my sheep. My sheep
listen to my voice; I know them, and they follow me. I give them eternal life,
and they shall never perish; no one can snatch them out of my hand. My
Father, who has given them to me, is greater than all; no one can snatch them
out of my Father’s hand. John 10:25-28
Salvation by grace is the unique offer of God in the Bible to all people who
seek forgiveness and want to live a life under the care of God.
5.1.8 The Love of God

Allah’s Love In Islam
Allah is considered to be altogether other than man (‘mukhalafa’) and holy
(‘qudzi’). Whatever can be said of man can never apply to Allah. He has no
needs whatever. Al-Ghazzali illustrates it:
Love is to sense a need of the beloved, and since Allah cannot be
 said to have a need or an experience of a need, it is therefore

impossible that Allah should love. Compare John 3:16 with this
Allah is demonstrated as the sovereign who is above all and

does what he pleases. He is totally detached and unrestricted, as we already
saw in the previous chapter.
It would be unjust, however, to say that ‘love of Allah’ does not feature in
the Qur’an. Here is a list of all instances of Allah’s love that appear in the
Qur’an. First we look at the negative:
Allah does NOT love

● transgressors (Surah 2:190) ● those who do wrong (Surahs 3:140;
42:40)
● mischief and those who do it (Surahs
2:205; 28:77) ● arrogant boasters (Surahs 31:18;
57:23)
● ungrateful and wicked creatures (Surah
2:276) ● those who exult [in riches] (Surah
28:76)
● the treacherous (Surah 8:58)
● those who reject faith (Surah 30:45)
● wasters (Surahs 6:141; 7:31; 5:87
[those who live in excess, ● any traitors (Surah 22:38)
extravagant!])
● those given to perfidy and crime
● those who trespass beyond bounds [cheating] (Surah 4:107)
(Surah 7:55)
Allah loves
● those who do good (Surahs 2:195; ● those who love him (Surahs 3:31;
3:134; 5:93) 5:54)
● those who turn to him constantly and ● those who fight in his cause in battle
keep themselves pure and clean (Surah 61:4)
(Surahs 2:222; 9:108) ● the just (Surahs 49:9; 60:8; 5:42)
● those who believe and work deeds of ● the righteous (Surah 9:4,7)
righteousness (Surah 19:96)
● those who are kind (Surah 5:13)
This is the full list except for two passages:

He is oft-forgiving, full of loving-kindness. Surah 85:14
My lord is indeed full of mercy and loving-kindness.
Surah 11:90
The quoted texts describe the beneficiaries of Allah’s loving-kindness:

The pure, kind, just and righteous believers, those who do good, love Allah
and (if need be) fight for him in battle, and who do no mischief or exult in
riches or cheat, are not transgressors (of God’s law) or trespassers, live not
extravagantly in excess and waste, are not ungrateful or wicked, are not
arrogant or vainglorious or boasters, neither traitors and do no wrong. Who
of us qualifies?
The love of Allah is conditional, quite unlike the love of Yahweh and Jesus
Christ.
The Love Of God In The Bible

This is love: not that we loved God, but that He loved us... We
love, because He first loved us.” 1John 4:10, 19

If asked which is the most prominent characteristic of God’s nature, most
Christians would reply without hesitation love. A few passages from the
Word of God will demonstrate this convincingly:
I have loved you with an everlasting love; I have drawn you with
 loving-kindness. Jer 31:3

He said: ‘Surely they are my people, sons who will not be false to
me’; and so he became their Saviour. In all their distress he too
was distressed, and the angel of his presence saved them. In his love and
mercy he redeemed them; he lifted them up and carried them.
Isa. 63:8-9
For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever
believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his
Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him.
John 3:16-17
Jesus knew that the time had come for him to leave this world and go to the
Father. Having loved his own who were in the world, he now showed them the
full extent of his love.
John 13:1
As the Father has loved me, so have I loved you. Now remain in my love. If
you obey my commands, you will remain in my love, just as I have obeyed my
Father’s commands and remain in his love. I have told you this so that my joy
may be complete. My command is this: Love each other as I have loved you.
Greater love has no-one than this that he lay down his life for his friends.
John 15:9-12
God’s Son loves us and gave himself for us. Gal 2:2
Because of his great love for us, God, who is rich in mercy, made us alive with
Christ even when we were dead in transgressions - it is by grace you have
been saved. Eph 2:4-5
You see, at just the right time, when we were still powerless, Christ died for the
ungodly. Very rarely will anyone die for a righteous man, though for a good
man someone might possibly dare to die. But God demonstrates his own love
for us in this: While we were still sinners Christ died for us. Rom 5:6-8
Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall trouble or hardship or
persecution or famine or nakedness or danger or sword? As it is written: ‘For
your sake we face death all day long; we are considered as sheep to be
slaughtered.’ No, in all these things we are more than conquerors through him
who loved us. For I am convinced that neither death nor life, neither angels nor
demons, neither the present nor the future, nor any powers, neither height nor
depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the
love of God that is in Christ Jesus our Lord. Rom 8:35-39
The life I live in the body, I live by faith in the Son of God, who loved me and
gave himself for me. Gal 2:20
How great is the love the Father has lavished on us, that we should be called
children of God! 1John 3:1
God is love. This is how God showed his love among us: He sent his one and
only Son into the world that we might live through him. This is love: not that we
loved God, but that he loved us and sent his Son as an atoning sacrifice for our
sins. 1John 4:8-10, 16
We love because he first loved us. 1John 4:19
To him who loves us and has freed us from our sins by his blood, and has
made us to be a kingdom and priests to serve his God and Father - to him be
glory and power for ever and ever! Amen. Rev 1:5-6
It is surely significant that the word ‘love’ or related words are mentioned
more than 250 times alone in the New Testament (which is about 25%
longer than the Qur’an), whereas only 23 times in the Qur’an?
5.1.9 God’s Power

Allah’s Power In Islam
Allah’s power is absolute, over all. It is not necessarily restrained by his
norms of righteousness.
A comparison of God with a good shepherd (as in Ps 23, Lk 15:4-5 or John
10:14) or, more personally, with a bridegroom or husband (Isa 62:5, Jer 2:2
and 3:1.14), as the Bible does, is missing in the Qur’an. Indeed it might be
viewed as blasphemous.
The Muslim understands himself to be a slave under his Master, which is
not an unreasonable position for the created over against the Creator. Allah
is depicted as an authoritarian ruler. He did not reveal himself, but his laws.
He provides man with his guidance and demands his commands to be
carried out. However, all, even obedience to his Law, is predetermined by
his will:

If We [i.e. Allah] had so willed, we could certainly have brought
every soul its true guidance; but the word from me will come true,
‘I will fill hell with Jinns and men all together.
Surah 32:13
Had Allah willed He could have made you (all) one nation, but He sendeth
whom He will astray and guideth whom He will, and ye will indeed be asked of
what ye used to do.
Surah 16:93 (Pickthall)
Allah leads astray those whom He pleases, and guides whom He pleases. He
is the Mighty, the Wise.
Surah 14:4
Of the men He hath created: He forgiveth whom He pleaseth and He punishes
whom He pleaseth.
Surah 5:20
Read also Surahs 37:96; 76:29-30; 4:88; 16:36; 6:149; 7:158. This is
strongly supported by the Hadith.
Yahweh’s Power in the Bible

It would be incorrect to state that the Bible does not mention the
sovereignty and power of God:
God is exalted in His power! Job 36:22
 He heals the broken-hearted and binds up their wounds. He

determines the number of the stars and calls them each by
name. Great is our Lord and mighty power; his understanding
has no limit. Ps 147:3-5
No-one is like you, O Lord; you are great, and your name is mighty in power.
Who should not revere you, O King of the nations? This is your due. Among
all the wise men of the nations and in all their kingdoms, there is no one like
you. Jer 10:6-7
Tell them this: ‘These gods, who did not make the heavens and the earth, will
perish from the earth and from under the heavens’. But God made the earth by
his power; he founded the world by his wisdom and stretched out the heavens
by his understanding. Jer 10:11-12
Come and see what God has done, how awesome his works in man’s behalf!
He turned the sea into dry land, they passed through the waters on foot -
come, let us rejoice in him. He rules for ever by his power, his eyes watch the
nations - let not the rebellious rise up against him. Ps 66:5-7
Yahweh uses His power to benefit us:
His divine power has given us everything we need for life and
 godliness through our knowledge of him who called us by his

own glory and goodness. Through these he has given us his
very great and precious promises, so that through them you may
participate in the divine nature and escape the corruption in the
world caused by evil desires. 2Pet 1:3-4
For God did not give us a spirit of timidity, but a spirit of power, of love and of
self-discipline. 2Tim 1:7
I, the Lord, do not change! Mal 3:6

There is neither arbitrary action nor change in Yahweh.
Neither He nor His Word will change. He has committed
Himself to it - so we can fully trust it.
Every good and perfect gift is from above, coming down from the
 Father of the heavenly lights, who does not change like shifting
shadows. James 1:17
Because God wanted to make the unchanging nature of his
purpose very clear to the heirs of what was promised, he confirmed it with an
oath. God did this so that, by two unchangeable things in which it is impossible
for God to lie, we who have fled to take hold of the hope offered to us may be
greatly encouraged. We have this hope as an anchor for the soul, firm and
secure. Heb 6:17-19
In addition it must be said that Yahweh is

not the author of evil or sin, neither does He
will it. He temporarily tolerates it and uses
sorrow or distress as means to call people to
faith and by that to Himself. Only those who
die without having accepted the offered
pardon of God are lost and will be in hell. It
was their own choice!
You are not a God who takes pleasure in evil. With you the wicked
 cannot dwell. The arrogant cannot stand in your presence; you

hate all who do wrong. You destroy those who tell lies;
bloodthirsty and deceitful men the Lord abhors.
Ps 5:4-6
5.1.10 The 99 Most Excellent Names of Allah
 The most beautiful [or excellent] names belong to Allah, so call

on Him by them. Surah 7:180
According to a Hadith Muhammad said: “Allah has ninety-nine

Names, one-hundred less one; and he who memorized them all by heart
will enter Paradise.” To count something means to know it by heart.
(Narrated by Abu Huraira) (Sahih Al-Bukhari, Hadith 9.489, see also 3.894
and Tirmizi, Hadith 2285)
Based on this, many Muslims recite these names (often using a ‘Tasbih’, a
kind of rosary with 100 beads, one bigger one, stands for the name Allah,
and the others for the 99 names or attributes).
These are the names of Allah as mentioned in the Qur’an (x times):

1. The Merciful(169 17. The Provider 32. The Clement
(who provides all (Forbearing One) (12)
2. The Com- sustenance) (1)
passionate (114) 33. The Grand One (8)
18. The Opener (who
3. The King (6) opens all things 34. The Most Forgiving
and overcomes One (91)
4. The Most Holy
One (2) everything) (2) 35. The Grateful One
19. The Omniscient (expressing
5. The Peace (the thankfulness in rich
Sound One) (1) (the Knower)
(158) rewards) (4)
6. The Faithful One 36. The Exalted (Most
(giving safety and 20. The Restrainer
(who takes hold High One) (6)
security) (1)
and draws 37. The Great One
7. The Protector (and together)
guardian) 38. The Powerful Guardian
21. The Spreader (the preserver) (1)
8. The Unique and
Mighty One (89) 22. The Abaser (for 39. The Strengthener (who
unbelievers) provides his creation
9. The Super Strong all their needs) (1)
One (who compels 23. The Exalter (for
his creatures to believers) 40. The Reckoner (4)
obey) (1) 24. The One who 41. The Majestic (Sublime
10. The Supreme or exalts and raises One) (2)
Proud One (1) to honour
42. The Pure and
11. The Creator (8) 25. The Destroyer Generous One (3)
(who humbles)
12. The Maker 43. The Watcher of All (5)
(Originator of all 26. The All-Hearing
creation) (2) One (46) 44. The Approver (who
responds to every
13. The Fashioner 1) 27. The All-Seeing need) (1)
One (44)
14. The Forgiving One 45. The Comprehensive
(5) 28. The Ruler or One (with unlimited
Arbiter capacity) (9)
15. The Dominant
(Irresistible 29. The Just or 46. The Wise One (95)
Conqueror) (6) Righteous One
47. The One Who shows
16. The Bestower 30. The Subtle One Sympathy (2)
(giving freely and 31. The Aware One
richly) (3) 48. The Most Glorious One
(45) (2)
49. The Raiser (who 67. The Eternal (1) controls all
sends the dead to possessions) (2)
life) 68. The Mighty and
Powerful One 84. The Lord of all
50. The Witness (who (who does as he Majesty and Honour
is omniscient) (21) pleases) (44) (2)
51. The Right and the 69. The Prevailing 85. The Equitable One
Truth (who is One (4) (who hands out justice)
justice and the
reality) (8) 70. The One who 86. The Collector (who
brings forward combines everything to
52. The Advocate (and accomplish his
faithful trustee) 71. The Deferrer purpose) (2)
(13) (who keeps all at
a distance from 87. The Rich One (who is
53. The Strong (11) him) independent and
needs nothing) (18)
54. The Firm (and 72. The First (1)
Reliable One) (1) 88. The Enricher
73. The Last (1)
55. The Friendly 89. The Giver
Protector (21) 74. The Outwardly
Manifest and 90. The Withholder
56. The Praise-worthy Evident One (2)
One (17) 91. The Distresser (who
75. The Inward is responsible for evil)
57. The Counter (who (Hidden One) (2)
keeps exact 92. The Profiter (who is
statistics) 76. The Governor responsible for good)
58. The Beginner 77. The Exalted (1) 93. The Light (5)
(originator) 78. The Righteous 94. The Guide (and
59. The Restorer (12) Benefactor leader) (10)
(Dutiful One) (1)
60. The Quickener 95. The Incomparable
79. The One who Magnificent One (2)
61. The Killer causes and
receives (10) 96. The Enduring One
62. The Living one
80. The Avenger 97. The Inheritor
63. The Subsisting
One (who stands 81. The Pardoner 5) 98. The Director (who
firm in himself) gives judicious
82. The Kind and guidance) (1)
64. The Finder (who Indulgent One
has no needs) (10) 99. The Patient One
65. The One Glorified 83. The Ruler of the 100. [only the Camel
Kingdom (who knows☺]
66. The One and only
The contradicting statements of the Qur’an over against the Bible regarding
the essence, character and nature of Allah / Yahweh, and the contradicting
teachings of the two books on the Trinity, Jesus, the Messiah, and
salvation, are really irreconcilable. In the final analysis we have to
conclude, that although a lot of parallels exist, the center-piece of the Old
and New Testaments, the ‘Gospel’, which is God’s way to redeem sinners
by way of sacrifice, is missing in the Qur’an. According to the Bible there
is no forgiveness, no atonement and no reconciliation without a sacrifice.
Islam rejects and ignores this. Consequently, Islam denies the only way
back to Yahweh - the Lord Jesus Christ and His atoning death. It is
therefore impossible to assume that Allah and Yahweh are just different
names for the same God.
We must conclude that Islam’s portrayal of the nature and character of God
is similar enough to make it seem identical to the Biblical portrayal of
Yahweh, yet in essence they are so dissimilar as to make them
irreconcilably different.

• The Balance of Truth - Mizanu’l Haqq, C.G. Pfander, 1910
• The Moslem Doctrine of God, S. Zwemer, American Tract Society 1905, 120
pages.
(as a missionary and scholar of Islam Zwemer demonstrates clearly that the Allah
of Islam is the complete opposite of the God of the Bible, the Father of Jesus
Christ. Although written long time ago it has its relevance because of the
unchanged Muslim concept of God.)
• Who is Allah in Islam?, Abd Al-Masih, Light of Life, 108 pages.
(this evaluation contrasts the Muslim concept of God with the Biblical view point.
It is very helpful to show the difference between the God of the Bible and the
Qur’an)
• Battle for the Hearts, Episode 5:II:1, Belief in God. TWR & LCA, 2001.
154
6 Faith And Practice Belong Together

No one can be a Muslim without a specified Faith, called ‘Iman’, and
adhering to certain Practices, called ‘Deen’. Since the practice is more in
the foreground, we begin with this.
6.1 Deen: The Practice of Islam

The basic essentials in ‘The Practice of Islam’ are summed up in the five
pillars of faith. They are:
1. The Confession of Faith (Shaháda), i.e. the
recitation of the ‘Kalima’ (= word): “There is no god but
Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger (apostle) of
Allah.”
2. The Ritual Prayers (Salat) [in arab. the ‘t’ at the end
is not pronounced]. The prescribed five daily liturgical
prayers at prescribed times and in the prescribed manner,
must be observed. Within this daily routine a prescribed prayer must be
recited seventeen times altogether (twice in the morning prayer; four times
at the noon prayer, four times in the afternoon prayer; three times in the
evening prayer and four times during the night prayer). This is called by
many Persian and Indian Muslims ‘namaz’. The wording of this prayer is
found in the appendix.
3. The Giving of Alms (Zakat) [again the ‘t’ is not
pronounced]. This ‘poor tax’ is a religious duty and should
not be less than 2.5% of the income above ones basic
needs.
4. Keeping the Fast during the month of Ramadaan
(Sawm) is a duty for all, except the sick, travelers, pregnant
women, nursing mothers and children. The fast is to last
from the rising of the sun until sunset.
5. Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj) is required at least once in a lifetime
during the month of Zu’l-Hijjah, if the means allows this. There is also a
minor pilgrimage (Umrah), which may be performed at all other times. We
Faith and Practice belong together 155
ought to realize that very considerable cost is involved in a pilgrimage,

quite apart from the travel fare.
Let us take a closer look at these pillars.
6.1.1 Confession Of Faith

“There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger (apostle) of
Allah.”
It represents the fundamental essence of Islam. It is a
Muslim’s confession of faith and must also be confessed
to non-Muslims.
The first part of this statement is recited to confess that
there is no God worthy of worship and obedience other
than the one and only living God.
The second part affirms that Muhammad is the final and last prophet and
messenger of Allah. It is believed that his teachings are given for all
mankind and for all time. All former prophets have been appointed for one
nation and for a specific time only. Their teaching is, therefore, no longer
valid. Muhammad replaced them with the Qur’an. Muslims believe that,
although the prophets preached the same message, it got lost or was
perverted. Besides, only Muhammad’s words and actions are considered to
be necessary for the interpretation of the Qur’an (tafsir), and these are
preserved correctly to this day.
The confession of the creed is the entrance to Islam. By
virtue of reciting it by faith, in Arabic, a person becomes a
Muslim. Therefore some Muslims try to make a learner of
Arabic, or a Christian who knows some Arabic, recite it.
“This is a solemn affirmation, declaration, pledge or a
formal agreement that is legally binding to a Muslim who
claims to be a member of the Islamic Brotherhood.” (=
‘ummah’) (TBI, p. 63)
From early childhood a Muslim will confess the unity of Allah and the
finality of the Prophethood of Muhammad. With these statements he is
156 Faith and Practice belong together
practically immunized against all religious influences from outside Islam.

Every Muslim has to believe in the creed, otherwise he is not regarded a
Muslim (= submitted to God). Therefore, a Muslim who is suspected of
having become a Christian is likely to be asked to recite the Shahada or, as
it is also called, Kalima.
It must be added here, that a Muslim is free to deny his
faith, if that should endanger him/her, as Surah 16:106
teaches: “Any one who, after accepting faith in Allah,
utters unbelief, except under compulsion,...on them is
wrath from Allah and theirs will be a dreadful
chastisement.” This is a strange thinking to any Christian.
We know that a great number of Christians had to die a
horrible death after confessing their faith, which could
have been averted by a denial of their faith in Christ.
This teaching about concealment is called ‘taqiya’ and is quite freely used
in the Shi’a Muslim world, though by no means exclusively so, and not just
under compulsion. Over the years ‘taqiya’ has become a brand name for
any concealment including lies, particularly towards non-Muslims.
Yet it is considered to be obligatory for a Muslim to confess and propagate
his faith. This is called ‘dawah’. Actually ‘dawah’ means invocation, ‘to
call on’. “The Dictionary of Islam” by T.P. Hughes explains that the
historical form of this invocation or calling is directed towards spirits and is
by that token an occult practice and involves the use of spells. One is only
allowed to call on ‘good angels’ or ‘jinns’, however. (see
Folk Islam). Today’s Muslims understand the term to
mean the call on non-Muslims to accept Islam, and that is
the current meaning of ‘dawah’. From the beginning of
the ‘Islamic Revolution’ ‘dawah’ movements have
mushroomed. All over the world great numbers of
Muslim missionaries propagate Islam, more often than
not by attacking the Christian faith.
As Christians we observe: Although the Bible (and the history of the early
church) provide us with several formulations of a creed (Nicean Creed, Phil
2:5-11, 1Tim 2:5-6 etc), we do not consider someone to be a Christian just

because he recites any of these.
6.1.2 Prayer
The Salat is not a practice of praying, as Christians would understand it. It
is compulsory and highly regulated. We maintain that communing with
God essentially excludes both compulsion and regulation, as it is based on
devotion and love, which should neither be enforced nor formalized.
The names and the time for the performance of these daily prayers are
fixed. They are
• fajr (between dawn and sunrise) (with 2 ruku23’),
• zuhr (between midday and mid-afternoon) (with 4 ruku’),
• asr (between mid-afternoon and sunset) (with 4 ruku’),
• maghrib (just after sunset) (with 3 ruku’),
• isha’ (between nightfall and daybreak) (with 4 ruku’),
These prayers are not normally performed in a mosque,
except for the Friday noon prayer.
Before any prayer a ritual washing has to be performed (ghusl, wudu). The
prayer is directed via the qibla (indicated by a niche in every mosque) to
the Ka’ba in Mecca. The words of the prayer to be recited (see Appendix)
are accompanied by meticulously prescribed actions. This includes bowing
down (ruku’, singul. rak’ah) and prostrations (sudjud).
Depending on the time of the day, a certain number of
ruku’ and sudjud have to be performed, each
accompanied with the recital of the prayer. So in all the
prayer will have to be recited 17 times every day. For
these prayers exact instructions are issued to prescribe the
positioning of the body, the hands and feet at every stage.
A prayer, which is performed amiss, is said not to be
acceptable to Allah.
23
ruku’ = body movements, eg prostrations
It is truly remarkable to find Muslims who have a callused skin on their

forehead, which resulted from their touching the floor in prayer.
The Islamic ritual prayers are mentioned, but not described in the Qur’an
(Surahs 11:114, 17:78, 2:238), only in the Hadith. Muhammad said:
“Between a man and apostasy (the act of turning away from one’s religion)
there is only the giving up of as-Salat.” (TBI, p. 65) So, every Muslim who
gives up prayer is considered an unbeliever.
Through the practice of Salat Islam is supposed to
provide spiritual guidance to Muslims. It is an act of
worship and meant to provide disciplinary practice,
spiritual nourishment and true motivation (TBI, p. 64).
The performance of the salat is naturally viewed as merit
before God, as also the Qur’an suggests.
Muslims say that the prayers
● strengthen the belief in Allah and create the willingness to submit to him
● help to focus on good elements in life
● are a means of cleanliness, purity and punctuality
● bring up good qualities (patience, hope, confidence, gratitude, good
manners)
● prove the unity of the Islamic brotherhood
The call to prayer, called ‘azan’, announces the time for prayer. Formerly,
this was chanted by the Muezzin from the Minaret (tower) of a mosque but
nowadays this is done through loudspeakers. In predominantly ‘Christian’
areas, the five prayer-calls are equally a testimony to Islam.
The caller faces the ‘qiblah’ (direction to Mecca) and raises both hands to
his ears, shouting: “Allah-u-akbar.”
On hearing the azan, a Muslim’s heart is filled with the splendour
 of the call and the glory of Allah. Both the crier and the hearer of
azan should make a private petition to God to give all the honour
to Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h.1) on the Day of Judgement and
to allow him to intercede on their behalf for their sins. TBI, p. 79
The Du’a Prayer

Besides the prescribed ‘salat’ prayers, Muslims may also practice the ‘du’a’
prayer. It is meant to be supplication, but also an opportunity to bring their
personal requests before Allah.
As Christians we observe: Many Christians will be tempted to assume that
Muslims pray to God in much the same way as we do. But this is not
correct.
Any honest Muslims (along with many converts from Islam) will have to
admit that the constant recitation of a prescribed prayer formula and rite,
often performed in a language foreign to them, does not meet the lofty
ideals of Islam. Let us remember
that a Muslim who begins to
perform salat at the age of 10 will
have prayed this formula about
350.000 times by the time he is
65! Consequently, the ‘salat’
prayer often is little more than the
observance of a religious duty.
6.1.3 Giving (‘Zakat’)

This legally fixed charity is to be paid annually by a Muslim towards the
support of the poor and other categories of deserving persons according to
the Islamic Law. (TBI, p. 105)
Every Muslim who does not want to pay this contribution is warned
severely in Surah 9, a chapter originally referring to the Jihad but today
used as a general statement:
Those who hoard gold and silver and spend it not in the Way of
 Allah: announce unto them a most grievous penalty ... On the

Day when it (Wealth) will be heated in the fire of Hell and with it
will be branded with their foreheads, their flanks and their
backs... ‘This is the (treasure) which you hoarded for yourselves:
taste ye, then, the treasures ye stored up! Surah 9:34-35
O ye who believe! Spend out of (the bounties) We have provided for you,
before the Day comes when no bargaining (will avail), nor friendship, nor
intercession. Surah 2:254
6.1.4 Fasting
A good Muslim will fast during the month of Ramadaan (9th month of the
Islamic lunar calendar). During these 30 days a Muslim will refrain from
eating, drinking, smoking, sexual activity and any pleasures from the rising
of the sun to its going down. This fasting is obligatory for every Muslim.
Not even the saliva should be swallowed. Yet, in reality many Muslims
spend more money on food during the month of Ramadaan than in any
other.
In this month the whole of the Qur’an is to be recited (this is why in many
Qur’an editions the text is divided into 30 sections).
6.1.5 Pilgrimage
A pilgrimage to the ‘bait’allah’, the ‘house of Allah’, the Ka’ba, once in a
lifetime is an obligation Muslims have to follow, if they have the means to
do so. This has to be performed at a certain time in the year, the month of
‘Zu’l-Hijjah (the Islamic calendar is about ten
days shorter than ours, causing the times of
pilgrimages, feasts etc. to shift from year to
year). A visit to the holy place at another time
is called ‘Umrah’ or minor pilgrimage, which is
not considered a sub-stitute for the Hajj, but a
merit to add to it.
Flag of Saudi Arabia
Ironically, practically all religious rites performed in Islam are of pre-

Islamic, and by that token, heathen origin. When in his later years
Muhammad tried to persuade the Meccans to turn to Islam, he
compromised parts of his earlier convictions. Consequently, all mention of
the Hajj in the Qur’an was done in Medina. Some scholars even believe
that they are additions to the Qur’an done during the Abbaside rule.
When a pilgrim arrives at the ‘holy city’, it is incumbent upon him to
change his normal clothes for the ihram, a white garment which is worn
specially for this purpose. The pilgrimage rites include a walk to the
Zamzam well, which, according to Islamic legend, provided water to save
Ishmael and Hagar from death. Muslims will not only want to drink from it
but often take jerry-cans full of ‘holy water’ with them, as popular belief
attributes to it a cure for all kinds of sickness. Then the pilgrim will walk
seven times around the Ka’ba, kissing a black stone set in silver at one of
its corners. After this the pilgrim must run seven times between the two
hills Safa and Marwa (a remnant of pagan days, when on each hill stood an
idol. Today all is under roof). On the eighth day he proceeds to Mina, a
valley near Mecca, to meditate and pray. On the ninth day he progresses to
mount Arafat (where Adam is said to have been seeking God’s mercy). At
this time up to two million pilgrims will ‘stand before Allah’ in prayer and
listen to a sermon on the site where Muhammad preached his famous
farewell sermon before his death. Back at Mina the following day, the
pilgrims gather pebbles and cast them at a stone pillar, which symbolizes
the devil. Here also the men have their head shaven (and women cut off a
symbolic lock of their hair).
At the end, Eid ul-Adha’ the Great Feast, is celebrated with the slaughter of
sacrifices (see also ‘The Feasts of Islam’ and ‘Sacrifices’). Concluding the
Hajj, the pilgrim may want to visit Medina, but this is not an obligation.
By popular belief the hajj will cause purity of heart by forgiveness of sins.
The heavens are believed to be open directly above the Ka’ba and prayers
there will go unhindered to Allah who will certainly answer them. A hajji
(= one who has completed the ‘hajj’) will have a raised status in his society.
As Christians we observe: The rites and beliefs performed during the hajj
are purely pagan. They are based on the perception that forgiveness and
salvation can be merited. This is in total contradiction of the biblical view.

As Christians, whose eternal home is in heaven, their entire earthly life
constitutes a pilgrimage. (Ps 39:19; 1Pet 2:11; Heb 11:13; 13:14)
6.2 Iman - The Faith of Islam

A Muslim is obliged to believe in the Articles of Faith as they appear in the
Qur’an:
It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces towards East or
 West; but it is righteousness - to believe in Allah, and the Last

Day, and the Angels, and the Books and the Messengers; to
spend of your substance, out of love for him; for your kin, for
orphans, for the needy, for those who ask, and for the ransom of
slaves; to be steadfast in prayer, and practise regular charity.
Surah 2:177
6.2.1 Allah
A Muslim must believe in the existence of Allah, who is one. His qualities,
nature and essence (see chapter 5) are depicted in his ‘99 Most Beautiful
Names’ (see appendix).
6.2.2 His Angels

Muslims are strong believers in angels. These include 4 archangels (Gabriel
is named) and an indefinite number of ordinary angels. They also believe in
jinns, which are spirits, some good and some bad (see chapter 3, Folk
Islam).
6.2.3 All revealed Books

According to Islam scriptures were revealed to Adam, Seth, Enoch,
Abraham and many others. These are considered lost. The Scriptures
referred to as being in existence are
● The Torah (Taurat)
● The Psalms (Zabur)
● The Gospel (Injil)
● The Qur’an
It is indeed noteworthy that according to the above doctrine every Muslim

is obliged to believe in the Bible. Unfortunately this is not done (see
Textbook 2: ‘The Christian-Islamic Controversy’).
6.2.4 All the Prophets

Muslims believe that 124 000 prophets lived in times past among all
nations. Most are, of course, not named. Prophets are called ‘Nabi’24 or
‘Rasul’25. A Rasul is one who was given a book by an angel, a Nabi one
who received inspiration. Prophets that are named are: Adam (Adam), Idris
(Enoch), Nuh (Noah), Hud (?), Sahli (Methusalah), Ibrahim (Abraham),
Ismail (Ishmael), Ishaq (Isaac), Yaqub (Jacob), Yusuf (Joseph), Lut (Lot),
Musa (Moses), Harun (Aaron), Shu’aib (Jethro?), Da’ud (David),
Sulaiman (Solomon), Ilyas (Elijah), Alyasa (Elisha), Ayub (Job), Yunus
(Jnah), Uzair (Ezra), Luqman (?), Zu’l-Kiff (Isaiah? or Alexander the
Great), Zakariya (Zacharias, father of the Baptist)), Yahya (John the
Baptist) and Isa (Jesus). Eighteen of these are mentioned in Surah 6:83-86.
In addition there are 315 ‘special messengers’. Nine of these are entitled
Ulu’l-Azm (= Possessors of Constancy); namely Noah, Abraham, David,
Jacob, Joseph, Job, Moses, Jesus and Muhammad.
Again noteworthy is the request by Islam that every Muslim is under
obligation to believe in all the biblical prophets - including Jesus! Here
again we find that Islam found ways to utterly discourage Muslims from
taking this serious.
6.2.5 The Last Day / Predestination

This is the Day of Judgment when all men are to be judged according to
their deeds or according to the predetermination of Allah, and admitted to
Paradise or Hell.
24
pl. ‘Ambija’
25
pl. ‘Rusul’
6.3 Predestination in Islam

Others have added ‘Predestination’ to these five articles of faith. It is, in
fact, essential for a Muslim to believe in predestination. In Arabic the
words ‘qadar’ or ‘taqdir’ (same root) are translated as ‘predestination’.
They should better be translated as pre-decree. In a Commentary of Islamic
tradition (Hadith) we have this definition:
Taqdir means in the popular sense pre-destination, fate or
 destiny. It means literally to make manifest of the measure of a

thing or simply to determine a measure. Another word which
comes in this connection is Qaza meaning pre-decree or pre-
decision. Mishkat Vol. 3, p. 93, commentary
Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us.
 He is the Irresistible (watching) from above over His

Surah 9:51
worshippers, and He sets guardians over you. At length, when

death approaches one of you, our angels take his soul and they
never fail in their duty. Surah 6:61
When we assume that Allah is irresistible, the possibility of choice is not
granted to man. The implication of this doctrine is best described in the
Hadith:
Sahl b.Sa’d reported it from Allah’s Messenger (may peace be
 upon him) that a person (that) performs deeds like the deeds of
the people of Paradise ... would be amongst the dwellers of Hell.
And a person (that) acts apparently like the people of Hell, but (in
fact) he would be among the dwellers of Paradise.
There was argument between Adam and Moses. Moses said to Adam: You are
our father. You did us harm and caused us to get out of Paradise. Adam said
to him: You are Moses. Allah selected you (for direct conversation with you)
and wrote with His own Hand the Book (Torah) for you. Despite this you blame
me for an act which Allah had ordained for me forty years before He created
me. Allah’s Apostle (may peace be upon him) said: This is how Adam came
the better of Moses. Sahih Muslim 4, pp. 1395-1396, No 6408-6409
Abu Huraira reported Allah’s Apostle (may peace be upon him) as saying:
Verily Allah has fixed the very portion of adultery which a man will indulge in,
and which he of necessity must commit.
Sahih Muslim 4, p. 1397, No 6421
The ‘interpretation’ of this in the footnote is somewhat strange:

Most of the persons have committed grave error in the proper
 understanding of this hadith. They argue that if one has of

necessity to commit adultery, then why an extremely severe
punishment has been prescribed by Islam for his offense? This
argument exposes the lack of understanding on their part. The
simple and straight meaning of this hadith is that just as each person is created
as a separate entity having distinct qualities - physical, intellectual - of his own,
in spite of his being a member of the human race, in the same way each
person is endowed with a sexual lust of a certain measure, according to which
he has his sexual yearnings from which he cannot find an escape.
Sahih Muslim 4, p. 1398, Fn. 2900, commentary
Abu Hurairah reported that the Apostle of Allah said: Verily Allah
 pre-ordained for the son of Adam his share of fornication. That

will overtake him without doubt.
Should one not differentiate between adultery and natural sexual yearning?
Predestination is clearly established in the Qur’an and the Hadith. Over the
years Muslim theologians have argued about the mutually exclusive
doctrines of freedom of choice and pre-decree. The Mutazilah argued
strongly for the necessity for freedom of choice, if an accountability for
transgression is envisaged, but...
... better far than all argument, the orthodox say, is the testimony
 of the Book. ‘All things have we created under a fixed decree’

(Surah 54:49). ‘When God created you and that ye make’ (Surah
37:94). ‘Some of them there were whom God guided and there
were others decreed to err. (Surah 16:38)
Dictionary of Islam, p. 473
6.3.1 Predestination in the Qur’an

These passages are quoted from an older Qur’an translation. More recent
translators have expediently ‘interpreted’ these problematic verses. Please
compare.
The modern ‘translation’ by Yusuf Ali camouflages the meaning:
Verily, all things have we created in proportion and measure.
 But Allah has created you and your handiwork!

Surah 54:49
Surah 37:96
Of the people were some whom Allah guided, and some on whom error
became inevitably (established).
Surah 16:36
More about the dispute can be read in a commentary in the ‘Mishkat’:
Much intellectual blood has been spent over the question of pre-
 destination... The strong Muslim solidarity which the Prophet had

once so laboriously cemented has been greatly weakened on
account of bitter controversies over this question. This is
because there are apparent conflicting views on the subject in
the Qur’an and Hadis. On the one hand, the scriptures uphold the doctrine of
freedom of will and the consequent responsibility for actions, and on the other
they emphasis that it is only God who guides and misguides as He pleases
and that the fate of man and everything was pre-determined before their
creation. Among the former Muslims, there were two extreme schools of
thought - the Zabariyas and the Qadriyas. The former school holds that God is
the Creator of man’s deeds whether good or bad and that man is entirely
powerless and without responsibility in the matter. They contend that man has
got no power to go beyond his destiny or decree of God before his creation.
They cite the following Qur’anic verses in their support – ‘And whomsoever
Allah guides, there is none that can misguide him’ (Surah 39:36). ‘And if Allah
afflict [sic] you with harm, then there is none to remove it but He and if He
intends good to you, there is none to repel His grace” (Surah 10:107). And
“with Him are the measures of the unseen - none knows them but He, and He
knows what is in the land and in the sea, and there falls not a leaf but He
knows it, nor a grain in the darkness of the earth, nor anything green or dry but
it is all in a clear book” (Surah 6:59). “No evil befalls on the earth, nor on your
own souls but it is in a book before We bring it into existence. (Surah 57:22)
The Qadriyas and later on the Mutazilas hold that man has got absolute
freedom of will and the consequence [sic] responsibility of [sic] actions, and
that if the former view is accepted, the rewards for virtuos acts and
punishments for sins cannot at all be explained. They cite the following verse
in support of their case. And whatever affliction befalls on you, it is on account
of what your hands have wrought. (Surah 42:32)
The two views as above noted are diametrically opposite to each other, and
none could find out a satisfactory solition of [sic] the problem. We have
therefore no other alternative but to believe in predestination as well as in

freedom of will with consequence of actions. Let us, however, try to harmonise
the apparent conflict to some extent leaving the rest to God... This complexity
of human character leads us to absolute faith both in predestination and
human freedom of will. The next point is that the right view according to the
majority of the Muslim jurists to our opinion is the mean [middle] between the
two extreme views. In other words, man is neither absolutely compelled, nor
absolutely free. Mishkat Vol. 3, p. 93-95, commentary
We consider this to be a very strange ‘solution’. The following verses of

the Qur’an imply that man is responsible and will be punished or rewarded
according to his deeds:
We shall set up scales of justice for the Day of Judgement, so
 that not a soul will be dealt with unjustly in the least.

Surah 21:47
The balance that day will be true (to the nicety). Those whose
scale (of good) will be heavy, will prosper. Those whose scale will be light, will
find their souls in perdition, for that they wrongfully treated our signs.
Surah 7:8+9
Just about every Muslim expects to be judged by his deeds (performance as

a Muslim), as detrimental as that may be.
The other message of the Qur’an is, that the will of man is absolutely
subjected to Allah’s will.
 Allah doth blot out or confirm what He pleaseth. Surah 13:39

This is an admonition: whosoever will, let him take a (straight)
path to his Lord. But ye will not, except as Allah wills; for Allah is
full of knowledge and wisdom. Surah 76:29-30
He intimated to it [i.e. the soul] by inspiration its deviating from truth and its
piety. Mishkat Vol. 3, p. 104, No 6
By the soul and the proportion and order given to it; and its enlightenment
as to its wrong and its right (as incorrectly translated by Yusuf Ali).
Allah may or may not guide and leads astray. He forgives or refuses to
forgive as he pleases.
If We had so willed, we could certainly have brought every soul
 its true guidance. But the word from me will come true, ‘I will fill
Hell with Jinns and men all together. Surah 32:13
Allah sendeth whom He will astray, and guideth whom He will.
He is the Mighty, the Wise. Surah 14:4 – (Pickthall)
He forgiveth whom He pleaseth, and He punisheth whom He pleaseth.
Surah 5:18
Whom Allah misleads cannot be guided by anyone.
Seek ye to guide him whom Allah hath sent astray? He whom
 Allah sendeth astray, for him thou (O Muhammad) canst not find a
road. Surah 4:88 – (Pickthall)
As to those who rejected faith, it is the same to them whether thou warn them
or do not warn them; they will not believe. Allah hath set a seal on their hearts
and on their hearing and on their eyes is a veil; great is the penalty they
(incur).
Surah 2:6-7
Allah could have made all mankind one people (ummah), but he leads
astray - and the misled must bear the consequences.
Had Allah willed He could have made you (all) one nation, but He
 sendeth whom He will astray and guideth whom He will, and ye

will indeed be asked of what ye used to do.
Surah 16:93 – (Pickthall)
If Allah so willed He could make you all one people: but He leaves straying
whom He pleases and He guides whom He pleases: but ye shall certainly be
called to account for all your actions. Surah 16:93
If thy Lord had so willed, He could have made mankind one people; but they
will not cease to dispute. Except those on whom thy Lord hath bestowed His
Mercy. And for this did He create them: and the Word of thy Lord shall be
fulfilled: ‘I will fill Hell with jinns and men together.
Surah 11:118-119
Allah decrees error - though he could have guided all rightly.
For We assuredly sent amongst every People an apostle (with
 the command), ‘Serve Allah and eschew Evil’. Of the people

were some whom Allah guided, and some on whom error
became inevitably (established). So travel through the earth, and
see what was the end of those who denied (the truth).
Surah 16:36
The reason given for the misguidance of people

Allah guideth not such as He leaves astray, and there is none to
 help them. Surah 16:37

Say: ‘With Allah is the argument that reaches home: if it had
been his will, he could indeed have guided you all.
Surah 6:149
Whom Allah doth guide - he is one the right path; whom He rejects from His
guidance - such are the persons who perish.
Many are the Jinns and men we have made for Hell; they have hearts
wherewith they understand not, eyes wherewith they see not and ears
wherewith they hear not. They are like cattle - nay more misguided.
Surah 7:178-179
Another translation says:

He whom Allah leadeth, he indeed is led aright, while he whom
 Allah sendeth astray - they indeed are losers.

Already have We urged unto hell many of the Jinns and
humankind, having hearts wherewith they understand not, and
having eyes wherewith they see not, and having ears wherewith they hear not.
These are as the cattle - nay, but they are worse! These are the neglectful.
Surah 7:178-179 – (Pickthall)
Al-Barqawi says:
Not only can he do anything, he actually is the only one who
 does anything. When a man writes, it is Allah who has created in

his mind the will to write. Allah at the same time gives the power
to write, then brings about the motion of the hand and the pen
and the appearance upon paper. All other things are passive,
Allah alone is active.
6.3.2 Predestination As Taught In The Hadith

People are created for paradise or hell
Umar ibn al-Khattab said: Muslim ibn Yasar al-Juhani said: When
 Umar ibn al-Khattab was asked about the verse ‘When your Lord
took their offspring from the backs of the children of Adam’ - al-
Qa’nabi recited the verse--he said: I heard the Apostle of Allah
(peace be upon him) say when he was questioned about it: Allah
created Adam, then passed His right hand over his back, and brought forth
from it his offspring, saying: I have these for Paradise and these will do the
deeds of those who go to Paradise. He then passed His hand over his back
and brought forth from it his offspring, saying: I have created these for Hell,
and they will do the deeds of those who go to Hell. A man asked: What is the
good of doing anything, Apostle of Allah? The Apostle of Allah (peace be upon
him) said: When Allah creates a servant for Paradise, He employs him in doing
the deeds of those who will go to Paradise, so that his final action before death
is one of the deeds of those who go to Paradise, for which He will bring him
into Paradise. But when He creates a servant for Hell, He employs him in
doing the deeds of those who will go to Hell, so that his final action before
death is one of the deeds of those who go to Hell, for which He will bring him
into Hell. Sunan of Abu-Dawood, 4686
This is confirmed elsewhere:

Abu Darda’s reported that the Holy Prophet said: Allah created
 Adam when He created him. Then he stroke his right shoulder

and took out a white race as if they were seeds, and He stroke
his left shoulder and took out a black race as if they were coals.
Then He said to those who were in his right side: Towards
Paradise and I don’t care. He said to those who were on his left shoulder:
Towards Hell and I don’t care. Mishkat Vol. 3, p. 117-118, No. 454
This is confirmed by al-Bukhari:
Narrated ‘Abdullah Allah’s Apostle, the truthful and truly-inspired,
 said, ‘Each one of you collected in the womb of his mother for
forty days, and then turns into a clot of an equal period (of forty
days)... and then Allah sends an angel and orders him to write
four things, i.e., his provision, his age, and whether he will be of
the wretched or the blessed (in the Hereafter).
Then the soul is breathed into him. And by Allah, a person among you (or a
man) may do deeds of the people of the Fire till there is only a cubit or an arm-
breadth distance between him and the Fire, but then that writing (which Allah
has ordered the angel to write) precedes, and he does the deeds of the people
of Paradise and enters it; and a man may do the deeds of the people of
Paradise till there is only a cubit or two between him and Paradise, and then
that writing preceeds and he does the deeds of the people of the Fire and
enters it. Al-Bukhari Vol. 8, p 387, No. 593
The will of man and his actions are fixed

Verily the Almighty and Glorious Allah finished five things for
 every man of His creation: his fixed term, his action, his resting
place, his movement and his provision.
Mishkat Vol. 3, p. 117, No. 452
Pre-decree is not the result of good or bad deeds

Abu-al-Aswad reported that Imran-b-Husain asked him: What is
 your view what the people do today in the world, and strive for, is
it something decreed for them or preordained for them or will
their fate in the Hereafter be determined by the fact that their
Prophets brought them teaching which they did not act upon? I
said: Of course, it is something which is predetermined for them and
preordained for them. He (further) said: Then, would it not be an injustice (to
punish them)? I felt greatly disturbed because of that, and said: Everything is
created by Allah and lies in His Power. He would not be questioned as to what
He does, but they would be questioned. Thereupon he said to me: May Allah
have mercy upon you, I did not mean to ask you but foretesting your
intelligence. Two men of the tribe of Muzaynah came to Allah’s Messenger
(may peace be upon him) and said: Allah’s Messenger, what is your opinion
that which the people do in the world and strive for, is something decreed for
them; something preordained for them? And will their fate in the Hereafter be
determined by the fact that their Prophets brought them teachings which they
did not act upon and thus they because deserving of punishment?
Thereupon, he said: Of course, it happens as it is decreed by Destiny and
preordained for them, and this view is confirmed by this verse of the Book of
Allah, the Exalted and Glorious: „Consider the soul and Him Who made it
perfect, then breathed into it its sin and its piety. (91:8)
Sahih Muslim, Vol. 6, pp. 1394-1395, No. 6406
It is impossible for man to change against pre-decree

The Holy Prophet said: When you hear about a mountain that it
 has shifted itself from its place, believe it, but when you hear
about a man, that he has changed his nature don’t believe it as it
will return to what
Mishkat Vol. 3, p. 121, 45
it was created upon.
We are tempted to quote from the Bible:

If anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation; the old has gone, the
 new has come! 2 Co 5:17
There is no assurance of forgiveness or of eternal destiny

I heard the Messenger of Allah say - Verily the Almighty and
 Glorious Allah caught one hold with His right hand and another
with another hand, and said: This is for this, and this is for this,
and I don’t care. I don’t know in which of the two holds I am.
Narrated by Anas ibn Malik: Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) used to
say quite frequently: O Turner of the heart, keep me steadfast in your religion. I
said: Allah’s Apostle, we do affirm faith in you and in that which you have been
sent with. (Despite this) you entertain fear about us. Whereupon he said: Yes.
Verily the hearts are between two Fingers from the Fingers of Allah and He
turns them as He likes. Al-Tirmidhi, 102
Say: Nothing shall ever befall upon to us except what Allah has ordained for
us’[sic].Mujahid said ‘Bifatanin, Bimudillin’: You cannot make anyone go astray
except that whom Allah has written for to go to Hell [sic].
Al-Bukhari, Vol 8, p. 402, No. 615
Never could we have found guidance, were it not that Allah had guided us’.
‘If only Allah had guided me, I should indeed have been among the pious.
Al-Bukhari, Vol 8, p. 403, No. 616
Yahweh has committed himself to His Word. This cannot be said of Allah.
He can only be seen as capricious and arbitrary. He is the absolute
sovereign. He acts as he wills.

• Battle for the Hearts, Episode 5, Faith and Practice in Islam.TWR & LCA,
2001.
173
7 Man, Sin and the Law of God

7.1 The Nature Of Man
7.1.1 Introduction
A law is there to define righteousness and transgression. An assessment of
the nature and character of man is, consequently, bound to the law. If a law
had been designed to accommodate the weakness of man, it would not be
just and consequently not the Law of God. On the other hand, if God gives
us His Law in accordance with His own holy standard, man will be shown
to be hopelessly inadequate. In that case man is entirely depending on
God’s mercy and pardon. This is exactly the situation that is outlined in the
Bible.
Islam, in contrast, assumes that man is capable of keeping the Law of God.
Man is expected to strain himself to keep the Law in order to qualify for
Paradise. Let us look at the two assessments of man, the one in the Bible
and the other in Islam.
A fair selection of relevant extracts from both books will show best the
similarities and differences in their teachings.
7.1.2 Man’s Position Before God According To The

Bible
Man is God-created:
God said, ‘Let us make man in our image, in our likeness, and let
 them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, over the
livestock, over all the earth, and over all the creatures that move
along the ground.’ So God created man in his own image, in the
image of God he created him; male and female he created them.
Ge 1:26+27
God saw all that he had made, and it was very good. And there was evening,
and there was morning - the sixth day. Ge 1:31
The Lord God took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work it and
take care of it. And the Lord God commanded the man: `You are free to eat
from any tree in the garden; but you must not eat from the tree of the
knowledge of good and evil, for when you eat of it you will surely die.
Ge 2:15-17
Adam abused the choice God gave him, which resulted in his mortality:
... cursed is the ground because of you; through painful toil you
 will eat of it all the days of your life. It will produce thorns and
thistles for you and you will eat the plants of the field. By the
sweat of your brow you will eat your food until you return to the
ground, since from it you were taken; for dust you are and to dust
you will return. Ge 3:17-19
God has placed man over all creation - and gave him the responsibility for it:
What is man that you are mindful of him, the son of man that you
 care for him? ...

You made him ruler over the works of your hands; you put
everything under his feet: all flocks and herds, and the beasts of
the field, the birds of the air, and the fish of the sea, all that swim the paths of
the seas. Ps 8:4, 6-8
Man’s sinful nature grieves God:
The Lord saw how great man’s wickedness on the earth had
 become and that every inclination of thoughts of his heart was

only evil all the time. The Lord was grieved that he had made
man on the earth, and his heart was filled with pain.
Ge 6:5+6
The heart is deceitful above all things and beyond cure. Who can understand
it? Jer 17:9+10
Jesus shows where the real problem lies:
For from within, out of men’s heart come evil thoughts, sexual
 immorality, theft, murder, adultery, greed, malice, deceit,

lewdness, envy, slander, arrogance and folly. All these evils come
from inside and make a man ‘unclean’.
Because man’s heart is evil, God’s judgement is devastating:

Mk 7:21-23

We have already made the charge that Jews and Gentiles alike
are all under sin. As it is written: ‘There is no-one righteous, not
even one; there is no-one who understands, no-one who seeks
God. All have turned away, they have together become
Man, Sin and the Law of God 175
worthless; there is no-one who does good, not even one. Their thoughts are
open graves, their tongues practise deceit. The poison of vipers is on their lips.
Their mouths are full of cursing and bitterness. Their feet are swift to shed
blood, ruin and misery mark their ways, and the way of peace they do not
know. There is no fear of God before their eyes. Rom 3:9-18
Despite man’s fallen nature God did not abandon him. On the contrary:
The Lord, the Lord, the compassionate and gracious God, [is]
 slow to anger, abounding in love and faithfulness, maintaining

love to thousands and forgiving wickedness, rebellion and sin.
Yet he does not leave the guilty unpunished.
Ex 34:6; Ps 103:8-14
The Lord appeared to us in the past saying: `I have loved you with an
everlasting love; I have drawn you with loving-kindness. Jer 31:3
God’s love found a way for man to return to Him:
You see, at just the right time, when we were still powerless,
 Christ died for the ungodly. Very rarely will anyone die for a
righteous man, though for a good man someone might possibly
dare to die. But God demonstrates his own love for us in this:
While we were still sinners, Christ died for us. Since we have
now been justified by his blood, how much more shall we be saved from God’s
wrath through him! Rom 5:6-9
God loves man. He wants him to repent and accept God’s gift of love:
And I pray that you, being rooted and established in love, may
 have power, together with all the saints [i.e. believers], to grasp
how wide and long and high and deep is the love of Christ and to
know this love that surpasses knowledge - that you may be filled
to the measure of all the fullness of God. Eph 3:17-19
He gave us even more than forgiveness and love: He gave us His divine
nature!

His divine power has given us everything we need for life and
godliness through our knowledge of him who called us by his
own glory and goodness. Through these he has given us his
very great and precious promises, so that through them you may
participate in the divine nature and escape the corruption in the world caused
by evil desires. 2 Pet 1:3+4
Those who turn to Jesus Christ are spiritually born of God and become His
children:
To all who received him, to those who believed in his name, he
 gave the right to become children of God - children born not of

natural descent, nor of human decision or a husband’s will, but
born of God. John 1:12+13
I have come that they may have life, and have it to the full.
John 10:10
7.1.3 Man’s Position Before God According To The

Qur’an
Allah created man:
He Who has made everything which He has created Most Good:
 He began the creation of man with (nothing more than) clay.

And made his progeny from a quintessence of the nature of a
fluid despised.
But He fashioned him in due proportion, and breathed into him something of
His spirit. And He gave you (the faculties of) hearing and sight and feeling (and
understanding): Little thanks do ye give! Surah 32:7-9
[Allah] created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood.
(See also S. 6:2; 23:12-14; 75:36-39; 95:4-5)
Surah 96:2
The purpose of the creation of man and his nature:
I have only created Jinns and men, that they may serve Me.
 Verily We have created man into toil and struggle.

Surah 51:56
Surah 90:4
Allah doth wish to lighten your (difficulties): For man was created weak (in
flesh).
Surah 4:28
It was We Who created man, and We know what dark suggestions his soul
makes to him: for We are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein. Surah 50:16
Truly man was created very impatient: Fretful when evil touches him; And
niggardly when good reaches him. Surah 70:19-21
Man is (ever) niggardly! Surah 17:100
Most ungrateful is man! Surah 17:67
That which is on earth we have made but as a glittering show for the earth, in
order that We may test them - as to which of them are best in conduct.
Surah 18:7
Verily, man is given up to injustice and ingratitude. Surah 14:34
Yet when We bestow our favours on man, he turns away and becomes remote
on his side (instead of coming to Us), and when evil seizes him he gives
himself up to despair! Surah 17:83
Truly man is to his Lord ungrateful. And to that (fact) he bears witness (by
his deeds). And violent is he in his love of wealth. Surah 100:6-8
Allah punishes and rewards man:

(With the result) that Allah has to punish the Hypocrites, men and
 women, and the Unbelievers, men and women, and Allah turns in
Mercy to the Believers, men and women: for Allah is Oft-
Forgiving, Most Merciful. Surah 33:73
They ask thee to hasten on the evil in preference to the good: Yet have come
to pass before them (many) exemplary punishments! But verily thy Lord is full
of forgiveness for mankind for their wrong-doings; and verily thy Lord is (also)
strict in punishment. Surah 13:6
To sum up, we find

● the mode of creation from clay: S. 6:22; 32:7; from a clot of blood:
S. 96:2; from sperm: S. 23:12-13; 80:18-19)
● the purpose of creation for man to serve Allah: S. 51:56; to toil and
struggle: S. 90:4; a glittering show: S. 18:7)
● the character of man man was created weak: S. 4:28; with dark
suggestions in his soul: S. 50:16; impatient: S. 70:19; fretful towards evil:
S.[P10]. 70:20; niggardly: S. 70:21; 17:100; ungrateful: S. 100:68; given up

to injustice and ingratitude: S. 14:34; violent in love and wealth: S. 100:8).
Muslims and Christians agree that
● Man is a creation of God
● Man is weak, a sinner; poor in character
Note: in the Bible this happened as a result of the fall; in the Qur’an by
creation
● There is a moral responsibility and accountability.
Yet Muslims and Christians discover a different purpose and calling for
man in their respective books:
Bible Islam
Yahweh initially created and then selected Allah rules the universe and demands
and called a people for Himself. At first submission from all people on earth.
individuals, then the people of Israel, and, in Where-ever possible, the will of Allah is to
the NT, all those who choose to truly follow be enforced. It is formulated in the Shariah,
Him, accept the offer of the crucified Saviour the law, which prescribes the way of life
Jesus Christ as Lord and respond to His with all required actions for all people. The
love. Yahweh did not create the devil, evil or aim is to fortify and spread the rule of Allah
sin. These result from the choice He gave to every-where.
angels and later men - a choice that is
foundational to enable us to truly love God. Allah is great and sovereign. Therefore he
forgives whom he pleases. “If all sinners
The standard of Yahweh is perfection and become saints he would gain no
purity of heart. Because of His purity He advantage and if all pious became
cannot have communion with sinful man. infidels he would suffer no loss.” He is the
Therefore Yahweh offers man what he has author of everything, including sin, and wills
not: His own righteous-ness and love and sin in some and piety in others. He
forgiveness and holiness. Because Yahweh forgives by just willing to do so, and not by
is love, He wants no one to perish. However, the removing of sin at his expense
He respects the choice of man, who may (sacrifice). Paradise is the reward for right
want to obey and serve Him. Heaven is for action or the result of Allah’s (arbitrary)
those who accepted God’s pardon, and is forgiveness. Paradise is the fulfilment of
life in His Presence for evermore. human desires.
7.2 The Perception Of Sin

7.2.1 An Assessment Of Sin In The Bible
The origin of sin:
The man and his wife were both naked, and they felt no shame.
 Now the serpent was more crafty than any of the wild animals the
Lord God had made. He said to the woman, ‘Did God really say,
`you must not eat from any tree in the garden’? The woman said
to the serpent, `We may eat fruit from the trees in the garden, but
God did say, ‘You must not eat fruit from the tree that is in the middle of the
garden, and you must not touch it, or you will die’. ‘You will not surely die’, the
serpent said to the woman. ‘For God knows that when you eat of it your eyes
will be opened, and you will be like God, knowing good and evil’. When the
woman saw that the fruit of the tree was good for food and pleasing to the eye,
and also desirable for gaining wisdom, she took some and ate it. She also
gave some to her husband, who was with her, and he ate it. Then the eyes of
both of them were opened, and they realised they were naked; so they sewed
fig leaves together and made coverings for themselves. Ge 2:25 - 3:7
God made mankind upright, but men have gone in search of many schemes.
Ecc 7:29
Jesus said about Satan: ‘He was a murderer from the beginning, not holding to
the truth, for there is no truth in him. When he lies, he speaks his native
language, for he is a liar and the father of lies’. John 8:44
The definition of sin:

Where there is no law there is no transgression. Rom 4:15
 Before the law was given, sin was in the world. But sin is not
taken into account when there is no law. Rom 5:13
Everyone who sins breaks the law; in fact, sin is lawlessness.
1John 3:4
All wrongdoing is sin… 1 John 5:17
Everything that does not come from faith is sin. Rom 14:23
Anyone, then, who knows the good he ought to do and doesn’t do it, sins.
James 4:17
The Lord said to Moses, ‘Speak to the entire assembly of Israel and say to
them: Be holy because I, the Lord your God, am holy. Lev 19:2
Man has a depraved nature
 We know that the law is spiritual; but I am unspiritual, sold as a

slave to sin... what I want to do I do not do, but what I hate I do.
Rom 7:14+15
The means of forgiveness

When we look at the OT and NT doctrine of forgiveness and salvation, we
find the only means to be a sacrifice, the substitutional sin bearer. The shed
blood of the sacrifice on the altar alone secured forgiveness of sin (Lev
17:10, Heb 9:22). Animal sacrifices in the OT were, however, only a
shadow of the ‘Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world’ (John
1:29). This is forcefully expressed in the Scripture, which says:
The Law requires that nearly everything be cleansed with blood,
 and without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness...Now

he [i.e. Christ] has appeared once for all...to do away with sin by
the sacrifice of himself. Just as man is destined to die once, and
after that to face judgement, so Christ was sacrificed once to take
away the sins of many people. Heb 9:22.26-27
Man can by no means save himself in any way, but is dependent on the
pardon of God, which is through Christ. According to the Bible
righteousness is imputed, it is a gift of God by grace, not a human quality:
What does the Scripture say? `Abraham believed God, and it
 was credited to him as righteousness’. Now when a man works,

his wages are not credited to him as a gift, but as an obligation.
However, to the man who does not work but trusts God who
justifies the wicked, his faith is credited as righteousness.
Rom 4:3-5, see also James 2:23
God was reconciling the world to himself in Christ, not counting men’s sins
against them. 2 Cor 5:19
Since they did not know the righteousness that comes from God and sought to
establish their own, they did not submit to God’s righteousness. Rom 10:3
Sin is missing the aim God has for our lives and us! It is an expression of
the will of man in contrast to the will of God. It is subsequently an attitude
towards God and not just the violation of laws, although this is the
yardstick to assess sin. The tempter and prompter is always Satan, but we
have been given the choice to resist Satan’s attempts and are responsible
for all our actions. A temptation from Satan to seduce a person becomes at
the same time a test by God of man’s faithfulness, loyalty and commitment
to Him.
7.2.2 An Assessment Of Sin In Islam

A definition of sin
Islam does not assume that man is a compulsive sinner. To
 justify such belief, sin is considered to be relative and classified

according to severity. Only severe sins are considered offensive
to God.
Observances of ... duties is called virtue, and the negligence or
breach thereof is called sin. Virtue and sin result from lawful and unlawful
things.
In every act there is sin and virtue.
Any breach of the fundamental duties of which the performance is Farz
(compulsory) and Wajeb (obligatory) is called a great sin. Any breach of other
minor duties is called a minor sin. Breach of any duty which the Holy Prophet
used to do constantly without any break is a great sin. Constant repetition of a
minor sin makes it a major one.
(All emphases in quotations from Islamic sources are ours.)
Mishkat Vol. 3, pp. 121, 123, 127, Commentary
Consequently, Islamic theologians divide sins into Gunahii-`kabirah’ and

Gunahii-`saghirah’, great and little sins. Since Muslims are divided into
four schools of law, there is no uniformity regarding the exact number of
`kabirah’ sins. The ‘Mishkat’ lists 53 (Vol. 3, p.128). However, one may
consider the following seventeen as those agreed upon:
1. Kufr [unbelief, spiritual] or infidelity; 2. Perpetual commitment of
`small’ sins 3. Despairing of Allah’s mercy 4. Considering oneself
safe from the wrath of God 5. False witness 6. Falsely charging a
Muslim with adultery; 7. Taking a false oath; 8. Magic [although this
is very commonly done by many Muslims - and in agreement with

Islam]; 9. Drinking wine; 10. Appropriation of the property of
orphans; 11. Usury;12. Adultery; 13. Unnatural crime; 14. Theft;
15. Murder; 16. Fleeing in battle before the face of an infidel enemy;
17. Disobedience to parents
Dictionary of Islam, by T.P. Hughes, p. 594
Several terms are used to distinguish between varying degrees of sins:
● ‘khati’a’: is considered stumbling, missing the aim,
 committing an error; a sin committed on purpose (see Surah

17:31)
● ‘zanb’: (‘dhanb’) is a sin, a crime (compare Surah 24:14,
81:9), also expressing ‘faults’ of Mohammed (Surah 47:19 and
48:2)
● ‘ithm’: is anything forbidden in the law, a heavy sin
● ‘shirk’: is adding a partner to Allah, polytheism
Encyclopaedia of Islam, p. 250
The word ‘dhanb’ (pronounce ‘zanb’) today is interpreted to mean a fault,
a kind of wrong doing without necessarily going against any of God’s
commandments. It is, likewise, a ‘horizontal’ sin, not a ‘vertical’ one. In the
Arabic-English Lexicon, by E.W. Lane, however, ‘dhanb’ is ‘sin, a crime, a
fault, a transgression or an act of disobedience’. However, since this word
is used in the Qur’an against Muhammad, its meaning has been modified
by Muslims to mean ‘shortcoming, results from inattention, incapacity,
imperfection’.
‘Light sins’ may be repaired by good works, ‘severer sins’ require
 ‘istighfar’, i.e. seeking forgiveness of Allah and ‘shirk’, the

severest of sins, requires ‘taubah’, i.e. repentance.
Encyclopaedia of Islam, p. 250
The Qur’an says:
Say: ‘O my Servants who have transgressed against their souls!
 Despair not of the mercy of Allah; for Allah forgives all sins
[dhanb]; for He is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
Surah 39:53
This view is, of course, contradicted by other passages:

He forgiveth whom He pleaseth, and punisheth whom He
pleaseth. For Allah hath power over all things.
Surah 2:284 (see also Surah 3:129)
What the Qur’an teaches about sin:
Those who avoid great sins and shameful deeds, only (falling
 into) small faults [ithm], verily thy Lord is ample in forgiveness.

Surah 53:32
Nay, those who seek gain in Evil, and are girt round by their sins
[khati’a], they are Companions of the fire: Therein shall they abide (for ever).
Surah 2:81
Kill not your children for fear of want: We shall provide sustenance for them as
well as for you: Verily the killing of them is a great sin [khati’a].
Surah 17:31
Allah forgiveth not that partners should be set up [shirk] with Him; but He
forgiveth anything else, to whom He pleaseth.
Surah 4:48
Those who go on increasing in unbelief - Allah will not forgive them nor guide
them on the Way.
Surah 4:137
Those who ... reject Allah, and hinder (men) from the Path of Allah, then die
rejecting Allah - Allah will not forgive them.
Surah 47:34
O Our people, hearken to the one who invites (you) to Allah, and believe in
him: He will forgive you your faults [dhanb], and deliver you from a penalty
grievous. Surah 46:31
The Qur’anic perception of the origin of sin:
Say: ‘Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for
 us: He is our Protector’. And on Allah let the Believers put their
trust. Surah 9:51
He said: Worship ye that which ye have (yourself) carved?
But God created you and your handiwork. Surah 37:95-96
Another verse must be added here, but we will use an older translation,
since the most accepted translation by Yusuf Ali is obscure:

By the Soul, and the proportion and order given to it, and its
enlightenment as to its wrong and its right.
Surah 91:7-8
(or, as it should more accurately read):

He (Allah) intimated to it by inspiration its deviating from truth
 and its piety.

Mishkat Vol. 3, p.104, No 7
One might object to the above texts, which show that man is
absolutely predetermined to do what Allah has decreed without a choice of
his own, but that is what the Qur’an says:
This is an admonition: Whosoever will, let him take a (straight)
 path to his Lord. But ye will not, except as Allah wills; for
Allah is full of knowledge and wisdom. He will admit to his
mercy whom He will; but the wrong-doers - for them he prepared
a grievous penalty.
Surah 76:29-31
It is assumed (in the above passage) that Allah has a purpose in barring
people from ‘a (straight) path’. But by that he denies man a choice of
action. Consequently, man cannot be culpable (blameworthy) and does not
deserve deserve ‘a grievous penalty’. May we recall the words of al-
Barqawi (p. XX):
He receives neither profit nor loss from what ever may happen. If
 all the Infidels became believers and all the irreligious pious, He
would gain no advantage. On the other hand, if all believers
became infidels, He would suffer no loss. He can do what He
wills, and whatever He wills comes to pass, He is not obliged to
act. Everything good or evil, in this world exists by His will ... He willeth also the
unbelief of the unbelievers and the irreligion of the wicked and, without that
will, there would neither be unbelief nor irreligion. All we do we do by His will:
what He willeth not does not come to pass ... He is perfectly free to will and to
do what He pleases. In creating unbelievers, in willing that they should remain
in that state ...
This fully underlines that Allah is ‘tansih’, i.e. far removed. We can clearly
detect that the biblical and Qur’anic concepts of sin are in stark contrast to
each other.
The means of forgiveness
He rewards those who do ... good with what is best. Those who
 avoid great sins and shameful deeds, only (falling into) small
faults, verily thy Lord is ample in forgiveness.
Surah 53:31-32
O ye who believe! Fear Allah, and (always) say a word directed to the Right:
That He may make your conduct whole and sound and forgive you your sins:
He that obeys Allah and His Apostle has already attained the highest
achievement.
Surah 33:70-71
For those who reject Allah is a terrible penalty: but for those who believe and
work righteous deeds, is forgiveness, and a magnificent reward.
Surah 35:7
O ye who believe! If ye fear Allah, He will grant you a criterion (to judge
between right and wrong). Remove from you (all) evil (that may afflict) you, and
forgive you: For Allah is the Lord of grace unbounded.
Surah 8:29
If two men among you are guilty of lewdness, punish them both. If they repent
and amend, leave them alone; for Allah is Oft-Returning, Most Merciful.
Allah accepts the repentance of those who do evil in ignorance and repent
soon afterwards; to them will Allah turn in mercy. For Allah is full of knowledge
and wisdom. Surah 4:16-17
And whoever repents does good has truly turned to Allah with an (acceptable)
conversion. Surah 25:71
Their apostles said: ‘Is there a doubt about Allah, the Creator of the heaven
and the earth? It is He Who invites you, in order that He may forgive you your
sins Surah 14:10
Say to the Unbelievers. If (now) they desist (from unbelief), their past would be
forgiven them. Surah 8:38
All this, of course, is again in contrast to the doctrine of predestination in

Islam.
7.2.3 What the Hadith teaches about sin

Narrated by Abdullah ibn Masud: A man said, ‘O Allah’s Apostle!
 Which sin is the biggest in Allah’s Sight?’ The Prophet said, ‘To
set up rivals unto Allah though He Alone created you.’ That man
said, ‘What is next?’ The Prophet said, ‘To kill your son lest he
should share your food with you! The man said, ‘What is next?’
The Prophet said, ‘To commit illegal sexual intercourse with the wife of your
neighbour.’ Then Allah revealed in confirmation of that: ‘And those who invoke
not with Allah any other god, nor kill such life as Allah has made sacred except
for just cause, nor commit illegal sexual intercourse and whoever does this
shall receive the punishment...(25.68)
Al-Bukhari Vol. 9, pp. 468-469, No 623
Narrated Abdullah bin Amr: The Prophet said, ‘The biggest sins are: To join
others [i.e. to join partners to Allah] in worship with Allah; to be undutiful to
one’s parents; to kill somebody unlawfully; and to take an oath Al-Ghamus.
Al-Bukhari Vol. 8, p. 434, No. 667
Narrated by Abu Huraira: ‘The Prophet said, Avoid the seven great destructive
sins.’ They (the people) asked, ‘O Allah’s Apostle! What are they?’ He said, ‘To
join partners in worship with Allah; to practice sorcery; to kill the life which Allah
has forbidden except for a just cause (according to Islamic law); to eat up
usury (Riba), to eat up the property of an orphan; to give one’s back to the
enemy and fleeing from the battlefield at the time of fighting and to accuse
chaste women who never even think of anything touching chastity and are
good believers.
Sahih Al-Bukhari Vol. 8, pp. 560-561, No. 840
Narrated by Abu Huraira: ‘The Prophet said, Allah has accepted my invocation
to forgive what whispers in the hearts of my followers [what their breasts
prompt towards evils], unless they put it to action or utter it. (Hadith No. 657,
Vol. 8)
Sahih Al-Bukhari Vol. 3, p. 424, No. 705
Mu’az reported that the Apostle of Allah instructed me with ten counsels. He
said: Set up nothing with Allah ... nor be disobedient to your parents ... nor give
up the compulsory prayers ... nor drink wine ... beware of flight from holy war ...
and spend for your family out of your means ...
Mishkat Vol. 3, pp. 138-139, No. 460
Safwan-b-Assai reported ... Set up nothing with Allah, nor steal, nor commit
adultery, nor kill a soul ... nor take an innocent man to a man of power that he
may put him to death, nor practice sorcery, nor devour interest nor cast
blasphemy on a chaste woman, nor turn back for flight ...
Mishkat Vol. 3, p.136, No. 20
A mild view of sin combined with the expectation of generous forgiveness

and mercy does away with a need for salvation and a Saviour. Adherence to
Islam and performing its rules is deemed sufficient.
7.2.4 Repentance, Forgiveness, Pardon For Sin

The word repentance, ‘tauba’, we find around 50 times in the Qur’an. It
was well defined by an-Nawawi who wrote in his ‘Commentary on
Muslim’ (Vol. 2, p.354): “It is the turning of the heart from sin.” Some
typical passages will help us understand:
O ye who believe! Turn to Allah with sincere repentance: in the
 hope that your Lord will remove from you your ills and admit you
to Gardens beneath which Rivers flow the Day that Allah will not
permit to be humiliated the Prophet and those who believe with
him. Their Light will run forward before them and by their right
hands while they say ‘Our Lord! Perfect our Light for us and grant us
forgiveness; for Thou hast power over all things.’ Surah 66:8
Allah accepts the repentance of those who do evil in ignorance and repent
soon afterwards; to them will Allah turn in mercy; for Allah is full of knowledge
and wisdom. Of no effect is the repentance of those who continue to do evil.
Surah 4:17-18
Turn ye to your Lord (in repentance) and bow to His (Will) before the Penalty
comes on you: after that ye shall not be helped. Surah 39:54
Know they not that Allah doth accept repentance from His votaries and
receives their gifts of charity and that Allah is verily He the Oft-Returning Most-
Merciful? Surah 9:104
Those who reject faith after they accepted it and then go on adding to their
defiance of faith never will their repentance be accepted; for they are those
who have (of set purpose) gone astray. Surah 3:90
Many of these verses are right, beautiful and challenging. Only, we do have
to see them in the context that all man does, is pre-determined. Besides, “It
is the blood that makes atonement” (Lev 17:11), and that is no issue in Islam.
The above passages are, of course, contradicted by the verses on
predestination:
This is an admonition: Whosoever will let him take a (straight)
 path to his Lord.

But ye will not, except as Allah wills. For Allah is full of knowledge
and wisdom. Surah 76:29-30
If We had so willed, We could certainly have brought every soul its true
guidance: But the Word from Me will come true: ‘I will fill hell with jinns and
men all together. Surah 32:13
Had Allah willed He could have made you (all) one nation, but He sendeth
whom He will astray and guideth whom He will, and ye will indeed be asked of
what ye used to do. Surah 16:93 (Pickthall)
He forgiveth whom He pleaseth, and He punisheth whom He pleaseth.
Surah 5:20
Whom Allah doth guide - He is on the right path. Whom He rejects from His
guidance - such are the persons who perish. Many are the jinns and men We
have made for hell. Surah 7:178-179
7.2.5 An Evaluation
We perceive from all this that Islam coaches people to repentance, but
offers a forgiveness without atonement, and reconciliation without the shed
blood of a sacrifice. By Scriptural standards Islam therefore offers no
salvation, or worse, misguides people to trust a teaching that is not based on
God’s fundamental requirement: “without the shedding of blood there is no
forgiveness of sin”, and that it is the blood of Christ which alone cleanses
or purifies us from all sin (Heb 9:22 and 1 John 1:7). Islam thereby
contradicts what God has said in His Word! Islam is by that “another
Gospel” (Gal 1:6-9) (Greek ‘heteros’ = another of a different kind).
When we investigate the Islamic understanding of the Law and try to relate
to it the concept of sin, we inevitably have to look at the biblical and
Islamic teaching about man, his nature and purpose.
7.3 The Law of God

7.3.1 The Bible
The Bible rightly states: “where there is no law, there is no transgression”
(Rom 4:15), and “we would not have known what sin was, except through
the law.” (Rom 7:7)
A law regulates the life of a society by determining what is right and what
is wrong. It does not necessarily ‘make good people’. However, if there is a
functioning law-enforcement, the transgressors of the law will be taken to
task and punished for their anti-social behaviour. Punishment is therefore a
deterrent.
Sin is trespassing of the Law (1 John 3:4). The Law exists to define what
trespass, what sin is. In addition the Bible sets a divine moral standard by
saying: “Everything that does not come from faith is sin” (Rom 14:23).
This implies that anything we think or do without the consideration of God
is intrinsically wrong. But the Bible also addresses the real problem: “Love
is the fulfillment of the Law” (Rom 13:10). Man’s lack of love, devotion
and concern for God became and is the prime cause of sin. (See also 1 John
3:4, Ps 51; Rom 2) When Jesus was asked about the most important part of
the Law, he answered:
Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul
 and with all your mind. This is the first and greatest
commandment. And the second is like it: Love your neighbour as
yourself. All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two
commandments. Mt 22:37-39
7.3.2 Islam
Islam places the emphasis of its faith on the law. The law determines how
to accumulate merit, considered to be the key to Paradise. Muslims, like the
Pharisees, try to earn heaven.
This view is based on the fundamental error that assumes that sin can be
compensated by ‘good deeds’. Of course, our lives should be full of these,
but we should equally know that this is no more than our duty to do (Lk 17:10).
The very assumption that one is able to compensate for sin is based on a
misconception of the Holiness of God and the awfulness of sin. Seen in this
light, observance of the Law as a means to obtain salvation is the very
antithesis to the Gospel. Thus commendable good deeds done by Muslims
become the very barrier that keeps them out of heaven, “for it is by grace
you have been saved, through faith - and this not from yourselves, it is the
gift of God - not by works, so that no one can boast”! (Eph 2:8-9)
God’s Holiness And His Righteousness Are Deeply Offended
 By Our Sin. It Either Displays Rebellion Against Or

Indifference Towards Him.
The Bible teaches that Satan is the author of sin, whereas
according to Islam Allah is the author of everything - including sin. With
this background knowledge in mind, we have a look at the Shariah, the Law
of Islam.

• Premises and Principles of Muslim Evangelism, Gerhard Nehls, Nairobi:
LCA, 1991, pp. 5-62.
191
8 The Shariah
Shariah is the common law of Islam, meaning ‘the way’ or ‘road in the
religion of Islam’. It is established for ‘al-Hidaya’, the right guidance for
Muslims, both for the worship of Allah and for the duties of life. It is in fact
the religious evaluation and regulation of all affairs of life. The ‘Science of
Law’ is called ‘Fikh’. The term ‘ash-Shariah’ actually only occurs a couple
of times in the Qur’an.
To each among you have We prescribed a Law and an Open
 Way. If Allah has so willed, he would have made you a single

people, but (his plan is) to test you in what he hath given you; so
strive as in a race in all virtues. The goal of you all is to Allah. It is
he that will show you the truth of the matters in which ye dispute.
Surah 5:48
Then We put thee on the (right) Way of Religion: so follow thou that (way), and
follow not the desires of those who know not. Surah 45:18
It is certainly interesting to note that Allah says he could have made us all a
single people, but made us different (i.e. Muslims, Christians and Jews), so
that we all should strive like in a race for the best virtues! The anticipated
goal for this is to demonstrate the truth about
which we dispute! We find no word of
condemnation of the Law of Moses or any other
Scripture which came before (the Qur’an), neither
of the Christians. Indeed it states that Allah willed
different religions to bring out the Truth!
In the practical reality Muslims, more so than the
Jews, are required by an endless list of “do’s”and
“don’ts”26 to submit to strict regulations in every
aspect of life. The world consists of what is
‘permitted’ (lawful = ‘halaal’) and what is
‘forbidden’ (unlawful = ‘haraam’).
26
See for example the book “Do’s and Do Not’s in Islam” by A. Rehman Shad
192 The Shariah
A striking phenomenon needs to be mentioned here: “Allah’s law is not to

be penetrated by intelligence, it is ta’abbudi, i.e. man has to accept is
without criticism, with its apparent inconsistencies and its
incomprehensible decrees, as wisdom into which it is impossible to inquire.
One must not look in it for causes, in our sense, nor for principles; it is
based on the will of Allah, which is bound by no principles.” (Dictionary of
Islam, by H.A.R. Gibbs & J.H. Kramers, p. 525) This concept is practiced
by the whole of Islam. Muslims are to submit to it, and not to check its
truth and trustworthiness. This is probably the single most tragic bondage
in Islam. It excludes any critical analysis and comparison with the Christian
faith, the very thing the Qur’an promotes:
To thee We sent the Scripture in truth, confirming the scripture
 that came before it, and guarding it in safety; so judge between

them by what Allah hath revealed.... Surah 5:48
Muslims are to judge between the scripture revealed to
Muhammad and the scriptures that came before it! We do well to remind
our Muslim friends to earnestly consider what the Qur’an teaches in this
respect, and to persuade them to think for themselves and to critically
analyze the reasons and evidences for their faith and ours. The claim that
the biblical Scripture has been corrupted is contradicted by the very verse,
which is quoted above.
The Formulation Of The Shariah

While Islamic justice has been practiced from the beginning on the premise
established by Muhammad (i.e. the Qur’an and the aHadith), the
formulation of the the concept and content of the Shariah was not
systematically approached until 150 - 200 years after the death of
Muhammad, when the originators of the four Law Schools compiled their
repective versions.
The Shariah 193
8.1 The Structure Of The Shariah

Perhaps it needs to be said that the Shariah is not a Book of Law. It is the
gleaning of passages from the Qur’an and Hadith which are viewed to
regulate or determine the daily life of every Muslim. The jurists composed
from these books a code of justice by determining what is right and what is
wrong, and how this Shariah should be enforced.
‘Ash-Shar’ or ‘the Law’, is divided into five sections:
Itiqadat = belief
Adab = moralities
Ibadat = devotions
Mu’amalat = transactions
Uqubat = punishment
‘Itiqadat’, embraces all that is contained in the six articles of the

Muslim faith, namely, belief in:

● God ● His Prophets
● His Angels ● The Day of Judgment
● His Books ● The Decrees of God
(Predestination)
‘Adab’, embraces the consideration of all those ‘moral excellences’ which

are enjoined in the Qur’an and the Hadith as:
Sincerity, confidence in God, humility, resignation, keeping down one’s
expectations, renunciation of the world, giving good counsel and advice,
contentment, liberality, love of God and man, patience.
‘Ibadat’ includes all acts of devotion to God, such as are included in the
Five Pillars of Practice:
194 The Shariah

● ’Shaháda’, the recitation of the ● ’Sawm’, the fasting
Creed
● ’Hajj’, the pilgrimage to
● ’Salat’, the ritual prayer Mecca
● ’Zakat’, the legal alms giving
It is also to regulate such religious duties as ‘Jihad’ or warfare for the

propagation of the religion of Islam.
‘Mu’amalat’ includes such duties as are required between man and man.
This covers the various sections of civil jurisprudence such as trade and
business, theft, marriage, divorce, dower, partnership, claims, etc.
‘Uqubat’ denotes the punishment instituted in the Qur’an and Traditions.
These are: retaliation, punishment for theft (by cutting off a hand),
punishment for fornication and adultery (by stoning for a married person
and one hundred lashes for an unmarried person), punishment of eighty
lashes for slander, punishment by death for apostasy, and punishment with
eighty lashes for wine drinking etc. Islamic law strongly builds its case on
what is ‘lawful’ (‘halaal’) and ‘unlawful’ (‘haraam’). That which is lawful
is graded into five classes:

● ‘Farz’, that which is proved beyond all doubt to be taught by the
Qur’an or in a tradition of undoubted authority. The denial or
disobedience of such is considered positive infidelity.
● ‘Wajib’, that which is obligatory, but of which there is some doubt
whether or not it was practiced in the Qur’an or in a tradition of
undoubted authority.
● ‘Sunnah’, that which was practiced by Muhammad.
● ‘Mustahabb’, that which Muhammad and his companions
sometimes did and sometimes omitted.
● ‘Mubah’, that which is desirable, but which may be omitted
without fear of sin.(Dictionary of Islam, by Hughes, p. 285-286 )
The Shariah 195
8.1.1 The Origin And Fountain Of All Islamic Law

The origin and fountain of all Islamic law is the Qur’an and the Hadith. No
Muslim school of theology ever neglected them. They are binding upon
Sunnis and Shi’ah. The only difference between the Sunni and Shi’áh is
that they use different collections of Traditions.
In addition to the Qur’an, and the Hadith, Islamic Law has introduced two
further concepts:
● Ijma If a case cannot be deduced from the Qur’an or Hadith, the
consensus (= ‘ijma’) of the jurists may be, and often is,
applied.
● Qiyas This is ‘an analogical extension of a recognized text to
include another situation which would legitimately be held to
be covered by the principle (‘illa) which that text enunciated’
(= stated clearly)
An illustration may help us understand this: The Qur’an makes the drinking
of wine unlawful (‘haraam’). In that case, may a Muslim drink beer? The
Khadis (jurists) would reason that >1. because it causes intoxication wine is
forbidden, >2. beer is not mentioned in the Qur’an or Hadith, >3. beer also
intoxicates, therefore: >4. beer is also forbidden.
Sunnis are divided into 4 Law Schools. These are based on the teachings of
● Abu-Hanifa born 80 AH in Kufah today practiced in Central Asia, India
and somewhat in Egypt
● Malik born 96 AH in Medina today practiced in West Africa and North
Africa, excepting Egypt
● Ash-Shafi’i born 150 AH in Gaza today practiced in South Arabia, East
Africa, Malaysia, Egypt and Central Asia)
●Ibn-Hanbal born 164 AH in today practiced in parts of the Arabian
Baghdad peninsula
These different schools of jurisprudence of Sunnis do not differ in

fundamentals of religious belief, but in the interpretation and application of
the Law.
196 The Shariah
The study of the Shariah takes a number of years and is part of the study of
Theology. Consequently, the Khadi, i.e. the judge in an Islamic society is at
the same time the Mullah or the Shaikh, who enjoys much respect.
The Islamic law has not, as the West, given way to the permissive doctrine
of secular humanism, which has plunged much of it into a morass of
lawlessness and moral decay. These decidedly anti-Christian forces are,
very unfortunately, construed to be the result of a failed Christianity. It has
to be said, however, that unlike in Islam, the West exercises no pressure on
unbelievers to act as though they were believers, which leads to hypocrisy.
In conclusion we can sum up that Christians and Muslims stand on
different premises with regard to their concept of justice, particularly divine
justice.

A Muslim Lives ‘Under The Law’,
A Christian ‘Under Grace’
By that token a Muslim views himself as ‘Abdullah’, a slave of Allah. A

Christian sees himself as a child of God, once strayed, but now reconciled
to the Father and loved by Him.

• Battle for the Hearts, Episode 4:4, The Sharia. TWR & LCA, 2001.
197
9 Islamic Ideas about Salvation

In the Bible we find well-defined teaching about salvation. It is the way
whereby a person may obtain forgiveness and be reconciled to God (2 Co
5:18, 19). Every person with a fair knowledge of God’s Word and not
confused by certain church dogmas, is able to judge in what position he/she
stands before God: forgiven or not forgiven, saved or lost. In contrast to
that no Muslim may justifiably conclude that his/her sins are forgiven, that
he/she is saved from the consequences of sin, and has by that token peace
with God and the assurance of eternal life in heaven.
Islam presents actually three ‘ways of salvation’, if one may call them by
this name, but these conflict with each other:
Salvation Is Achieved By Right Action

The balance that day will be true (to a nicety). Those whose scale
(of good) will be heavy, will prosper. Those whose scale will be
light, will find their souls in perdition, for that they wrongfully
treated our signs. Surah 7:8-9
Salvation Is Obtained Through God’s Mercy And

Forgiveness

Say: If ye do love Allah, follow me: Allah will love you, and forgive
you your sins. For Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
Surah 3:31
Salvation Comes By Pre-Decree

Say: Why then doth He punish you for your sins? Nay, ye are but men -
of the men He hath created. He forgiveth whom He pleaseth, and He
punishes whom He pleaseth. And to Allah belongeth the dominion of
the heavens and the earth, and all that is between. Surah 5:18
He leaves straying whom He pleases and guides whom He pleases: but ye shall
certainly be called to account for all your actions. Surah 16:93
It is only martyrs in a ‘holy war’, who have a Qur’anic assurance to be

forgiven and to go to Paradise.
198 Islamic Ideas about Salvation
The word ‘salvation’, which is najat in Arabic, only appears once in the
Qur’an: It lets a believing subject of Pharaoh say:

O, my people! How (strange) it is for me to call you to salvation
while ye call me to the fire [i.e. hell]. Surah 40:41
Yusuf Ali translates the word ‘fauz’ with ‘salvation’:

Allah will say: ‘This is a day on which the truthful will profit from
their truth. Theirs are Gardens, with rivers flowing beneath, - their
eternal home: Allah well-pleased with them, and they with Allah.
That is the mighty triumph (the fulfillment of all desires).
Surah 5:119
The footnote in the Qur’an explains:
Fauz = felicity, happiness, achievement, salvation, the attainment
 or fulfilment of desires. What a beautiful definition of salvation or

the end of life! - That we should win God’s good pleasure and
that we should reach the stage at which His good pleasure is all-
in-all to us.
In an additional note (app. XII, p. 1469) we read:
This, then, is the Muslim idea of salvation. It consists, not in
 being saved from the consequences of our sins by the suffering

or the merits of others, nor in Nirvana, or annihilation or
absorption - but in the achievement, the attainment of all desires,
the felicity in excelsis.
This is our idea of salvation: the negative avoidance of all the consequences of
evil, and the positive attainment of all - and more than all - that our hearts
could possibly desire. For God’s bounty outstrips anything that our eyes have
seen, or our ears have heard of, or our imagination can conceive.
To any person who knows the Bible, this is an atrocious blasphemy and a
total misjudgement of God, man and sin!
We conclude: Muslims have
Islamic Ideas about Salvation 199

● A False Concept of God
● A False Concept of Man
● A False Concept of Sin
Because of the misunderstood holiness and righteousness of God, sin is
misjudged. This leads to the wrong understanding that man is able to
compensate for his sin or that God will eliminate it because of man’s
sincerity, which ultimately is also his own effort.

Consequently
a Muslim sees no need
for atonement, justification and reconciliation or,
for that matter, grace.

• Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law, Ignaz Goldziher, Princeton Un4.
Press 1981.
• Islam in the Modern World, Norman Anderson, Apollos 1990.
• Ishmael, my Brother, compiled by Anne Cooper, MARC, Evangelical
Missionary Alliance, 1993, pp. 113-140.
• Sin and Atonement in Islam and Christianity, Iskander Jadeed, Light of Life,
57 pages. (compares the subject in the light of Qur’an and Bible. The study
leads to the realization of the necessity of redemption for the forgiveness of sin
by the atoning death of Jesus Christ on the cross.)
• Textbook of Islam, Vol. 2, M.A. Quraishy, 1989, The Islamic Foundation,
P.O. Box 30611, Nairobi, Kenya.
• The Prayer of the Lost, Abd Al-Masih, Light of Life 1993, 120 pages.
(compares the opening Surah Al-Fatiha with the Lord’s Prayer and thus
demonstrates the differencies in prayer between Islam and the Christian faith.
The different spirit portrayed in these prayers alerts us to recognize the true
nature of Islam.)
• Battle for the Hearts, Episode 1:5, Islam / Christianity: The differences.TWR
& LCA, 2001.
• Handout: Comparison of some teachings of Islam and Christianity, LCA.
200
10 Speculations about Future Life

Eschatology is the teaching on ‘the last things’, generally meaning the
understanding of the Time of the End, the Resurrection, Last Judgment,
Heaven and Hell, and concerns itself at the same time with questions
regarding death and life after death.
Although identical words for these events are used as in the Christian
context, the content is rather different.
10.1 Death and the Punishment in the Grave

To find out what a Muslim has to expect after death, we look at some
aHadith taken from the popular book “What happens after Death?” by
Hazrat Maulana Ahmed Saeed Dehlwi and other Traditions. We must
remember that the Hadith provides the explanation for the Qur’an and is
therefore an absolute authority to Muslims.
What Is The Punishment Like?

The dead man will continue to feel the pangs of death so long as
 he is in the grave. For the believers, this pain is more than all
other pains but for the non-believers it is very light as his trouble
will come as everlasting punishment after death. (Abu Naim)
What Happens After Death? Vol. 1, p. 52
Hazrat Umar asked Hazrat Ka’ab to narrate the conditions of death. He told
that a tree of thorns was thrust in his stomach and every thorn of it was
entangled with a vein and in that state a very powerful man was pulling out that
tree with all his force and with [sic] thorns all the veins were coming out. (Ibn
Abi Shaiba, Ibn Abiddumya) What Happens After Death? Vol 1, p. 54-55
Hazrat Ata Bin Yasaar has quoted the Holy Prophet to have stated that the grip
of the Angel of Death is harder than thousand strikes of a sword. The believer,
who dies, feels pain in every vein separately. At the time of death, Satan, the
enemy of Allah, is very near to the dying man. (Masnad Haaris)
What Happens After Death? Vol 1, p. 55
At that time the eyes are taken out, the veins are snatched away, the
backbone is crushed and the whole physical frame is put to agonies which no
human language can express. If there is a wound in the body, the whole body
Speculations about Future Life 201
suffers endless pain. Imagine the condition of the body when the entire bodily
limbs [sic] will be snatched away one by one. This is the turning hour of a man
from one stage to another, from a life of flesh to a life of spirit.
Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 83 - Commentary
Narrated by AbuHurayrah: Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon
 him) said: When the dead body (of a Muslim) is buried in the
grave there appear before him two Angels, both having black
faces and blue eyes. One is called Munkar and the other is called
Nakir and they say: Say what you have to say about this person
and he will say: He is the servant of Allah and His Messenger. I bear testimony
to the fact that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is His Messenger
and they both will say: We already knew that you would say this. Then his
grave will be expanded to the extent of 4900 square cubic feet and it will be
illuminated, then it will be said to him: Go to sleep and he will say: I intend to
go to my family in order to inform them and they would say: Go to sleep like
the sleep of a newly wedded bride whom no one awakens but one who is
dearest to her amongst his family members. Only Allah would resurrect him
from his resting place. If he (the dead) were a hypocrite he will say: I heard
people making a statement (pertaining to the oneness of Allah and the
apostlehood of Muhammad) and I said the same but I do not know. And they
would say: We already knew that you would say this and the earth will be told
to press him and it will press him till his ribs are clasped together and he will
not be relieved of the torment till Allah resurrects him from his resting-place.
Al-Tirmidhi, 130
A virtuous man will live in a semi-conscious state of happiness in
 his grave as if he is in dream in the midst of the sweet company

of a beautiful girl. When he will be awake, he will exclaim: O woe
to us! Who has raised us from our sleeping place? The sinner will
also live likewise in the midst of huge snakes, tigers and lions as
if he is in dream. He will continue to have such punishment in proportion to his
evil deeds. Mishkat Vol. 3, p. 79 Commentary
How Long Is The Suffering To Last?

What does grave mean? Grave means the period from the time
 of death up to the Resurrection Day when judgment will take

place. Mishkat Vol. 3, p. 78 Commentary
Hazrat Ibn Abbas said that the Holy Prophet said that while ordering to take
out the soul of the sinful believers Allah asks the Angel of Death to give him
the glad tiding of Paradise, although on account of sin, they will be given
punishment of fire for a certain period. It means that the followers of

Muhammad would certainly get Paradise although after completing their term
of punishment for the sins. What Happens After Death? Vol. 1, p. 92
Contrary to that the Bible clearly states:
 Man is destined to die once, and after that to face judgment.
While punishment in the grave is temporary, i.e. until the resurrection and
Heb 9:27
final judgement, hell is eternal.

If We had willed, We could certainly have brought every soul its
 true guidance. But the Word from Me will come true: ‘I will fill Hell
with Jinns and men all together. Taste ye then - for ye forgot the
Meeting of this Day of yours, and We too will forget you - taste ye
the penalty of Eternity for your (evil) deeds!
Surah 32:13-14
The Sinners will be in the punishment of Hell, to dwell therein (for age). Nowise
will the (punishment) be lightened for them, and in despair will they be there
overwhelmed. Nowise shall We be unjust to them: But it is they who have been
27
unjust themselves. They will cry: ‘O Malik! Would that thy Lord put an end to
us!’ He will say: ‘Nay, but ye shall abide!
Surah 43:74-77
Those who are wretched shall be in the Fire: there will be for them therein
(nothing but) the heaving of sighs and sobs. They will dwell therein for all the
time that the heavens and the earth endure, except as thy Lord willeth: for thy
Lord is the (sure) Accomplisher of what he planneth. Surah 11:106-107
Their wish will be to get out of the fire, but never will they get out therefrom.
Their penalty will be one that endures. Surah 5:37
In total contrast to that Muslims are encouraged to believe that while they
will have to go to hell for a period of time to suffer for the sins, which they
have committed while on earth, they may well expect to enter Paradise
thereafter. This raises some questions:
1. If hell is forever - how do they hope to come out?
27
Malik = keeper of hell
2. Where does forgiveness come in?

3. Why should Allah let those people out of hell into Paradise who
sinned against better knowledge (i.e. the believers), while leaving the
ignorant for eternal punishment?
10.1.1 Which Sins Will Be Punished?

There is, of course, a great variety of sins for which people will be
punished. We will mention only the somewhat unusual. Punishment will be
meted out for...
...urinating wrongly:
Hazrat Ibn Umar retired for night halt to a house which belonged
 to an aged woman. There was a grave at shorter distance from

the house. During the night he heard a voice from the grave,
shouting: ‘Urine that urine - water container that water container.’
When he inquired of the woman about the grave she said that it
belonged to her husband who was suffering from tribulation of the grave for
two reasons - first he did not take care in urinating and secondly he pointed to
an empty water container when a very thirsty man asked for water to quench
his thirst. As a result the man did not find water therein and died of the thirst.
Sheikh Ibn Hajar Makki narrates that the Traditions mentioning carelessness in
urinating causing tribulation of the grave are a proof that carelessness in
urinating is a grave sin (Kubair) and so also fault finding and back biting.
(Kitabe Zawajir) What Happens After Death? Vol. 1, p. 195
...considering the prescribed prayers (Salat) a burden and for neglecting the
prescribed almsgiving:
It is narrated by Abu Huaira that during the Night of Miraj the Holy
 Prophet passed by a group whose heads were being crushed

with the stones, they were those who performed salat like
unburdening a load from their heads or treated the salat as a
burden. Then there was a group which had covered their
sexparts with a piece of rag only and was grazing hot stones and cactus, they
did not pay Zakat and Sadaqat.
The snake says: ‘I have been appointed over you by my Lord in order to bite
you till sunrise for having missed your morning prayers, and I am appointed to
bite you till afternoon for missing the noon prayer, and then I am to bit you till
sunset for having missed the afternoon prayers; and I am to bite you till night-
prayer’s time for missing the evening prayers and missing the night prayers. I
am appointed to bite you continuously till morning. When the snake bites him
but once the corpse sinks into the earth to the depth measuring the length of
seventy hands. And in the same manner he will continue to suffer this torment
till Doomsday.
...those, whose actions differ from their words, who try to hear and see
illegitimate things, who refused to suckle their babies, and who broke the
fast (Sawm) before the time:
According to Hazrat Abu Imama the Holy Prophet Sal’am described a
 dream to his Companions... He found women and men whose mouth

corners were ripped, they were those whose actions were different from
 their words. Going onward certain women and men were seen in whose
ears and eyes nails were thrust, they were those who always tried to
hear and see the illegitimate things. The certain [sic] women were hanging upside
down and there [sic] breasts were bitten by snakes, they were those who refused to
suckle their babies. A little ahead, many men and women were found hanging upside
down and licking mud, they were those fast observers who broke their fasts before the
appointed time.
...those who were liars:

In the fourth grave the dead was seen burning in the fire and the
 Angels of Tribulation were thrashing him which had made him cry
loudly. In the same manner it was said that the dead used to take
false oaths and was a liar.
...and those who played chess:
In the fifth grave the dead was being beaten with the pillars of
 fire and he was crying very loudly. It was said about him in the
same manner that he was an amateur player of chess etc.
although such things are prohibited by the Apostle of Allah.
Is all this not desperately sad? It is indeed! Muhammad expressed it too:

It is said by Hazrat Burra that he accompanied the Holy Prophet
 Sal’am in a funeral and the latter wept near a grave so

excessively that the soil was moistened and upon their inquiry he
told the Companions to be prepared for the grave which was so
terrifying. (Ibn Maja) What Happens After Death? Vol. 1, p. 169
1. We can see that Muslims have more than enough reason to
 fear the terrors of death, the grave, judgment and punishment.

2. This is one of the intimidating factors, which hold every Muslim
terrorized and mesmerized, since he fears more than anything
else the punishment, which he is taught to expect when leaving Islam.
3. Until the point of death, even to the Resurrection and Last Judgment, a
Muslim has no knowledge of his destiny. Consequently he has no assurance of
forgiveness, although the Qur’an makes much of it. Islam offers no salvation in
the way the Bible does. By that Islam is basically a religion of fear. Intimidation
faces those who consider leaving Islam to become Christians.
Fear of such prospects make it evidently quite desirable for Muslims to seek
martyrdom. The fear of death in Islam and the glory which awaits those who die as
believers in Christ - having been forgiven, having peace with God and having been
reconciled to God, offers such enormous contrasts, that a Christian should take
every opportunity to share this with his Muslim friend.
10.2 The Time Of The End

The Mahdi will come followed by Jesus, who will kill the Antichrist:
Towards the End of Time a descendant of Muhammad will appear as the
Mahdi (pronounced Machadi). He will move from Medina to Mecca and be
the last Imam to teach and guide all faithful Muslims. He is not mentioned
in the Qur’an, scarcely in the Hadith, and not at all by the best-accepted
Hadith collectors (al-Bukhari and Muslim). In the Mishkat we read:
Abdullah b-Masud reported that the Prophet said: the world shall
 not pass away till a man of my house rules over the Arabs. His
name will be similar to my name”... Umme Salamah reported: I
heard the Prophet of Allah say: The Mahdi will appear from my
stock, from the descendants of Fatima.
Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 44-45, Nr. 74-75
Narrated byAbuSa’id al-Khudri: The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: The
Mahdi will be of my stock, and will have a broad forehead a prominent nose.
He will fill the earth will equity and justice as it was filled with oppression and
tyranny, and he will rule for seven years. Sunan of Abu-Dawood, 4272
Shiah Muslims believe the Mahdi has already come in the person of the
12th Khalif Muhammad Abu’l-Qasim, who is believed to be hiding (in a
deep well) until the end of time.
Al-Dajjal is the Islamic version of the Anti-Christ:
It appears from many traditions ... that Dajjal was living or at
 least born at the time of the Holy Prophet. He will not die till he
will be killed by Jesus. In the mean time, he has been kept in
strong iron chains. The Holy Prophet has given his physical
description. He will be squint of right eye, floating of the left eye,
curly and coarse haired, having biting teeth, big and fat so much so that there
will be a distance of 70 cubits between his two eyes. His father will be long
statured with long nose like a beak, and his mother will be fat and long of two
hands. Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 51 – Commentary
Jesus will defeat Al-Dajjal:

When Dajjal, representing the embodiment of evils, will let flow
 his poisonous teachings attended with general oppression and

sham miracles, Jesus will come down from heaven placing his
two palms upon the wings of angels and descend in [sic] the
white minaret to the east of Damascus. He will pray behind
Imam Mahdi thereby showing that he will establish the Shariah of the Holy
Prophet of Arabia. He will destroy the Cross which represents the crucifixion of
Jesus Christ because it is a gross misrepresentation. He will establish the
kingdom of god on earth in which there will remain no mutual hatred, jealousy,
enmity and rancour. The world will be filled up for a time with the melodious
names of Allah. He will be nearly of square size, red, extremely beautiful,
28
having hanging hairs. He will take wife and issues will be born to him. He will
search for Dajjal and find him out at Lud, a town in Syria and he will kill him
there with his own hand. Thereafter almost all including the Jews and the
Christians will accept Islam thus proving the truth of the Qur’anic verse: ‘He it
is who sent his Apostle with guidance and true religion in order that He may
cause it to prevail over all other religions’. During his Khalifat, two mighty tribes
known as Gog and Magog will appear from the hilly countries between
Turkisthan and Transoxania and will devastate the land carrying pillage and
28
issue = means ‘children’
murders. Through the invocation of Jesus, they will be destroyed. Then there
will be heavy shower of rain which will enrich the world with foodstuffs and
vegetables. Thereafter a pleasant wind will carry all the believers to death
leaving the unbelievers to suffer. After this Jesus will die and he will be buried
at the Prophet’s sepulchre just by the side.
Mishkat 4, p. 80 – Commentary
Jesus will destroy all crosses:

Narrated by Abu Huraira: Allah’s Apostle said, ‘By Him in Whose
 Hands my soul is, surely (Jesus,) the son of Mary will soon descend
amongst you and will judge mankind justly (as a Just Ruler); he will
 break the Cross and kill the pigs and there will be no Jizya (i.e. taxation
taken from non-Muslims). Money will be in abundance so that nobody
will accept it, and a single prostration to Allah (in prayer) will be better than the whole
world and whatever is in it.’ Abu Huraira added ‘If you wish, you can recite (this verse
of the Holy Book): And there is none Of the people of the Scriptures (Jews and
Christians) But must believe in him (i.e Jesus as an Apostle of Allah and a human
being) Before his death. And on the Day of Judgment He will be a witness against
them’. (4.159) (See Fateh Al Bari, Page 302, Vol 7)
Al-Bukhari Vol 4, pp. 436-437, Nr. 657
Jesus will marry, have children, die and be buried next to

Muhammad:
Abdullah-b-Amr reported that the Messenger of Allah said:
 Jesus, son of Mary, will come down to the world. He will marry
and there will be his issue, and he will live for forty-five years
and then die. He will be buried with me in my grave. Then I and
Jesus, son of Mary, will stand up in one grave between Abu
Bakr and Omar. (Ibnul Jaozi) Mishkat 4, p. 82, Nr. 642
The king of Kings and the lord of Lords

Only with this background knowledge can we understand the following
Hadith:
Narrated by Abu Huraira: Allah’s Apostle said, ‘The most awful
 name in Allah’s sight on the Day of Resurrection, will be (that of)

a man calling himself Malik Al-Amlak (the king of kings)’.
Al-Bukhari Vol. 8, p. 144, Nr. 224
The Resurrection Day

The resurrection is spoken of under various names, the most
 important of which is given below: the day of Resurrection,

occurring seventy times in the Qur’an, the day of requital, the
next world, occurring over one hundred times, the day of trial,
occurring five times, The Hour [occurring forty times in the
Qur’an] does not properly apply to the Day of Resurrection as it is the hour of
Destruction (Doomsday), while the Resurrection is the hour of Construction.
With the first blowing of the Trumpet, the Hour of Destruction will come to
pass, and then after a lapse of forty years in Barzakh the Resurrection will take
place...
Then it shall be blown again, when lo, they shall stand up awaiting. And the
earth shall shine with the light of its Lord and the book shall be laid down and
the prophets and the witnesses shall be brought up (Surah 39:69). And the
whole earth shall be in His grip on the Resurrection Day and the heavens will
be rolled up in His right hand (Surah 39:67). And the Trumpet shall be blown
when lo, from their graves they shall hasten on to their Lord. They shall say: O
woe to us! Who has raised us from our sleeping-place ... There shall be nought
but a single cry when lo they shall be all brought before Us (Surah 36:51). The
day on which the Trumpet shall be blown, so that you shall all come forth in
hosts and the heavens shall be opened, so that it shall be all openings (Surah
78:19). The earth will be red-white plane without trees, plants, mountains and
rivers. The sun will shine just above the head from a little distance. The people
will rise up naked, barefooted and uncircumcised. There will be no place for
concealment and no shade except the shade of the Throne of the Almighty,
which the righteous only shall enjoy. There will be no sin or bloodshed or evil-
doing as everybody will be engaged in the thoughts of salvation. The Qur’an
says: For every man out of them there will be an affair on it that day which will
keep him engaged (Surah 80:37). The first to rise from his grave will be the
Prophet Muhammad and then the other prophets and pious men will follow
him.
Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 94-95 - Commentary
Much intellectual blood is being spent on the question whether man will rise
with body or without body. The old theory of dogmatic religion upholds the
doctrine of only physical resurrection, while the new school of thought inclines
to adopt only the spiritual resurrection. We cannot definitely answer either of
the two questions as our vision of comprehension does not extend so far. The
Qur’an and Hadith give us some clue by upholding the doctrine of spiritual
resurrection combined with a physique made out of the good and evil deeds of
a man.
Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 97 - Commentary
Meqdad reported: I heard the Apostle of Allah say: The sun will be brought
near creation on the Resurrection Day so much so that it will be from them like
the distance of a mile. People will remain in perspiration in proportion to their
deeds. Of them, there will be one who will remain up to his heels, and of them
will be one who will remain up to his joints, of them will be one who will remain
up to his knees, of them will be those whom perspiration will drown a drowning;
and the Messenger of Allah pointed out to his mouth with his hand.
Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 102, Commentary
Aisha reported: I heard the Messenger of Allah say in one of his prayers: O
Allah! Take easy account of me. I asked: O Prophet of Allah! What is easy
account? He replied: To look to his record (of deeds) and to forgive him. O
Aisha! He whose account will be strictly taken on that day will be destroyed.
(Ahmad)
Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 106
The Day of Judgment

There will be none left who will not be asked these four things -
 his age, in what way he spent it; his actions, with what object he
did them; his body, how he had worn it out; and his wealth,
wherefrom he acquired it and how he spent it. All these
questions will be put to him in presence of all the creatures from
the beginning of the world up to its end.
Mishkat Vol. 4, p.109, Commentary
The Book of Deeds

Then the Book of Deeds will be placed in his hands, such a book
 as had omitted nothing, small or great from being written. The

Qur’an says: And the Book shall be placed, then you will see the
guilty fearing from what is in it, and will say: Ah! Woe to us! What
a book is this? It has not omitted any great one but numbers
them all [sic]. And they shall find what they done, and your Lord does not deal
unjustly with any man (Surah 18:49).We made everyman’s actions to cling to
his neck, and will We bring forth to him on the Resurrection Day a book which
he will find wide open (Surah 17:13). Whoever has done an atom’s weight of
good shall see it, and whoever has done an atom’s weight of evil shall see it
(Surah 99:7). The Almighty Allah will then ask: Read thy book, thy own soul is
a reckoner against thee this day (Surah 17:14). The virtuous will receive it by
the right hand and the sinner by the left and the unbelievers by the back
(Surah 69:19). Mishkat Vol. 4, p. 109, Commentary
Sinners are chained

For the sinners in general, the Lord will pass order to the angels:
 Lay hold on him, then put a chain on him, then thrust him into a
chain the length of which is seventy cubits (Surah 69:30). At this
time, the heavens and earth will weep for him at his disaster.
Mishkat Vol. 4, pp. 110-111, Commentary
The balance decides in case of doubt

After those that will enter Paradise without account and those
 that will enter the Fire, there will remain a class of too numerous
people who mixed good with evil and thus committed both virtues
and sins. The virtues and sins of only these people will be
weighed in the Balance. The Qur’an says: We will not set up a
balance for them [unbelievers] on the Day of Resurrection (Surah 18:105). The
first class will be the people who spent their nights by standing in prayer and
whom neither the commodities of this world, nor its riches could have d4erted
from the remembrance of Allah (Surah 24:37). The second class will be the
polytheists and unbelievers - those that set up partnership with God and
disbelieved the Prophet and the simple articles of religion. The trial at the
Balance will be very severe and there will be none left who will not be
overwhelmed with fear, bewilderment and crushing anxiety.
Salvation is effected when good deeds outweigh bad

ones
If his virtues outweigh, the man will be fortunate and will enter
 Paradise; if his sins outweigh, the man will be unfortunate and

enter Hell. It is to this fact that the Qur’an says: Then as for one
whose measure of good deeds is heavy, he shall have a pleasant
life, and as one whose measure is light, his abode shall be the
abyss. And what will make you know what it is? A burning fire
(Surah 101:6).
Observing the Law causes spirituality

And as for those whose balances are heavy, these are
 successful, and as for those whose balances are light, these are
they who caused damage to their souls (Surah 23:102). Thus
spiritual deterioration is caused by the neglect of the Balance of
Shariah injunctions and prohibitions. Again the Qur’an says: We
sent our apostles with clear arguments, and sent down with them the Book and
the Balance that men may conduct themselves with equity. (Surah 57:25).
Resurrection Day is a day of recompense

At that time, Allah will proclaim: Today every soul will be recompensed for what
he did. There’s no oppression today. And thus the verse will come out to be
true. And don’t think that Allah is heedless of what the oppressors do (Surah
14:42). He whose rights were infringed will get the virtue of the wrongdoer to
the extent of the injury done, and if the virtues fall short of compensation, the
sins of the wronged will fall on the wrong-doer. Thus the wrong-doer will be
bereft of virtues and become empty handed when virtues will be urgently
required. He will be truly poor…
After the measurement is over, the people will be driven towards the Great
Path which runs over a bridge extended over the back of the Hell-fire. The
bridge is sharper than knife and thinner than hair. There will be the fire of
which the flames will be rising high just below the bridge and there will be
thorny plants raising their heads above in the fire. Only those who were
steadfast to the straight path of Islam will be able to cross it safe by virtue of
their good deeds, and those who went astray and made their backs heavy will
slip down unto Hell at the first step they will take on the Path. The Path will be
enveloped in darkness and only those that will have light of good deeds will be
able to pass it, some in the twinkling of an eye, some like the passing of air,
some galloping, some walking, some crawling and falling down. This will occur
according to the light of good deeds…
The Holy Prophet will be the first to cross the Path with his pious followers.
None would speak except one whom the Beneficent God permits (Surah
78:38). Nothing but pious deeds will be true friends at the great crisis.
Mishkat Vol. 4, pp. 112-113, Commentary
Narrated by Aisha: Allah’s Apostle said, ‘(On the Day of
 Resurrection) anyone whose account will be taken will be ruined

(i.e. go to Hell).’ I said, ‘O Allah’s Apostle! May Allah make me be
sacrificed for you. Doesn’t Allah say: Then as for him who will be
given his record in his right hand, he surely will receive an easy
reckoning?’(84.7-8) He replied, ‘That is only the presentation of the accounts;

but he whose record is questioned, will be ruined’.
Al-Bukhari Vol. 6, p. 435, No. 463 (see also Vol. 8, p. 357, No. 545)
In the Bible we find that the mot4e for action is primarily
 consideration. The resulting sin is only an outflow from the world

of thought. Nothing unclean shall ever enter God’s presence
(Eph 5:5). Therefore no one can ever hope to enter God’s
presence - except he/she has obtained forgiveness and pardon.
• We question whether those who perform prescribed religious rituals and
practice in the right manner and at the right time are by that token
virtuous.
• We question whether a relatively ‘small’ amount of sin (less than 50%)
will make man’s condition compatible with God’s holiness. To enter
heaven, absolute holiness and purity are a necessity.
An illustration may help a Muslim to understand this:
• When is a sausage not halaal?
• When it is made of pork? - If only 49% or less of it is pork? - Or if only
its skin is taken from a pig?
The obvious answer is: none of these sausages are halaal. All are haraam29! The
same can be applied to man. When is a man not acceptable to God?
• When he is a mass murderer?
• When he is an occasional adulterer?
• When he occasionally has evil thoughts?
We all know the answer. We must realize again that a law cannot save. It only
shows what is wrong or right. Fear of punishment may improve behaviour, but it
cannot change a person’s attitude, character and relationship to God.
29
haraam = forbidden
10.3 Paradise
The Paradise replaces the biblical concept of Heaven in Islam. What is it like?
Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah’s Apostle said, ‘Allah said, ‘I have
 prepared for my pious worshipers such things as no eye has ever

seen, no ear has ever heard of, and nobody has ever thought of.’
‘Abu Huraira added: If you wish you can read: ‘No soul knows
what is kept hidden (in reserve) for them of joy as reward for what
they used to do. (Surah 32:17)
Al-Bukhari Vol. 6, p. 288, Nr. 302
Let us compare this with the Bible, from which this text seems to originate:
No eye has seen, no ear has heard, no mind has conceived what
 God has prepared for those who love him.

1 Cor 2:9 - quoting Isai 64:4
Paradise in the Qur’an is occupied by those for whom it is a
 reward for good deeds and those whom Allah has predestined
for Paradise.
A dramatically different understanding of Heaven and Paradise
(al-Jannah) and Hell (al-Jahannam) is apparent in the Bible as compared
with Islam. W. H. T. Gairdner observes in his book The Reproach of Islam:
On earth His name is ever on their [i.e. the Muslim’s] lips, yet
 in Paradise itself, it is not He who is the object of their hearts

delight. The Reproach of Islam, by W. H. T. Gairdner
Let us read what the Qur’an has to say about Hell and Paradise:
When the Event inevitable cometh to pass, then will no (soul)
 entertain falsehood concerning its coming.(Many) will it bring low,

(many) will it exalt; when the earth shall be shaken to its depths,
and the mountains shall be crumbled to atoms, becoming dust
scattered abroad. And ye shall be sorted out into three classes.
Then (there will be) the companions of the Right Hand; what will be the
companions of the Right Hand? And the companions of the Left Hand; what
will be the companions of the Left Hand? And those foremost (in faith) will be
foremost (in the Hereafter).These will be those nearest to Allah; in Gardens of
bliss. A number of people from those of old, and a few from those of later
times. (They will be) on thrones encrusted (with gold and precious
stones).Reclining on them, facing each other. Round about them will (serve)
30
youths of perpetual (freshness), with goblets (shining) beakers, and cups
31
filled out of clear-flowing fountains . No after-ache will they receive therefrom,
32
nor will they suffer intoxication . And with fruits, and that they may select; and
33
the flesh of fowls, any that they may desire. And (there will be) companions
with beautiful, big and lustrous eyes -like unto pearls well-guarded. A reward
for the deeds of their past (life). No frivolity will they hear therein, nor any taint
of ill -only the saying, ‘Peace! Peace!’ The companions of the Right Hand; what
will be the companions of the Right Hand?(They will be) among Lote-trees
without thorns, among Tall trees with flowers (or fruits) piled one above
another -in shade long-extended, by water flowing constantly. And the fruit in
abundance, whose season is not limited, nor (supply) forbidden. And on
34
thrones (of dignity) raised high , We have created (their companions) of
35
special creation , and made them virgin-pure (and undefiled) -Beloved (by
nature) equal in age -for the companions of the Right Hand. A (goodly) number
36
from those of old , and a (goodly) number from those of later times.
Surah 56:1-40
The preceding Surah (55:47-76) gives a similar description, which we
might better read in a translation more comprehensible:
For those who feared the presence of their Lord, two gardens are
 designated ... decorated with trees having spreading branches ...

in both are murmuring streams, in both are two kinds of fruit ...
They shall rest on cushions of silk embroidered with gold ... and
the fruits of both gardens shall be close to hand ... in both
gardens are black-eyed virgins with cast down eyes whom neither man nor
jinns have touched. They are beautiful like rubies and pearls ... Should the
reward for good works be other than good? ... Besides the two gardens are
two more gardens prepared ... shaded by dark green ... In these are two wells
which always yield water ... In both gardens is fruit: dates and pomegranates ...
also most glorious and most beautiful maidens ... with big black eyes, kept in
tents for you ... never touched by men or jinns ... there you rest on green
cushions and glorious carpets.
Surah 55:47-76
30
youth = young men!
31
Lit. ‘with flowing wine’
32
Lit. ‘it will not cause headache or dim the mind’
33
Lit. ‘virgins’
34
Lit. ‘they will live with Houris resting on raised cushions’
35
Lit. ‘women created in a special way’
36
From before the time of Muhammad
10.4 Hell
In equally descritive words hell is vividly portrayed:
The companions of the Left Hand; what will be the companions of
 the Left Hand? (They will be) in the midst of a fierce blast of fire
and in boiling water; and in the shades of black smoke. Nothing
(will there be) to refresh, nor to please...
All will certainly be gathered together for the meeting appointed
for a Day well-known. Then will ye truly O ye that go wrong, and treat (truth) as
37
falsehood! Ye will surely taste of the Tree of Zaqqum . Then will ye fill your
insides therewith, and drink boiling water on top of it. Indeed ye shall drink like
diseased camels raging with thirst! Such will be their entertainment on the Day
of Requittal!
Surah 56:41-44.50-56
Has the story reached thee of the overwhelming (event)? Some faces, that
Day, will be humiliated, labouring (hard), weary; the while they enter the
blazing Fire; the while they are given to drink of a boiling hot spring. No food
will there be for them but a bitter Dhari, which will neither nourish nor satisfy
hunger ... But if any turn away and reject Allah, Allah will punish him with a
mighty punishment. For to Us will be their return; then it will be for us to call
them to account. Surah 88:1-7.23-26
The aHadith illustrate this even further. All this is, no doubt, a very strong
tool to frighten Muslims to do what Islam prescribes - but also to resist
even looking at the exceedingly more attractive alternative: faith in Christ.

 In the Qur’an hell is the reward for evil deeds.
In the Bible it is the abode of all who denied or rejected
God’s pardon.

• Battle for the Hearts, Episode 5:II:4, Belief in the Last Day – day of
judgment.TWR & LCA, 2001.
37
Zaqqum denotes the ‘tree of disbelief’
216
11 The Status of Women in Islam

Muslims boast that Muhammad considerably improved the position of
women compared to the pre-Islamic times. Unfortunately there is little
objective evidence to support such claims, as we rely almost exclusively on
Islamic sources.
Muslim apologists keep reminding us about the equality of men and women
before Allah, based mainly on the “creation Surahs”:
He created man and woman from a single soul (person) and
 made his mate of like nature in order that he might dwell with her
(in love). Surah 4: 1 and 7: 189
And the believers, men and women, are protecting friends to one
another, they enjoin the right and forbid the wrong. And they establish
worship… Surah 9: 71 (Pickthall)
Women are also seen as having an equal status before Allah, in their
performance of religious duties, in their obligation to follow the five pillars,
and in the reward for it.
Whoso doeth that which is right, whether male or female, and
 has faith, verily to him we will give a new life and life that is good
and pure and we will bestow on such their reward according to
the best of their actions… Surah 16: 97
Although these verses don’t show any legal superiority in

respect of rights, duties or gender hierarchy, we are aware that there are
numerous verses giving clear hierarchical status for men above women in
family and society.
11.1 The Position of Women in Society

The following verses are not only distressing to non-Muslim women. Many
Muslim women even feel uncomfortable, when these verses are recited or
pointed out to them.
The Status of Women in Islam 217
And women shall have rights similar to the rights against them,
 according to what is equitable; but men have a degree (of

advantage) over them. Surah 2: 228
Ibn Kathir in his commentary elaborates: “…men are above (or

superior to) women and a man is better and more perfect than a woman…!”
In other words, Allah has made one superior over the other which gives
men the right and power to control and discipline their wives where to go,
what to do, with whom to associate and so on.
Women are also considered inferior in legal matters because two female
witnesses make up for one male witness to testify in court, or at any other
legal function or transaction.
And get two witnesses out of your own men, and if there are not
 two men, then a man and two women, such as you choose for
witnesses. So that if one of them errs, the other can remind her.
Surah 2: 282
The Law of Inheritance further determines that a male offspring gets double
the inheritance of a female. (Surah 4: 11)
But the Qur’an is not the only source of authority in regard to the status of
women. The Traditions (Hadiths) influence a Muslim’s daily life even
more, and abound in negative and humiliating statements more than the
Qur’an does: “Those who entrust their affairs to a woman will never know
prosperity!”
Muhammad said: “After me I have not left any affliction more harmful to
men than women.” (Al-Bukhari, Vol.1, p.688)
Another Hadith claims “that a man is never alone with a woman where the
devil is not the third among them.”
Muhammad himself laid the foundation that men may look down on
women for different reasons. As he once left the mosque after prayer he is
told to have met some women, whom he challenged on their intelligence
and on their religion:
After Muhammad came out from the place of prayer, he saw a
 few women and told them: ‘O women give alms, as I have seen
that the majority of the dwellers of hellfire were you (women).’
Why is this so, Messenger of God?’ He replied: ‘You curse
frequently and are ungrateful to your husbands. I have not seen
anyone more deficient in intelligence and religion than you.’ The women asked:
‘What is deficient in our intelligence and religion, Messenger of God?’ He
answered: ‘Is not the evidence of two women equal to the witness of one
man?’ They replied in the affirmative. He said: ‘This is the deficiency in your
intelligence. Isn’t it true that a woman can neither pray nor fast during her
menses?’ The women replied in the affirmative. ‘This is the deficiency in your
religion’. Al-Bukhari, Hadith 6; Muslim Iman 13; Abu-Daud, Sunna 15
Because of their limited intelligence and their biological and physical

make-up women are restricted in exercising their religion fully. For these
reasons they are not permitted to hold an office as a judge, an imam or
religious leader.
As we have seen the Qur’an supports the common portray of women as
potentially dangerous to men, and the majority of the 300 verses in the
Qur’an that deal with legal issues in regard to women are mostly in the
form of restrictions: what they can and cannot do, what they are to avoid,
how to divorce them, how little they should inherit.
11.2 The Role of Women in the Family

Muslim theologians are trying to convince others that the differences
between men and women rest solely with the God-given roles as husband
and wife, which are fundamentally different.
While the wife is to find fulfilment in looking after the house, her children
and husband, it is the husband who is responsible for the affairs outside the
house. He is duty-bound to care for the wife and family financially.
Men are protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has
 given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they
support them from their means. Therefore the righteous women
are devoutly obedient, and guard in (the husband’s) absence what
Allah would have them guard.
As to those women on whose part you fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish
them (first), (next) refuse to share their beds, (and last) beat them (lightly). But
if they return to obedience, seek not against them means (of annoyance); for
Allah is Most High, Great (above all). Surah 4: 34
Since the husband had to pay the dowry to his wife, brings in the money to
live and survive, he is entitled to make any decision about her and the
family. He will usually decide where to live, what profession to take, how
much room the wife and other females in the house should have, whether
the wife can take an outside job and what kind of education his children
should receive. As the woman takes care of the household and the children
she has to be aware of her husband’s expectations: “The woman is the ruler
of the house of her husband and she is answerable for the conducts of all
the affairs.”
Muslims emphatically defend the different roles of husband and wife,
which are not able to be exchanged or equalised, because God has distinctly
ordained them differently in society and before the law. This is not to be
regarded as oppression of the woman, this is her God given place and role.
However, in the Middle East, we can surely not overlook a grave hierarchal
structure which brings serious restrictions to women and is far from serving
to her benefit.
Despite of these disadvantages a woman gets her honour from having
children, especially from having sons. Her relationship to her children is
usually stronger than to her husband, and her children love and respect her
greatly. Especially elderly women are well respected in society, and are
honoured as the guardians of traditions, religion and proper behaviour. A
widely known Islamic tradition reinforces this by reminding Muslims that
“paradise lies at the feet of a mother!”
11.2.1 The Islamic Pattern of Honour and Shame

An important dynamic in Muslim family life and society as a whole is the
concept of “honour and shame”. The women are the carrier of the honour
of the family, and women are responsible not to offend any male member
of society.
Honour can easily be lost by women, but it can never be regained by
women! Honour can only be restored by the men of the family, therefore
women are watched closely. To maintain honour means to behave
according to the role assigned to you. Any contact between men and
women may only happen between close relatives, or husbands and wives.
Whenever a woman oversteps these boundaries, she comes immediately
under suspicion for immoral behaviour. It is up to the man of the house to
control the women of his household, and to publicly reinstate the honour by
punishing the guilty. This will not be done in secret. The public needs to
see that the man is still in control, and at times he may enforce this through
very drastic measures.
In the company of men, a woman is expected to turn down her eyes as
prescribed in the Qur’an (Surah 24:31) She is expected to show feelings of
shame, to hold herself back and cover herself. A popular saying amplifies:
“The most valuable jewellery of a woman is her feeling of shame and the
best expression of her feeling of shame is the lowering of her eyes.”
This pattern of honour and shame places the man as ruler and the wife as
the obeying servant, who cannot overstep her role or boundaries.
11.2.2 Dress Code and Veiling

The way girls dress is not just a matter of custom or modesty, it has much
to do with the religious practices. It affects a woman’s performance of the
ritual prayer, her visit to the mosque and other functions. Outside the
family girls and women have to be veiled, so as not to be a temptation to
men. Islam claims that the veil gives honour and dignity to Muslim women
by protecting them, and helping them to guard their chastity. Muhammad
reportedly received various revelations that his wives and other female
believers should cover themselves as they leave their houses.
Oh Prophet! Tell your wives and daughters, and the believing
 women, that they should cast their outer garments over their
bodies (when abroad): that is most convenient, that they should
be known (as such) and not molested… Surah 33: 59
Believing women should guard their modesty, should not display
their beauty and their ornaments, except what must appear. They should draw
their veils over their bossom and not display their beauty, except to their
husbands, their fathers… Surah 24: 31
Muslim theologians have derived from these verses the necessity to cover
the whole body in a way that only the face and hands are exposed.
However, it depends on the traditions and the determination of the Islamic

culture of each country how strictly various communities apply this. The
Afghan Taliban rulers demonstrated it in one of the most extreme and cruel
forms enforcing almost complete seclusion of women in all aspects of
public life.
While in the Western world even the head covering is already considered
an instrument of oppression restricting women in their personal freedom, in
many Muslim countries it is rather seen as a sign of an upright, moral life
style, and as protection from the lustrous eye and from forbidden body
contact.
As Christians we note: The problem of unclean thoughts and adulterous
desires cannot simply be solved by complete covering of women, barring
them from access to public places, or by enforcing stricter gender
separation. Jesus deliberately talked with women, accepting their
hospitality encouraging them to be messengers of the resurrection news,
and in this way He showed the New Testament church that a co-operative
friendly social relationship between men and women is not only possible,
but honours and exemplifies the perfect design of our creator.
11.3 Marriage
Marriage is of utmost importance in Islam. It is regarded as God’s purpose
for mankind to be married. Therefore a man is expected to get married to
fulfil his God-given role in society.
• Surah 24: 32 encourages: “Marry the spouseless among you”.
• The aHadith affirm that even a spiritual component is attached to it:
“If a servant of God gets married, he is fulfilling half of his
religion.”
Thus to get married is praiseworthy and honourable. Allah gives credit to
marriage: “The best among you are those who are good to their wives and
kind to their people.”
A companion of Muhammad, Ibn Masud, valued marriage so high that he
exclaimed: “Even if I had only 10 days left to live, I would still get married
to not appear before God unmarried.”
In most Muslim societies marriages are usually arranged by the parents;

both parties are concerned about the right match thus keeping their wealth
together, nor lowering their status. Romantic love between two people is
not at all a pre-requisite for starting a marriage. In a good relationship love
might grow after some time, but is not a necessity or guarantee for a life-
long marriage.
Surah 30: 21 puts it plainly: “He created for you mates from among
yourselves that you might find rest and joy in them and has put (ordained)
love and mercy between their hearts.” In Islam there is no command for
the husband to love his wife unconditionally (Eph. 5: 25). The biblical
principle of, “leaving (father and mother) and cleaving (to his wife)” is a
foreign concept to a Muslim.
Marriage is rather seen as a contract that entitles the husband to discipline
his wife, if she does not obey or fulfil his desire:
As to those women on whose part ye fear disloyalty and ill-
 conduct, admonish them (first), (next) refuse to share their beds,

(and last) beat them (lightly). But if they turn to obedience, seek
not against them means (of annoyance); for Allah is Most High,
Great (above you all). Surah 4: 34
Rather shocking is the plain expression allegedly based on divine

revelation: “Your wives are as a tilth (field) unto you, so approach your
tilth when and how you will.” (Surah 2:223)
A Hadith elevates a man’s sexual needs as so urgent, that it would rather
have food to get burnt in the oven, than for a man to burn in waiting for his
wife to satisfy his desire. If she refuses, the angels in heaven will turn
against her. The prophet of Allah said: “When a man calls his wife to
satisfy his desire, let her come to him though she is occupied with the
oven…” (Mishkat al–Masabih, Hadith 61, Duties of husband and wife)
There are many more traditions, which show the duties of a wife in giving
pleasure and obedience to her husband: “Abu Hurairah reported that the
Messenger of Allah was asked: Who among women is the best? He replied:
She who gives pleasure to him (husband) when he looks, obeys him when
he bids, and who does not oppose him regarding herself and her riches
fearing his displeasure.”(Mishkat Vol. 1, p.212)
Abu Hurairah reported that the Messenger of Allah said: If I were
 to order anybody to make prostration to anybody I would have

ordered a woman to prostrate before her husband.
Mishkat 1, p. 210
Some Hadith reveal that Muhammad saw women as “a toy”, which the
husband can play with or put aside as he likes, while another Hadith calls a
woman “a crooked rib”, which breaks when one tries to straighten it, or will
always bother him if it remains in its crookedness. (Do’s and Do Not’s in
Islam: p. 82)
11.4 Divorce
Although the Qur’an allows divorce, Muhammad called it “the most
detestable of permitted things!” (Surah 2: 226- 240) Tradition says: “What
Allah hates most among what is allowed is a divorce.”
In practise, however, it is easy for the husband to get a divorce. And he
may divorce his wife without any misbehaviour on her part, or without
giving any cause or reason. All that it takes is to utter the divorce formula
three times, either officially “I divorce you”, or something similar as “I
desert you”, “You are free”; and no matter if it is said for fun or in a
drunken state, under compulsion or free, it is as binding as a deliberate
utterance, on condition that the man is sane and an adult.
The “Dictionary of Islam” expounds: The following are causes for
 divorce, but generally required to be ratified by a decree from the

‘Khadi’, the ‘judge’.
1. Jubb. That is, when the husband has been by any cause
deprived of his organ of generation. This condition is called majbub. In this
case the wife can obtain instant divorce if the defect occurred before marriage.
Cases of evident madness and leprosy are treated in the same way. Divorce
can be obtained at once.
2. Unnah or ‘impotence’... In cases of impotence in either husband or wife, a
year of probation can be granted by the judge.
3. Inequality of race or tribe. A woman cannot be compelled to marry a man
who belongs to an inferior tribe; in case of such a marriage, the elders of the
superior tribe can demand a divorce; but if the divorce is not demanded, the
marriage contract remains.
4. Insufficient dower. If the stipulated dowry is not given when demanded,

divorce takes place.
5. Refusal of Islam. If one of the parties embrace (sic) Islam, the judge must
offer it to the other three distinct times, and if he or she refuse (sic) to embrace
the faith, divorce takes place.
6. La’n, or “imprecation.” That is, when a husband charges his wife with
adultery, the charge is investigated, but if there is no proof, and the man
swears his wife is guilty, and the wife swears she is innocent, a divorce must
be decreed.
7. Ila, or “vow”. When a husband makes a vow not to have carnal intercourse
with his wife for no less than four months, and keeps the vow inviolate, an
irreversible divorce takes place…
8. Apostasy from Islam. The author of the Raddu’l Mukhtar (Vol. 2, p.649)
says: ‘When a man or woman apostatises from Islam, then an immediate
dissolution of the marriage takes place, whether the apostasy be of the man or
of the woman, without a decree from the Khadi.
Dictionary of Islam, pp. 87-88
A woman may also ask for a divorce, if the husband fails to support her
financially over a period of time, or is neglecting her in her sexual rights.
But again a tradition cautions: “If the wife asks the husband for a divorce
without a strong reason the odour of paradise will be forbidden to her…”
(Mishkat Al-Masabith Vol. 1, p.696)
What are the possibilities for remarrying a wife he has divorced previously?
If the husband says the “talaq” (divorce-phrase) only once or twice, the
divorce can be reversed and he can take his wife back within a period of
three months. But if he has uttered the ‘talaq’ three times, the man can only
take his wife back after she has been married to another man and has been
given a divorce by him also.
If a husband divorces his wife (irrevocably) he cannot after that
 remarry her until after she has married another husband and he
has divorced her. In that case there is no blame on either of them,
if they reunite… Surah 2: 230
It is argued that this regulation was introduced by Muhammad

to protect women, so that a man should not allow a sudden gust of temper
or anger to induce him to take hasty action.
In order to avoid divorces the Qur’an suggests to call on the two parties to
appoint arbiters, and if the couple wants reconciliation God will help them
to succeed in their marriage afterwards. (Surah 4: 35)
Whenever a divorce becomes final, it is usually the woman’s fault. It is
expected of her that she keeps the family together, that she obeys her
husband, und does not annoy or anger him through aggressive behaviour,
disputes or unnecessary demands.
After the divorce a man has no duty to care for his previous wife
financially, only for his children. In general, children are considered to
belong to the father according to Islamic law, while the mother usually
receives the right to care for the kids in their early years and maybe visit
them later on.
However, if the woman is still pregnant from her divorced husband he has
to care for her till the baby is weaned. A strange proposition is given in the
Qur’an, which is intended to show some fairness towards women in the
process of being divorced:
Let the women live (in iddat) in the same style as ye live,
 according to your means. Annoy them not, so as to restrict them.

And if they carry (life in their womb) then spend (your substance
on them until they deliver their burden. And if they suckle your
(offspring), give them their recompense; and take mutual counsel
together, according to what is just and reasonable. And if ye find yourselves in
difficulties, let another woman suckle (the child) on the (father’s) behalf.
Surah 65: 6
We note:
There is no promise of a lifelong faithfulness and commitment to marriage
given during an Islamic wedding celebration, in fact the bride is not even
present during the wedding ceremony at the mosque. The marriage contract
stipulates clear regulations for the day of divorce through the dower, which
is given to the wife on the wedding day. Thus the Islamic marriage is more
like a civil contract between two families, which helps towards a functional
lifestyle and to regulate financial matters.
One wonders to what extend this is moulded after the concept of God in
Islam. He is not a God who keeps his promise, in fact, he can change his
word at any time, nor does he have to stay faithful and true to himself.
In contrast as Christians we are assured that God never breaks his covenant
with men and is forever faithful, trustworthy and unchanging. Christian
marriages according to the Bible are divinely ordained as a relationship
with one partner for a lifetime in faithfulness and the giving of oneself. For
Christian couples missing support, sickness, or sexual failure cannot be
claimed as a reason for divorce, on the contrary, exactly in these situations
a Christian marriage should prove itself true to its promise in coming
alongside the partner in good and difficult days.
11.4.1 Polygamy – not an option for women!

Muslims in general are allowed to have up to four wives, which is said to
have placed a restriction to the pre-Islamic way of living, yet contrasts with
Muhammad’s example, who married well over 10 wives. For his followers,
however, Muhammad cautioned in Surah 4: 3:
If ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly with the orphans,
 marry women of your choice, two or three, or four. But if ye fear

that ye shall not be able to deal justly (with them), then only one,
or (a captive) that your right hands possess, that will be more
suitable, to prevent you from doing unjustly.
So, theoretically, a man who marries more than one wife is expected to
treat all his wives equally, and to provide them with the same share of food,
clothes, housing, time and sexual favours. In reality even Muhammad was
not capable to meet that ideal, so modern Muslims increasingly take the
stand that Islam actually promotes monogamy. Many Muslims have
personally observed frictions due to favouritism, jealousy among women
and rivalry among the different lots of children, and added economical
burdens in their own upbringing in polygamous households. So they rather
opt for monogamous marriages themselves.
In some Muslim countries, like Pakistan and Marocco, monogamy is the
official practice, except for cases where the wife is barren, or suffers from
mental and chronic illness. Only with a special permission of the first wife
may the husband take another one.
But some theologians, like Abdur Rahman, oppose these views:

These countries which have prohibited polygamy by law have
 gone against the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet. If

polygamy were not allowed, the Prophet would have stopped
people practising it in his lifetime. There is no single Hadith that
suggests that polygamy is forbidden.
(Women in Sharia, A. Rahman)
What is Abdur Rahman’s point here? He insists that a Muslim does not
need any justification to practice polygamy, since Muhammad himself was
the leading example in promoting polygamy as an established tradition
within Islam. What more does a Muslim need!
Others who argue in favour of polygamy often point to the physiological
and sexual needs of men as more compelling than those of women,
especially at an advanced age. In addition infertility, chronic illness or long
menstruation periods are given as reasons that could hinder healthy
relationships. (see Surah 2:222)
In order to guard men from the sin of adultery and to protect women in
immoral societies, the Qur’an proposes polygamy (Surah 36: 6 and 70: 29-
31). Of course, Muslim women grow up and marry with the prospect, that
the husband may likely take another wife, they still feel the pain of
rejection when it finally happens. Exceptions may be with older women in
nomad societies, who encourage their husbands to take a young wife to do
their work.
We note:
Christians, and even the Western countries where deteriorating moral
standards are prevalent, emphatically reject polygamy, because it denies
exclusive, devoted love.
Love between a man and a woman ought to be exclusive; otherwise it is
degraded in essence to mere sexual fulfilment. No woman who loves her
husband and wishes to be fully loved in return can tolerate a partner. One
may lose sight of this fact in a polygamous society, but even Aisha, the
favourite wife of Muhammad, confessed of having been jealous. How
much more would the others have been!
But there is one further aspect: Monogamy gives recognition, status and
value to a woman. It is silly to argue that a polygamous society makes
prostitution unnecessary. What about sexual fulfilment for the woman, who
has to share her husband with other wives? And what about the men who
surely have to go without wives, because someone else has more than one?
The fact that there is a numeric superiority of girls over boys is too
insignificant to justify the legalisation of polygamy.
We can also not accept the argument that during the “Holy Wars“, when
many men were killed, polygamy was a justifiable provision for the
widows. According to notes in (Sahih Muslim, 3, p. 491) in all the 82
hostilities during the lifetime of Muhammad, only 259 Muslims lost their
lives. When Muhammad moved to Mecca with 10 000 men, how many of
them would have had a chance of marrying even one widow? Just 2%!
11.5 Religious Life and Future Hope

The tragic consequence is that the wife cannot decide on her social life with
whom to associate, where to go, and how to please her husband best. Her
obedience towards her husband is not optional, for her eternal destiny
depends on it. Again we listen to the Hadith:
Whosoever female dies while her husband is pleased with her,
 will enter Paradise. Mishkat al Masabih – Hadith 11.60
“Fire has been created for the senseless, the women, except for
the one who obeyed her husband.”
Muhammad warned one woman saying to her: “Watch how you treat your
husband for he is your paradise and your hell.” (Kanz-el-Umma Vol. 22 –868)
According to tradition Aisha challenged her husband after hearing some of
the above Hadith asking what hope women have to enter paradise.
Muhammad’s response came rather prompt through another ‘revelation’
(Surah 16: 97).
For Muslim men and women, for believing men and women …
 who are patient and constant, for, men and women who humble
themselves, for men and women who give in charity, … who fast
… who guard their chastity and engage much in Allah’s praise –
For them has Allah prepared forgiveness and great reward.

Surah 33: 35
In Islamic practise and piety, women are in a great disadvantage, and the
Hadith is rather explicit in denying equality to women, or granting them “to
be co-heirs with men” in the life to come. They are not only victims of
abuse in this life, but even in life after death: “Of a thousand women one
will be in paradise, the rest will be in the fire.” (Al-Bukhari, 7, p. 74)
We note:
In Islam each woman must live her faith pre-dominantly in her private
realm, and she is not encouraged by Allah to influence her environment and
society spiritually or intellectually in partnership with her husband. Couples
do not enter into a spiritual covenant and have no shared task in mosque or
society as a spiritual unity. Because of this, there is also no common future
hope to spend eternity in the closeness and presence of God together.
11.5.1 The Impact of Folk Islam on the Life of Women

Because God is so distant, and the hope for eternity so blurred, many
women turn to charms and “holy men” to find help in times of need.
Among women Folk Islam, and seeking power through witch doctors,
shamans or “Muslim sheiks” is even more prevalent than among men.
Wearing amulets for protection, drinking “holy water” (either from ‘ink-
water’ of Qur’an verses or from ‘hajj-water’ brought along from the
Zamzam well in Mecca) and passing these charms on to new born babies is
a very common practise. Many are seeking protection from these powers
for their family, and from the “Evil Eye38”. Every woman wants a happy
marriage, a faithful husband and healthy children; and more than anything
else, sons. No wonder that many women pay large sums of money to
Imams for special prayers, go to “holy men” for cures, or resort to
“powerful love potions” in putting a few drops of their urine in their
husband’s morning tea to make him remember and stay faithful to her
throughout the day! Women fear the jealousy and envy of their neighbour,
38
Evil eye = putting a curse on someone by way of a jealous look
friend and sometimes even relative. They seek protection in their good
works, in their prayers, and in their giving.So the question is:
Has Muhammad really improved the position of women in

Islam?
We have to conclude that Muhammad simply brought about “human”
solutions. His solutions are certainly less than perfect. He did not reinstate
the ideal of mutual love and respect as portrayed in the Holy Bible. His
reforms never went far enough. And he fell far short of that most beautiful
“praise of love” expressed in 1 Corinthians 13:4-7:

Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it
is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily
angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in
evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts,
always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails.

• The Laws of Marriage and Divorce in Islam, Maulana Abul A’ala Maudoodi,
Islamic Book Publishers, Safat, Kuweit, 1983.
• Do’s and Do Not’s in Islam, Abdur Rehman Shad, Lahore: Kazi Publications
1983, pp. 63-106.
• Christians ask Muslims, Gerhard Nehls, Nairobi: LCA 1992, pp. 103-107.
• Textbook of Islam, Vol. 2, M.A. Quraishy, Nairobi: The Islamic Foundation
1989, pp. 187-202.
• The Position of Women in Islam, Hamadun Dagher, Villach: Light of Life
1995, 208 pages. (the former Muslim Dagher provides background
information on the position of women in Islam from original Islamic sources.
Nobody who has read this book will question the hostility of Islam towards
women. It also includes detailed information about Muhammad’s wives)
• Battle for the Hearts, Episode 10:2, Why Muslims turn to Christ.TWR & LCA,
2001.
231
12 The Feasts Of Islam

A solar year is made up of roughly 365 days and a quarter. Islam uses a calendar
with 12 lunar months. This results in a year approximately 11 days shorter.
Consequently the months and the feasts in them move forward by 10-11 days every
year. Thus each Muslim month moves around our solar year in about 33 years.
12.1 The Islamic Calendar

(Months in the sequence of the Islamic Lunar Calendar)
1. Muharram 7. Rajab
2. Safar 8. Sh’ban
3. Rab’il’l-Awwal 9. Ramadaan
4. Rab’il’l-Akhir 10. Shawwal
5. Jumada’l-Ula 11. Zu’l-Qu’dah
6. Jumada’l-Ukhra 12. Zu’l-Hijjah
12.2 Some Major Feasts of Islam

Like Christianity, Islam has its appointed feasts. These are:
12.2.1 Ashura
It is the only day of Muharram observed by the Sunni Muslims (Shi’ah
celebrate the first 10 days), remembering the day on which it is said God
created Adam and Eve, heaven and earth, the tablet of decree, the penalty,
life and death.
It is a voluntary day of fasting, observed on the tenth of the month of
Muharram. It is related that Muhammad observed it and said it was a day
respected by Jews and Christians.
This feast day is particularly celebrated by the Shi’ah Muslims, for it is
also the day on which Khalif Hussain was slain (see ‘History of Islam’).
232 Feasts of Islam
12.2.2 Maulid
It is the birthday of Muhammad, which is known as Maulidu ‘n-Nabi and is
celebrated on the 12th of Rab’iu’l-Awwal. In certain areas, such as Lamu
island on the Kenyan coast, this feast becomes the major event of the year
with Qur’an recitation competitions that last for a whole week, drawing
participants and spectators from far and wide.
12.2.3 Lailatu’n-Nisf Min Sha’ban (The Night of the

Middle of Sha’ban)
Lailatu’n-Nisf Min Sha’ban is also called ‘Lailat al-bara’a’.
On this night, Muhammad said, God registered annually all the actions of
mankind that they are to perform during the year; and that all the children
of men who are to be born and to die in the year are recorded. The night is
often devoted to the memory of the dead.
Muhammad, it is said, enjoined his followers to keep awake the whole
night, to repeat one hundred Rak’ah prayers, and to fast the next day, but
there is generally great rejoicing instead of a fast.
12.2.4 Ramadaan
Ramadaan may be seen as a festive month of compulsory fasting (Sawm).
During this month “nothing must enter the body”, i.e. food, drink
(including saliva), smoke (of tobacco), even an injection. Sexual activity is
equally forbidden. All this is, however, only between the hours of sunrise
and sunset. The Ramadaan fast has a definite pre-Islamic history.
It is believed that fasting during Ramadaan is thirty times better than at any
other time. According to tradition, during this month the gates of heaven
are open and the gates of hell closed, and the devils are in chains.
Those who observe the fast with pure motives are believed to obtain
remission of their sins.
Feasts of Islam 233
12.2.5 Lailatu’l-Qadr’ (The Night of Power)

This mysterious night in the month of Ramadaan is called Lailatu’l-Qadr.
The precise date of this night is said to have been known only to the
Prophet and a few of the companions. It is usually celebrated on the 27th
night of Ramadaan and many Muslims believe that their sins are forgiven
during this night. The following is the allusion to it in the Qur’an:
We have indeed revealed this (message) in the Night of Power.
 And what will explain to thee what the Night of Power is?The
Night of Power is better than a thousand months.Therein come
down the angels and the spirit by Allah’s permission, on every
errand. Peace! ... This until the rise of Morn
Surah 97:1-5
12.2.6 Eidu’l-Fitr (The Minor Feast)

Eidu’l-Fitr is the festival of the breaking of the fast. It commences as soon
as the month’s fast in Ramadaan is over, i.e. on the first day of the month of
Shawwal. It is customary to visit the graves of the departed on this day.
Ibn Abbas reported that he said in the last Ramazan: Take out
 alms of your fast. The Messenger of Allah made this charity

compulsory. One sa’a from dried dates, or barley, or half sa’a
from wheat upon every free man or slave, male or female, young
or old. Mishkat 2, p. 58, No. 77
(General information is taken from the “Dictionary of Islam” by T. P.
Hughes.)
12.2.7 Idu’l-Adha (The Great Festival)

Idul’l-Adha (Idu’l-Azha) is also called the great festival (In contrast to Idu’l
Fitr being the ‘minor festival’).
It is celebrated on the 10th day of Zu’l-Hijjah, and is observed in all parts
of Islam as a day of sacrifice (the ‘qorban’). It is founded on an injunction
in the Qur’an (Surah 22:32-38).
234 Feasts of Islam
To every people did We appoint rites (of sacrifice), that they
 might celebrate the name of Allah over the sustenance He gave

them from animals (fit for food). But your God is One God, submit
then your wills to Him (in Islam) and give thou the good news to
those who humble themselves...
The sacrificial camels we have made for you as among the signs from Allah; in
them is (much) good for you; then pronounce the name of Allah over them as
they line up (for sacrifice). When they are down on their sides (after slaughter).
Eat ye thereof, and feed such as (beg not but) live in contentment and such as
beg with due humility; thus have We made animals subject to you, that ye may
be grateful.
It is not their meat nor their blood that reaches Allah; it is your piety that
reaches Him: He has thus made them subject to you that ye may glorify Allah
for His guidance to you. And proclaim the Good News to all who do right.
Surah 22:34.36-37
The two festivals Lailatu ‘n-nsif min Sha’ban and Idu’l-Adha are close to
each other, and are very likely to have had their origin in the Jewish
tradition. The former, also called Lailat al-bara’a, is based on the Jewish
New Year, which is followed by the Day of Atonement, ‘Yom Kippur’,
which is closely associated with the offering of sacrifices.
According to the Jewish tradition the world was created on that day. The
name ‘Lailat al-bara’a’ actually means ‘the night of creation’. The word
(bara’a) is probably derived from the Hebrew word ‘beri’a’ which means
creation. (Extracts from ‘Handwoerterbuch des Islam’ by Wensinck and
Kramer under ‘Ramadaan’).
12.2.8 Origin and Meaning of Sacrifices in Islam

Sacrifices are offered in many religions. The Arab pagans were no
exception. But the institution of the ‘qorban’ sacrifice in Islam is based on
the Bible, even if falsely understood:
A few months after the Hijrah (flight from Mecca to Medina),
 Muhammad, living in Medina, observed that on the tenth day of

the seventh month the Jews kept the great fast of the
Atonement. Tradition records that the prophet asked them why
they kept this fast. He was informed that it was a memorial of the
Feasts of Islam 235
deliverance of Moses and the children of Israel from the hands of

Pharaoh.
‘We have a greater right in Moses than they’, said Muhammad. So he fasted
with the Jews and commanded his followers to fast too. This was at the period
of his mission, when Muhammad was friendly with the Jews of Medina, who
occasionally came to hear him preach. The Prophet also occasionally attended
the synagogue. Then came the change of Qibla (i.e. the direction in which to
pray) from Jerusalem to Mecca, for the Jews were not so ready to change their
creed as Muhammad had at first hoped. In the second year of the Hijrah,
Muhammad and his followers did not participate in the Jewish fast, for
Muhammad now instituted the Idu’l-Adha. The idolatrous Arabs had been in
the habit of making an annual pilgrimage to Mecca at this season of the year.
The offering of animals in sacrifice formed a part of the concluding ceremony
of that pilgrimage. That portion - the sacrificing of animals -Muhammad
adopted in the feast which now, at Medina, he substituted for the Jewish fast.
This was well calculated to attract the attention of the Meccans and to gain the
goodwill of the Arabs. Muhammad could not make the pilgrimage to Mecca, for
as yet there was a hostile feeling between the inhabitants of the two cities; but
on the tenth day of the month Zu’l-Hijjah, at the very time when the Arabs at
Mecca were engaged in sacrificing victims, Muhammad went forth from his
house at Medina and, assembling his followers, instituted the Idu’l-Adha. Two
young kids were brought before him. One he sacrificed and said:
‘O Lord! I sacrifice this for my whole people, all those who bear witness to Thy
unity and to my mission. O Lord! That is for Muhammad and for the family of
Muhammad’. (Note the similarity to Leviticus 16.)
There is nothing in the Qur’an to connect this sacrifice with the history of
Ishmael, but it is generally held by Muslims to have been instituted in
commemoration of Abraham’s willingness to offer his son as a sacrifice. And
Muslim writers generally maintain that the son was Ishmael and not Isaac, and
that the scene took place on Mount Mina near Mecca, and not in the land of
Moriah, as is stated in Genesis.
It is a notable fact that whilst Muhammad professed to abrogate the Jewish
ritual, and also ignored entirely the doctrine of Atonement as taught in the New
Testament, denying even the very fact of our Saviour’s crucifixion, he made
the ‘day of sacrifice’ the great festival of his religion.
All the above according to “The Life of Muhammad” by W. Muir
There is a very remarkable Hadith related by Aisha:
236 Feasts of Islam
Aisha reported that the Apostle of Allah said: The son of Adam
does not do anything of the actions of the day of sacrifice which
 is more pleasing to Allah than the shedding of blood, and he will

come on the Resurrection Day with its hairs, horns and hoofs;
and the blood certainly falls in a place near Allah before it falls
down on the ground. So make yourself purified therewith.
Muhammad had become a witness of the doctrine of the Christian faith that
‘without shedding of blood, there is no forgiveness of sin’, although he
probably did not understand the implication and so this doctrine is rejected
by Islam.
The animals sacrificed must be without blemish, and of full age, and it may
be either a goat, a sheep, a cow or a camel. (Camels are ‘unclean’ animals
in the Bible [Deut 14:7] and by that not fit for sacrifice).
The expectation which accompanies sacrifices are described by Canon
Edward Sell who recorded the following sermon preached on Idu’l-Adha:
If you sacrifice a fat animal it will serve you well, and carry you
 across the Sirat [i.e. bridge over hell to Paradise]. O Believers,

thus said the Prophet, on whom be the mercy and peace of Allah,
‘Sacrifice the victim with your own hands, this was the Sunnah of
Ibrahim, on whom be peace’…
‘O Believers, if ye do so, Allah will pardon the sins of fifty years which are past
and of fifty years to come. The reading of the Surahs is equal, as an act of
merit, to the reading of all the books Allah has sent by his prophets’.
‘May Allah include us amongst those who are accepted by Him, who act
according to the Law, whose desire will be granted at the Last Day. To all such
there will be no fear on the Day of Resurrection; no sorrow in the examination
at the Day of Judgement. The best of all books is the Qur’an. O Believers! May
Allah give to us and to you a blessing for ever, by the grace of the Noble
Qur’an. May its verses be our guide, and may its wise mention of Allah direct
us right. I desire that Allah may pardon all believers, male and female, the
Muslimin and Muslimat. O Believers, also seek for pardon. Truly Allah is the
Forgiver, the Merciful, the Eternal King, the Compassionate, the Clement. O
Believer, the Khutbah [= sermon] is over’…
The Khutbah being ended, the people all return to their homes. The head of
the family then takes a sheep, or a cow, or a goat or camel, and turning its
head towards Mecca says:
Feasts of Islam 237
‘In the name of the great Allah. Verily, my prayers, my sacrifice, my life, my
death, belong to Allah, the Lord of the worlds. He has no partner: that is what I
am bidden!...’
And then he slays the animal. The flesh of the animal is then divided into three
portions, one third being given to relations, one third to the poor, and the
remaining third reserved for the family. Quite apart from its religious
ceremonies, the festival is observed as a great time of rejoicing, and the
holiday is kept for two or three days in a similar way to that of the minor festival
or the ‘Idul’l-Fitr. Dictionary of Islam, T. P. Hughes, p. 194
It is surely no coincidence that Idu’l Adha falls year after year on the same
day (or very close to it) of the Jewish “Yom Kippur”, the “Day of
Atonement” as prescribed in Leviticus 16.

• Muhammadan Festivals, G.E. von Grunebaum, Curzon Press, London, 1976.
• A Call to Witness, Nairobi: LCA, 1996, 41 pages. (provides the student with
brief teaching material, homework and recommended readings for a twelve
weeks course on Muslim Evangelism. Supplies the witness with a brief outline
and questionnaire on the lifecycle of a Muslim (pp. 25-26 and Appendix)
• The Christian Witness to the Muslim, John Gilchrist, Jesus to the Muslims
1988, 412 pages. (gives the author’s experience in witnessing to westernized
Muslims by presenting principles of evangelism, Gospel concepts and answers
to Muslim objections. One such Gospel concept is based on a Muslim feast;
pp. 126-145)
238
13 Our Final Conclusion

13.1 Three Vital Misconceptions
The Misconception Concerning The Nature Of God
God’s judgment at the end of time essentially reflects His nature and
character. If He is righteous and holy, He will not overlook sin and choose
to live eternally with sinners.
The Misconception Concerning The Nature Of Man

God’s final judgment equally reflects His view of sin. We believe that God
has a real and deep concern for us individually. He is not untouched by our
weaknesses! (Heb 4:15). He is not removed from us, being the absolute
Sovereign, but does condescend to us in love.
But man, in his fallen state, lives at enmity with God.
Those who live according to the sinful nature have their minds
 set on what that nature desires; but those who live in accordance
with the Spirit have their minds set on what the Spirit desires.
The mind of sinful man is death, but the mind controlled by the
Spirit is life and peace; the sinful mind is hostile to God. It does
not submit to God’s law, nor can it do so. Those controlled by the sinful nature
cannot please God. Rom 8:5-8
You adulterous people, don’t you know that friendship with the world is
hatred towards God? Anyone who chooses to be a friend of the world
becomes an enemy of God. James 4:4
The sinful nature desires what is contrary to the Spirit, and the Spirit what is
contrary to the sinful nature. They are in conflict with each other, so that you
do not do what you want. Gal 5:17
The Misconception Concerning The Nature Of Sin

In Islam committing “Shirk” (adding a partner to Allah) and “Kufr”
(unbelief) are considered serious sins. All other sins are viewed rather light-
Final Conclusion 239
heartedly as mistakes, faults, failures which can and will be rectified by a

limited punishment in hell for a season, until they are ‘paid for’. By virtue
of an offender’s faith in Allah, (this is seen as belief in the existence of
Allah) Allah is expected to exercise his grace and mercy and save the
sinner from eternal doom. This way sin is minimized, it becomes somewhat
harmless and man is seen to be able to deal with it. He can ‘pay’ for it.
According to the Bible, man cannot solve the problem of sin himself, and a
broken commandment results in God’s eternal rejection, because His holy
nature and man’s sinfulness just don’t match. (Please study 2 Pet 1:4; 1 Pet
1:15; 1 Cor 1:2; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 1:4; 2 Pet 3:11; 1 Th 4:3-7; 2 Tim 1:9;
Heb 10:10; Col 1:22). The Biblical teaching is clear, and we all know it:
Man in his fallen nature cannot help but sin.
While God loves the sinner, He utterly rejects sin. Since sin generates
spiritual death (Eph 2:1-3), it utterly and eternally separates the sinner from
God. Unless God does something to rescue man, he has no hope. But God,
in His love for us, dealt with sin. Christ suffered the punishment for our
sins on the cross. He died in our stead as ‘the Lamb of God which carries
away the sin of the world’ (John 1:29). (Read Eph 2:4-9; Isa 53 and 1 Pet
2:24; 3:18).
• We are not sinners because we sin, but we sin because

we are sinners.
• Why Should Muslims Not Hear About This?
• Why Should Christians Not Tell Them?
240
14 Appendix
14.1 Kalima, Salat, Ka`ba and Hubal
14.1.1 The Kalima
This is the prescribed confession of faith:
“La llaha illa Ilahu: Muhammadun Rasul-u llah.”
“There is no deity but Allah: Muhammed is the Apostle of Allah.”
14.1.2 The Salat

The Salat (pronounced Salah) is the daily prayer cycle to be repeated five
times every day. The wording of the prayer is prescribed and has to be
recited in Arabic. Each Salat consists of Rak’ats (pronounced Rak’ah).
These are prostrations are to be done in the direction of the ‘Qibla’, a niche
pointing toward the ‘Ka’ba’ in Mecca. Such a niche is found in every
mosque. Even the manner of prostration is prescribed in every detail. With
each Rak’at the prescribed words of the prayer have to be recited. The
number of Rak’ats differs according to the time at which the prayer is to be
performed:
Twice in the morning, once at noon, four times in the afternoon, three times
in the evening and four times at bedtime. This makes a total of seventeen
times a day, over 6 200 times a year, and 100 000 times in sixteen years.
We have no idea what psychological effect this has on a person’s life!
Here is the prayer for one Rak’at:
Allah-u-akbar! (Allah is great). Holiness unto Thee, O Allah! And
 praise be to Thee! Great is Thy name! Great is Thy greatness!

There is no deity but Thee! I seek refuge of Allah from the cursed
Satan. In the name of Allah, the compassionate, the merciful.
Praise be to Allah, Lord of all worlds! The compassionate, the
merciful King of the day of reckoning! Thee only do we worship, and to Thee
only do we cry for help. Guide Thou us in the straight path. The path of those
to whom Thou hast been gracious. With whom Thou art not angry and who go
not astray. Amen.
Appendix 241
Say: He is Allah alone. Allah the eternal! He begetteth not, and is not begotten,
and there is none like unto him!” “I extol the holiness of the Lord, the most
High! (3x) Allah is great! (2x) I extol the holiness of the Lord, the most High!
(3x) Allah is great! The adoration of the tongue are for Allah, and also the
adoration of the body, and alms giving! Peace be on Thee, O Prophet, with
the mercy of Allah and His blessing! Peace be upon us and upon Allah’s
righteous servants! I testify that there is no deity but Allah, and I testify that
Mohammed is the servant of Allah, and the messenger of Allah! O Allah have
mercy on Muhammad and on his descendants, As thou didst have mercy on
Abraham and on his descendants. Thou art to be praised, and Thou art great.
O Allah, Bless Muhammad and his descendants as Thou didst bless Abraham
and his descendants! Thou are to be praised and Thou art great! O Allah, our
Lord, give us the blessings of this life, and also the blessings of life everlasting.
Save us from the torments of fire! Surah 1 and 112
14.1.3 The Ka’ba

According to legends this cube-like building (approx. 14 x 18 m, 12 m
high) consisting of stone blocks of varying sizes, was first built by Adam. It
was destroyed by the flood and rebuilt by Abraham and Ishmael. The
famous Black Stone, fitted into the East corner, was allegedly given to
Ishmael by the Angel Gabriel. It
was white originally, but turned
black because of the sin of the
people39.
History knows that the Ka’ba
was definitely pre-Islamic and
the center of idol worship. The
Ka’ba in Mecca was not the only
one in Arabia, but probably the
most important one. It was
destroyed and rebuilt several
times; once, in the year AD 608,
Muhammad played a role in the
rebuilding of it.
39
The idea is that the constant kissing by the pilgrims caused a transfer of their sinfulness to
the sacred stone
242 Appendix
With Mecca falling into Muslim hands, the idols were destroyed. It is said
to have contained 360 idols, but this is historically uncertain. Most of the
idols worshipped in Arabia at that time were distributed over a number of
places in Arabia. The idols were largely family or clan related deities.
Hubal was kept in the Ka’ba, but was destroyed by Muhammad.
An interesting fact is, that at the time of Muhammad, the inside of the
Ka’ba was decorated with pictures painted on the walls; “Pictures of the
prophets ... and angels and one of Abraham, the friend of God ... and a
picture of Jesus, son of Mary with his mother ...”. The tradition continues to
say that Muhammad went into the Ka’ba and ordered all pictures to be
washed down with Zamzam water. He spread his arms protectively over
Jesus and Mary, saying: “except these”.
The worship in and around the Ka’ba, together with its rituals has,
however, not been changed, though it is assumed that the original meaning
was restored. The Ka’ba, with its black stone, which is set in silver and
venerated by being kissed by the pilgrims, is the direction to which all
Muslims pray when prostrating.
The Ka’ba has a door, about 2 meters above the ground near the black
stone, which is about 1.4 meters (~five feet) above the ground.
The Ka’ba is covered all over with a black draping (‘Kiswah’) made of silk
and cotton, which is embroidered with golden verses of the Qur’an. It is
changed annually.
14.1.4 Hubal - the Suspect

The name Hubal was mentioned before. He was the god of the Ka’ba
before the time of Muhammad. According to Islamic tradition this idol was
brought from Moab (‘Siratu’l Nabi’ as translated by A. Guillaume, pp. 50-
51) by Amr b. Luhaiy. “Hubal undoubtedly was a newcomer (to Arabia),
but his image was used to represent the older al-Liah (the term from which
the name Allah emanated), ‘the one worshipped’, the male supreme god of
the Ka’ba” (Arabia before Muhammad, by O’Leary referring to the
‘Siratu’l Nabi’).
What does the name relate to us? According to the “Encyclopedia of Islam”
by Gibb and Kramers, it cannot be explained from the Arabic language.
Appendix 243
Pocock (‘Specimen Historicae Arabum’) suggests that the name might well
have been derived from ha-Baal. The original Semitic languages used no
written vowels. By that token, there would be no difference in the spelling
of Hubal and haBaal (= the Baal). These names would appear in writing as
H B L, but they could be read as HUBAL or HABAAL.
As we all know, Baal was a deity, an idol, mentioned in the Bible (Nu 25:3,
Hos 9:10, Deut 4:3, Jos 22:17 and Ps 106:28-29). Where was Baal
worshipped? In Moab! It was the ‘god of fertility’. And Amr ibn Luhaiy is
recorded to have brought Hubal from Moab to Arabia.
The name ‘Allah’ (from ‘al-Illah’ - the god or ‘al-Liah’ = the one
worshipped) was well-used in pre-Islamic times. It was rather a title than a
name, and it was used for a diversity of deities. Muhammad’s grandfather
reportedly prayed to Hubal and addressed him as Allah. The deities al-Lat,
al-Uzza and Manat were called ‘the daughters of Allah’ (Surah 53:19).
“Allah was viewed, already before Muhammad, as the Lord of the Ka’ba,
while, if not surely, but very probably, this sanctuary was devoted to Hubal,
whose image was placed inside” (Reste Arabischen Heidenthum, p. 221 by
J. Wellhausen). “While the rituals performed are still addressed to the
respective deities, Allah is seen as the creator, the father and with that the
superior Lord. But he is viewed to be too general, neutral and impersonal a
Lord.” (ibid p. 219)
“It is presupposed by Muhammad and admitted by his opponents, that
Allah is the Lord of the Ka’ba. Is perhaps the Allah of Mecca Hubal? In
other words, was Hubal called Allah in Mecca as Yahweh was called
Elohim in Israel?” (J. Wellhausen, p. 75). This becomes even more likely
when we realize that the polytheists of Arabia recognized Allah as creator
(Surahs 23:84-89; 29:61), and swore by him (Surah 6:109). “At first Allah
was the title used within each individual tribe to address its tribal deity
instead of its proper name. All said ‘Allah’, but each one had its own deity
in mind. The expression ‘the god’ (al-ilah), which became the only usage,
became the bridge to the concept of an identical god which all tribes had in
common.” (J. Wellhausen, p. 218)
On the other hand we have to recognize that there is also a close
resemblance of the name ‘Allah’ to the Hebrew ‘Elah’ (OT), which in the
OT is translated as God (89 times compared with El = 224 times, and
244 Appendix
Elohim = 3251 times). It is therefore quite thinkable, that Muhammad

interpreted the pagan concept of Allah as a perverted form of the God of
Abraham.
More information about Hubal is given in the ‘Siratu’l Nabi’ of ibn Ishaq
(The Life of the Prophet, translated by A. Guillaume), the oldest biography
of Muhammad. Ibn Ishaq was born 85 AH and compiled this biography
from many sources. This is now lost, but a revision of his book by ibn
Hisham has been preserved. It tells us what role Hubal played in Arabia
just before Muhammad’s coming:
It is alleged, and Allah only knows the truth, that when ‘Abdu’l-
 Muttalib (Muhammad’s grandfather) encountered the opposition

of Quraysh (the tribe to which he belonged) when he was digging
Zamzam (a well in Mecca), he vowed that if he should have ten
sons to grow up and protect him, he would sacrifice one of them
to Allah at the Ka’ba. Afterwards when he had ten sons who could protect him
he gathered them together and told them about his vow and called on them to
keep faith with Allah. They agreed to obey him and asked what they were to
do. He said that each one of them must get an arrow, write his name on it, and
bring it to him; this they did and he took them before Hubal in the middle of the
Ka’ba. (The statue of) Hubal stood by a well there. It was that well in which
gifts made to the Ka’ba were stored.
Now beside Hubal there were seven arrows, each of them containing some
words. One was marked ‘bloodwit’. When they disputed about who should pay
the bloodwit they cast lots with the seven arrows and the one on whom the lot
fell had to pay the money. Another was marked ‘yes’, and another ‘no’, and
they acted accordingly on the matter on which the oracle had been invoked.
Another was marked ‘of you’; another mulsaq, another ‘not of you’; and the last
was marked ‘water’. If they wanted to dig for water, they cast lots containing
this arrow and wherever it came forth they set to work (water divining). If they
wanted to circumcise a body, or make a marriage, or bury a body, or doubted
someone’s genealogy, they took him to Hubal with a hundred dirhams (Arabian
currency) and a slaughter camel and gave them to the man who cast the lots;
then after leading the man in front of Hubal they would say, ‘Our god (Allah)
here stands the stranger about whom we would like to know this and that. Let
us know the truth about him’. Then they would say to the man who cast the
arrows ‘Cast!’ and if there came out ‘of you’ then he was a true member of their
tribe; and if there came out ‘not of you’ then he was an ally; and if there came
out mulsaq he had no blood relation to them and was not an ally. Where ‘yes’
came out in other matter, they acted accordingly; and if the answer was ‘no’,
they deferred the matter for a year until they could bring it up again. They used
to conduct their affairs according to the decision of the arrows.
Appendix 245
‘Abdu’l-Muttalib said to the man with the arrows, ‘Cast the lots for my sons with
these arrows’, (a practice of the Babylonians, see Hes 21:21) and he told him
of the vow which he had made. Each man gave him the arrow on which his
name was written. Now ‘Abdullah (he became the father of Muhammad)was
his father’s youngest son, he and al-Zubayr and Abu Talib were born to Fatima
d.’Amr b.’A’idh b.’Abd b.’Imran b. Makhzum b.Yaqaza b. Murra b. Ka’b
b.Lu’ayy b.Ghalib b.Fihr (113). It is alleged that ‘Abdullah was ‘Abdu’l-
Muttalib’s favourite son, and his father thought that if the arrow missed him he
would be spared. (He was the father of the apostle of Allah). When the man
took the arrows to cast lots with them ‘Abdu’l-Muttalib stood by Hubal praying
to Allah. Then the man cast lots and ‘Abdullah’s arrow came out. His father led
him by the hand and took a large knife; then he brought him up to Isaf and
Na’ila (two idols of Quraysh at which they slaughtered their sacrifices) to
sacrifice him; but Quraysh came out of their assemblies and asked what he
was intending to do. When he said that he was going to sacrifice him, they and
his sons said ‘By Allah! you shall never sacrifice him until you offer the greatest
expiatory sacrifice for him. If you do a thing like this there will be no stopping
men from coming to sacrifice their sons, and what will become of the people
then?’ Then said al-Mughira, b. Abdullah, b. Amr, b. Makhzum, b. Yaqaza,
Abdullah’s mother being from his tribe, ‘By Allah, you shall never sacrifice him
until you offer the greatest expiatory sacrifice for him. Though his ransom be all
our property we will redeem him’. Quraysh and his sons said that he must not
do it, but take him to the Hijaz for there there was a sorcerer who had a familiar
spirit, and he must consult her. Then he would have liberty of action. If she told
him to sacrifice him, he would be no worse off; and if she gave him a
favourable response, he could accept it. So they went off as far as Medina and
found that she was in Khaybar, so they allege. So they rode on until they got to
her, and when ‘Abdu’l-Muttalib acquainted her with the facts she told them to
go away until her familiar spirit visited her and she could ask him. When they
had left her ‘Abdu’l-Muttalib prayed to Allah, and when they visited her the next
day she said, ‘Word has come to me. How much is the blood money among
you?’ they told her that it was ten camels, as indeed it was. He told them to go
back to their country and take the young man and ten camels. Then cast lots
for them and for him; if the lots falls against your man, add more camels, until
you lord is satisfied. If the lots falls against the camels then sacrifice them in
his stead, for your lord will be satisfied and your client escape death. So they
returned to Mecca, and when they had agreed to carry out their instructions,
‘Abdu’l-Muttalib was praying to Allah. Then they brought near ‘Abdullah and
ten camels while ‘Abdu’l-Muttalib stood by Hubal praying to Allah. Then they
cast lots and the arrow fell against ‘Abdullah. They added ten more camels and
the lot fell against ‘Abdullah, and so they went on adding ten at a time, until
there were one hundred camels, when finally the lot fell against them. Quraysh
and those who were present said, ‘At last your lord is satisfied ‘Abdu’l-Muttalib’.
‘No, by Allah’, he answered (so they say), ‘not until I cast lots three times’. This
they did and each time the arrow fell against the camels. They were duly
246 Appendix
slaughtered and left there and no man was kept back or hindered (from eating
them).”
“Siratu’l Nabi” by Ibn Ishaq (translated by A. Guillaume and G. Weil
respectively)
Abdu’l-Muttalib was Muhammad’s grandfather, and Abdullah (Abd-allah =
servant of Allah) his father.
 One of Abdu’l-Muttalib’s sons was to be sacrificed to ‘god at the

Ka’ba’. The ‘god of the Ka’ba’, was Hubal.
For circumcision, marriage, burial etc. people went to Hubal, the
‘Lord of this house’. Magic was used to determine Hubal’s will
(casting of arrows). The boy Abdallah was brought to an idol to be sacrificed to
‘him’. Abdu’l-Muttalib consulted a sorcerer who had a familiar spirit (‘demon
attending and obeying a witch’; Oxford Dictionary).
He gets an answer from the ‘familiar spirit’ through the witch.
He is to cast lots before Hubal ‘until your lord is satisfied’.
We sum up:
We do not question that Muhammad was an ardent monotheist. He had all
idols, including that of Hubal, destroyed. He allowed only Allah to
‘survive’ and equated him with “I am Who I am, the God of Abraham,
Isaac and Jacob”.
No Muslim will perceive that he believes in an idol or a demon -
 and he doesn’t! Allah to him is the very opposite of that. Little

could be more offensive to a Muslim than the suggestion that
Allah is an idol or demon.
Yet what we must try to understand is that Muhammad

drastically changed the original pre-Islamic concept of Allah.
We deal here with spiritual matters. Although the Bible says that “we know
that an idol is nothing at all in the world and that there is no God but one”
(1 Cor 8:4), the Word of God also says: “... the sacrifices of pagans are
offered to demons, not to God” (1 Cor 10:19-20). We also read that when
people were pagans, “somehow or other they were influenced and led
astray to dumb idols” (1 Cor 12:2) and that “all the gods of the nations are
idols” (Ps 96:5). It also teaches us that people who do not know God are
“slaves to those who by nature are not gods” (Gal 4:8).
Appendix 247
We may rightly conclude that idols are man-made and as such utterly
impotent. But idols are associated with demons, and demons are powerful
indeed. Demons lie and deceive.
If we look at Hubal and his role, we may well have to fear that anyone
bowing down to ‘the Lord of this House’ (i.e. the Ka’ba), could come under
his influence, notwithstanding that the worshipper has a totally different
perception of the object of his submission in his mind. The Ka’ba was the
house of Hubal. Even if this is unbeknown to Muslims, they risk being
influenced by a power they do not know of, cannot control, and which
keeps them from Salvation.
In the light of all this it is surely significant that we read of Muhammad in
the Qur’an:
 For me, I have been commanded to serve the Lord of this city,
Him Who has sanctified it and to whom (belong) all things ...
Surah 27:91
More explicitly, in the 3rd or 4th Surah which was revealed, it says:
Let them adore the Lord of this house (the Ka’ba).
Surah 106:3
And that was Hubal at that time!
In conclusion:
● Hubal was the center of worship in the Ka’ba in Mecca.
● He came from Moab where he was a contestant to Yahweh
Elohim.
● He was ‘the Lord of this city’, Mecca, and ‘the Lord of this
house’, the Ka’ba, the one who was called Allah.
● While we must not conclude that Allah is Hubal, we may well
consider the spiritual implications when Muslims bow in worship
towards the Ka’ba and submit to Allah.
248 Appendix
14.2 The Mosque

In the “Textbook of Islam” by Quraishy we read:
It is not ... necessary to have a particularly consecrated place for
 the holding of divine service. One may say his (sic) prayer
wherever he (sic) likes and this will not detract from the efficacy
(sic) of the prayer. However, there is a need to have a masjid or
a mosque in which Muslims can worship Allah comfortably. The
mosque is the undying symbol of Islam. Where there is no adhan (pronounce
‘azan’, i.e. the Call to Prayer from the minaret) or prayers in congregation,
there can be no Islamic community. TBI, p. 67
Appendix 249
Islam shows its presence by building Mosques. Part of it is the ‘Madrassa’,

the school. Free education, however simple, is frequently offered to attract
people.
A former Imam explained: “First we got in contact with the elders in that
village and established friendships. Then we helped with food, medicine
and the like. We suggested to have a school built and to teach the children
of that village. Swahili and its cultural background (and with it Islam) was
part of the curriculum. Later some became Muslims and there was
automatically a need for a place of worship. That’s how we built a mosque
and how we spread Islam.”The mosque is the center of all Muslim
activities. The Masjid al-Nabi in Medina serves as an example:
Teachers and missionaries were dispatched from this mosque to
 those tribes who accepted Islam. A shady place at the north wall
was the home of shelterless Companions of the Prophet. Here
some of them received regular training in the early Islamic
sciences of the Qur’an and Hadith. The Prophet’s mosque was
also used for consultation on important political and military matters. ...
Deputations coming from outside Madina were put up in the Prophet’s
40
Mosque. For instance, when the Christians of Najran sent a deputation, the
Prophet made arrangements for their stay in the mosque. The Prophet also
used to distribute the gifts of war booty among his Companions at the same
mosque. It also served as a court of justice, for legal disputes were also settled
in it. The Prophet himself used to spend ten days of Ramadhan in I’tikaf
(retirement) in his mosque. TBI, p. 68 f.
Today a mosque may be used for administrative, political, social,

educational and religious purposes. Especially in villages this is still the
case. Thus it often becomes a place for fundamentalists’ activities.
Women may enter a mosque, provided they do not use perfume (men may
use perfume and often do so on Fridays).
40
Najran = in todays Yemen
250 Appendix
14.3 The 114 Surahs of the Qur'an

1. Al-Fatihah The Opening 24. An-Nur Light
2. Al-Baqarah The Cow 25. Al-Furqan The Criterion
3. Al-Imran The Family of 26. Azh-shuraa The Poets
Imrân
27. An-Naml The Ant
4. An-Nisa Women
28. Al-Qasas The Story
5. Al-Maidah The Table
Spread 29. Al-Ankabut The Spider
6. Al-Anam Cattle 30. Ar-Rum The Romans
7. Al-Araf The Heights 31. Luqman Luqmân
8. Al-Anfal Spoils of War 32. As-Saidah The Prostration
9. At-Tawbah Repentance 33. Al-Ahzab The Clans
10. Yunus Jonah 34. Saba Saba
11. Hud Hûd 35. Al-Malaikah The Angles
12. Yusuf Joseph 36. Ya Sin Yâ Sîn
13. Ar-Rad The Thunder 37. As-Saffat Those Who

Set the Ranks
14. Ibrahim Abraham
38. Sad Sad
15. Al-Hijr Al-Hijr
39. Az-Zumar The Troops
16. An-Nahl The Bee
40. Al-Mumin The Believer
17. Al-Izra The Night
Journey 41. Fussilat Distinguished
18. Alk-Kahf The Cave 42. Ash-Shura Counsel
19. Maryam Mary 43. Az-Zukhruf Ornaments of

Gold
20. Ta Ha Tâ Hâ
44. Ad-Dukhan Smoke
21. Al-Anbiya The Prophets
45. Al-Jathiyah Crouching
22. Al-Hajj The Pilgrimage
46. Al-Ahqaf The Sand-
23. Al-Muminun The Believers dunes
Appendix 251
47. Muhammad Muhammad 70. Al-Maarif The Ascending

Stairways
48. Al-Fath Victory
71. Nuh Noah
49. Al-Hujurat The Private
Apartments 72. Al-Jinn The Jinn
50. Qaf Qâf 73. Al- The Enshrou-
Muzzammil ded One
51. Adh- The Scatterers
Dhaniyat 74. Al- The Cloaked
Muddaththir One
52. At-Tur The Mount
75. Al-Qiyamah The Rising of
53. An-Najm The Stars the Dead
54. Al-Qamar The Moon 76. Ad-Dahr "Time" / "Man"
55. Ar-Rahman The 77. Al-Murzalat Emissaries
Beneficient
78. An-Naba The Tidings
56. Al-Waqiah The Terror
79. An-Naziat The Pluckers
57. Al-Hadid Iron
80. Abas "He Frowned"
58. Al- The Disputer
Mujadalah 81. At-Takwir The Darkening
59. Al-Hashr Exile 82. Al-Infitar The Splitting
60. Al- The Woman 83. Al- Defrauding
Mumthanah Tested Mutaffifinn
61. As-Saff The Ranks 84. Al-Inzhiqaq The Sundering
62. Al-Jumuah TCongregation 85. Al-Buruj Constellation
63. Al- The Hypocrites 86. At-Tariq Morning Star
Munafiqun
87. Al-Ala The Most High
64. At- Mutual
Taghabun Disillusion 88. Al- The
Ghashiyah Overwhelming
65. At-Talaq Divorce
89. Al-Fajr The Dawn
66. At-Tahrim Banning
90. Al-Balad The City
67. Al-Mulk The Kingdom
91. Ash-Shams The Sun
68. Al-Qalam The Pen
92. Al-Layl The Night
69. Al-Haqqah The Reality
93. Ad-Duha Morning Hours
252 Appendix
94. Al- The Expanding 104. Al- The Backbiter

Inshirah Humazah
95. At-Tin The Fig 105. Al-Fil The Elephant
96. Al-Alaq The Blood-clot 106. Quraish Quraish
97. Al-Qadr Power 107. Al-Ma’un Charity
98. Al- The Clear Proof 108.Al- Abundance
Bayyinah Kawthar
99. Az-Zilzal The Earthquake 109. Al-Kafirun The Unbelievers
100. Al- The Chargers 110. An-Nasr Help
Adiyat
111. Tabbat Perish (The
101. Al-Qariah The Calamity (Lahab) Flame)
102. At- Rivalry in 112. Al-Ikhlas Sincere Religion
Takathur Worldly
113. Al-Falaq Daybreak
Increase
114. An-Nas Men
103. Al-Asr Afternoon
Appendix 253
14.4 The 99 Most Excellent Names

of Allah
AL-RAHMAN The Merciful
AL- RAHIM The Compassionate
AL-MALI The King
AL-QUDDU The Most Holy One
AL-SALAM The Peace
AL-MUMI The Faithful
AL-MUHAIMIN The Protector
AL-AZIZ The Unique and Mighty One
AL-JABBAR The Super Strong One
AL-MUTAKABBIR The Supreme or Proud One
AL-KHALIQ The Creator
AL-BARI The Maker
AL-MUSAWWIR The Fashioner
AL-GHAFFAR The Forgiving One
AL-QAHHAR The Dominant
AL-WAHHAB The Bestower
AL-RAZZAQ The Provider
AL-FATTAH The Opener
AL-ALIM The All-Knowing One
AL-QABID The Restrainer
AL-BASIT The Spreader
AL-KHAFID The Abaser
AL-RAFI The Exalter
AL-MUIZZ The One who exalts and raises to honour
AL-MUDHILL The Destroyer
AL-SAMI The All-Hearing One
AL-BASHIR The All-Seeing One
AL-HAKIM The Ruler or Arbiter
AL-ADL The Just or Righteous One
AL-LATIF The Subtle One
AL-KHABIR The Aware One
254 Appendix
AL-HALIM The Clement

AL-AZIM The Grand One
AL-GHAFUR The Mostly Forgiving One
AL-SHAKUR The Grateful One
AL-ALI The Exalted
AL-KABIR The Great One
AL-HAFIZ The Powerful Guardian
AL-MUQIT The Strengthener
AL-HASIB The Reckoner
AL-JALIL The Majestic
AL-KARIM The Pure and Generous One
AL-RAQIB The Watcher of All
AL-MUJIB The Approver
AL-WASI The Comprehensive One
AL-HAKIM The Ultimately Wise
AL-WADUD The One Who shows Sympathy
AL-MAJID The Most Glorious One
AL-BA’ITH The Raiser
AL-SHAHID The Witness
AL-HAQQ The Right and the Truth
AL-WAKIL The Advocate
AL-QAWI The Strong
AL-MATIN The Firm
AL-WALI The Friendly Protector
AL-HAMID The Praiseworthy One
AL-MUHSI The Counter
AL-MUBDI The Beginner
AL-MUID The Restorer
AL- MUHYI The Quickener
AL-MUMIT The Killer
AL-HAYY The Living
AL-QAIYUM The Subsisting One
AL-WAJID The Finder
AL-SAMAD The One Glorified
Appendix 255
AL-WAHID The One and only

AL-SAMAD The Eternal
AL-QADIR The Mighty and Powerful One
AL-MUQTADIR The Prevailing One
AL-MUQADDIM The One who brings forward
AL-MUAKHKHIR The Deferrer
AL-AWWAL The First
AL-AKHIR The Last
AL-ZAHIR The Outwardly Manifest and Evident One
AL-BATIN The Inward
AL-WALI The Governor
AL-MUTA’ALI The Exalted
AL-BARR The Righteous Benefactor
AL-TAWWAB The One who causes and receives
AL-MUNTAQIM The Avenger
AL-AFU The Pardoner
AL-RAUF The Kind and Indulgent One
MALIK-AL MALIK The Ruler of the Kingdom
DHU-AL-JALAL WA AL-IKRAM The Lord of all Majestyand Honour
AL-MUQSIT The Equitable One
AL-JAMI The Collector
AL-GHANI The Rich One
AL-MUGHNI The Enricher
AL-MU’ATI The Giver
AL-MANI The Withholder
AL-DARR The Distresser
AL-NAFI The Profiter
AL-NUR The Light
AL-HADI The Guide
AL-BADI The Incomparable Magnificent
AL-BAQI The Enduring One
AL-WARITH The Inheritor
AL-RASHID The Director
AL-SABUR The Patient One
256 Appendix
14.5 A Brief Dictionary of Islamic Terms

Abu Father Eid feast day
Ahlu'l-Kitab The People of the Book Fiqh Islamic dogmatic
- Jews and Christians theology; law
Ahl-i-Kitab The People of the Book Furqan that which distinguishes
- Jews and Christians between good and evil;
lawful and unlawful;
Ahmadiyya Islamic sect used also as a title for
Allah'u-akbar Allah is great(er) the Qur'an or a Surah
al-Masih the Messiah Hadith (Hadis) collection of traditions

on Muhammad’s life
Alim a learned person (pl.
ulama) Hafiz person who can
memorize the whole
Ansar friends; (assisted the Qur'an
Muslims in Medina)
Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca;
ar-Rahman the merciful; title of Allah one of the pillars of faith
ar-Rahim the compassionate Hajji (Hadji) Muslim who has been to

Mecca
Assalaam- Lit. ‘peace to you’
Alykum (greeting) Hanif 'one who is inclined' to
Islam; incl. Mohammed
Aya Lit. 'sign' (used for a
verse in the Qur'an) Halaal lawful (food to eat)
Azan call to prayer Hamduli'llah praise to Allah
Bait'allah Lit. ‘house of God’, but Haqq Truth

used for the Ka'ba
Haram unclean (food)
Banu Tribe
Hazrat title of respect
Bilal the first 'muezzin'
Hira mountain near Mecca, in
Bint Daughter a cave in which
Mohammed had his
Bismillah formula that preceeds (first) revelation
each Surah but one: "In
the name of Allah, the Hijrah (Hejira) the "flight" of
compassionate, the Muhammad from Mecca
merciful" to Medina; beginning of
the Muslim calendar
Da'wah missionary movement of
Islam, an 'invocation',
practice of the occult
Hijaz the wider territory
Deen (Din) the practices, duties in around Mecca and
Islam Medina; sacred area
Appendix 257
Houris beautiful maidens with prophet'

almond-shaped eyes Kalimatu'llah 'The Word of God';
and fair skinned, who Jesus, the Messiah
delight the faithful (men)
in paradise Khalif (Caliph) successor of
Muhammad
Hubal an idol which was in the
Ka'ba before Islam Kitab book; used for 'holy
books', also the Bible
Iblis the devil (also 'Shaitan')
Kitabi one of the "People of
Ibn (bin) Son (of) the Book" - Jews and
Imam the leader who guides Christians
prayers in the mosque Khutba sermon on Fridays
Iman Faith Khatib Preacher
Injil the Gospel Kufr Unbelief
Insha'llah if Allah wills Madrassah Islamic school
Isa Jesus Mahdi 'the guided one'; the
Islam 'submission' (to God); returning 'Messiah'
name for Muslim religion Malak angel (pl. Malaika)
Isnad chain of Hadith Malik ‘king’; the angel
transmitters presiding over hell
Israfil and angels of resurrection Mansukh the abrogated portion of
Israil and death the Qur'an
Jannah paradise ('garden') Marwa and two little hills in Mecca
Jahannam Hell Safa
Jihaad Holy War to promote Masjid Mosque

Islam Maulana teacher of Islam (used
Jinns Spirits mainly in Indian sub-
continent)
Ka'ba cube-like building at
Mecca; was used for Mecca the 'holy city' of Islam;
worship in pre- home town of Muh.
Muhammadan times; Medina Muhammad's city of
gives prayer direction exile after the hijjra;
Kafir Unbeliever formerly Yathrib
Kafira head covering of men Mihrab niche in the mosque

marking prayer direction
Kalima Islamic creed: 'There is (Qibla)
no God but Allah and
Muhammad is his Mimbar pulpit in mosque
258 Appendix
Minaret tower of a mosque to Purda cloak which covers

call people to prayer pious women
Miraj a nightly journey 'in the Qadar predetermination
spirit' by Muhammad to
the 'seventh heaven' Qadi (Qazi) Judge
Mirza title of respect Qibla direction of prayer
Mishkat a collection of Qismat acceptance of Allah's

'mostauthentic' Sunni (Kismet) sovereign (arbitrary)
traditions; the full name action
is 'Mishkatu'l Masabi' Qur'an 'the reading' or 'reciting';
Mizan great balances (scales) the holy book of Islam
to 'weigh' a man's good Qurban Sacrifice
deeds against the bad
Rabb Lord
Muazzin a caller to prayer from
the minaret (Muezzin) Rak'at prescribed prostration in
prayer
Mujahid warrior in Islam
Ramadaan 9th month on the Islamic
Mullah teacher of Islam calendar; the month of
Munkar and angels who examine the fasting
Nakir dead in the grave Rasul messenger; apostle; one
Murtadd apostate of Islam (Rasool) who brings a book to
men
Mushaf original document of the
Qur'an (pl. Masahif ) Ruh spirit
Mushrik one who adds a Ruhul'l- Holy Spirit

companion to Allah (also Quddus
Christians)
Muslim one who submits (to Sawm Fasting
(Moslem) Islam)
Namaz Salat; an Indian Sabaens ancient inhabitants of
expression South West Arabia;
worshippers of sun and
Nabi a prophet; one who stars
received direct
inspiration by means of Sahih tradition collectors from
angels, dreams or 'in the Muhammad's
heart' companions
Nasikh portion of the Qur'an or Salaam Peace

Hadith which abrogates
a previous one Salat prayer recited five times
daily
Nazil 'sent down'; Islamic
concept of inspiration
Appendix 259
Shaikh teacher of Islam Surah chapter of the Qur'an

(actually 'old man')
Taqdir 'measurement'; actually
Shaháda obligatory confession of predestination or
faith measured out fate
Tasbih rosary with 99 beads for
Shariah law of Islam prayer
(Shariat)
Taslim Benediction
Shi'áh 'division'; Islamic sect
insisting that a Khalif Taurat the five books of Moses
must be a physical (Tourat)
descendant of
Muhammad Tawaf circumambulation
(walking around) the
Shirk the sin of adding a Ka'ba seven times
partner of Allah during the Hajj
Siratu’l Nabi 'The life of the Prophet'; Ulema Islamic teachers

a biography of (singular: Maalim)
Muhammad by Ibn
Ishaq, revised and Umm Mother
edited by Ibn Hisham Umma (Umat) nation; family; mostly
used of religious
Sufi a movement of Islamic congregation; the
followers seeking people of Islam
mystical experiences
Umrah minor Hajj
Sunnah 'path'; imitating the life of
(Sunnah) Muhammad in acco- Wudu Ritual washing before
rdance with the Hadith prayer in mosque
Sunni 'one of the path'; main Zabur Psalms

group of Muslims
260 Appendix
14.6 Who's Who in Islam

The first four Khalifs
Abu-Bakr Close follower of Muhammad and first Khalif (632-634
AD). He was also Muhammad's father-in-law (through
Aisha).
Umar (or Omar) Second Khalif (634-644 AD). He was assassinated while
in prayer.
Uthman (or Osman) Third Khalif (644-656 AD). He ordered the editing of
the Qur'an. Established standard text; other documents
were destroyed. He was murdered.
Ali Fourth Khalif (656-661 AD); nephew and adopted son of
Muhammad, who married Fatima. He too was murdered.
Named Wives and Concubines of Muhammad

Name Marriage – Position Age
Khadijah First wife and only companion for 25 years 40
Sa'uda Bint Zama Widow of as-Sakran b. Amr, an early Muslim 30?
Aisha Bint Abu Bakr The only non-widow he married 9
Hafsah Bint Umar Daughter of Umar 18
Zainab Bint Khusaima Died a few months after marriage to Muhammad 30
Umm Salama Her husband had died of wounds received at Uhud 29
Zainab Bint Jahsh Divorced wife of Zayd b. Harithah 38
Juweiriyah Daughter of a chief; first concubine, later married 20
Rayhana (Jewish) Concubine? ?
Maryam (Christian) Concubine? ?
Safia Captured at Khaibar in 628 and assigned to Muh. 17
Umm Habiba Widow of Ubaydallah; had been to Abyssinia 35
Maimuna Sister of the wife of al-Abbas; married in 629, age 27
Appendix 261
The four great Teachers of the Law

Hanafi Born 80 AH in Kufah; influence in Central Asia,
India and parts of Egypt
Shafii Born 96 AH in Medina; influence in West Africa
and North Africa (except Egypt)
Hanbali Born 150 AH in Gaza; influence in South Arabia,
East Africa, Malaysia, Egypt and Central Asia)
Malik Born 164 AH in Baghdad; influence mostly in Arabian
peninsula
Other Names
Abdu'llah father of Muhammad; 'a slave of Allah'
Abdu'l-Muttalib grandfather of Muhammad; his first guardian
Abdul Cassim the proper name of Muhammad
Abu Talib uncle and guardian of Muhammad
Ahmad 'praised one'; same word root as Muhammad. It is
claimed that Ahmad was prophecied in the Bible (Surah
61:6).
al-Baizawi commentator (900 AH)
al-Baqawi (or al-Baghawi) commentator (515 AH)
al-Bukhari collector of traditions about Muhammad (810-870 AD)
al-Ghazzali Islamic teacher (450 AH)
Allah (from al-illah); apparently the chief deity in pre-Islamic
Mecca; later the one god of Islam
al-Tabari historian and commentator
al-Vaqidi a later biographer of Muhammad
Amina mother of Muhammad
Dawood (or Dawud) David
Fatima the daughter of Muhammad, who had an offspring
through Ali
Halima nurse of Muhammad
262 Appendix
Ibn Ishaq biographer of Muhammad

Ibn Khaldun Historian
Ibn Sa'd biographer of Muhammad
Ibrahim Abraham
Ibu Hisham Editor of Ibn Ishaq's biography
Isa name used in the Qur'an for Jesus
Jalalu'deen commentator (900 AH)
Jibril Angel Gabriel
Moosa (or Musa) Moses
Muhammad (or Mohammed) the prophet of Islam (= the praised one)
Muslim one who submits to the will of Allah in Islam, also name of
a Hadith compiler
Quraish Arab tribe from which Muhammad originated and from
which all Khalifs were to be chosen
Suleiman Solomon
Yahya John the Baptist
Zaid-ibn-Harith Muhammad's adopted son, whose divorced wife Zainab
he later married
Zaid-ibn-Thabit compiler of the Qur'an (14 AD)
Appendix 263
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Appendix 267
14.8 Index
Abraham . 1, 3, 20, 82, 98, 101, 109, 110, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 260, 261,
112, 113, 114, 115, 130, 131, 133, 262, 263, 265, 266, 267
162, 163, 182, 239, 245, 246, 248, Angels .............. 119, 162, 195, 204, 207
250, 254, 261, 266, 268 Apostle ... 6, 7, 10, 11, 15, 16, 19, 26, 30,
Abrogation ...........................................99 34, 37, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 75, 86,
Abu Bakr . 12, 21, 32, 39, 53, 89, 90, 115, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 97, 98, 105,
210, 264 118, 119, 120, 124, 164, 165, 170,
Ahmad . 5, 16, 66, 68, 118, 212, 265, 267 172, 187, 188, 207, 209, 210, 212,
Ahmadiyya ...................................68, 260 214, 216, 240, 244
Aisha .... 6, 39, 40, 44, 50, 54, 74, 75, 76, Arabia .. 3, 4, 6, 18, 27, 35, 60, 63, 64, 68,
85, 87, 88, 97, 119, 212, 214, 231, 108, 109, 114, 131, 132, 197, 209,
232, 239, 240, 264 245, 246, 247, 248, 263, 265, 268
al-Bukhari 6, 7, 12, 37, 44, 45, 47, 88, 89, Atonement .. 23, 24, 201, 238, 239, 241,
90, 91, 94, 95, 97, 112, 118, 119, 120, 269
121, 122, 123, 170, 208, 265 Bible... 6, 7, 10, 13, 16, 17, 18, 24, 64, 76,
al-Ghazzali....................................71, 265 81, 84, 85, 100, 101, 104, 107, 108,
Ali 11, 19, 33, 38, 53, 54, 56, 67, 69, 79, 109, 110, 111, 113, 116, 129, 131,
80, 85, 165, 167, 185, 200, 264, 265, 133, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143,
270 145, 147, 148, 153, 156, 163, 172,
Allah ..... 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 174, 179, 180, 181, 182, 191, 192,
15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 199, 200, 201, 205, 208, 215, 216,
28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 218, 229, 233, 238, 240, 243, 247,
40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 250, 261, 265, 269
53, 62, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 74, 75, 76, Bilal ............................................. 23, 260
77, 78, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, Christian4, 6, 8, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 33, 39,
93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 51, 52, 55, 58, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 70,
103, 104, 105, 108, 114, 117, 118, 75, 104, 111, 115, 126, 133, 155, 156,
119, 120, 121, 124, 125, 126, 130, 158, 163, 194, 198, 201, 203, 208,
131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 229, 240, 241, 267, 268, 269
140, 141, 143, 144, 145, 147, 149, Codex....................................... 90, 92, 93
150, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, Cross .............................. 88, 89, 209, 210
159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, Crusade ......................................... 58, 59
166, 167, 168, 169, 170,鷐171, 172, Death ....31, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 270
173, 177, 178, 179, 180, 183, 184, Deen (Din) ....................................... 260
185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 192, Divorce .............................. 226, 233, 255
193, 194, 198, 199, 200, 203, 204, Fatima............ 50, 87, 208, 249, 264, 265
205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 212, Fiqh ................................................... 260
213, 214, 216, 218, 219, 220, 221, Forgiveness .......................... 99, 189, 199
222, 224, 225, 226, 232, 237, 238, Gabriel 7, 19, 20, 45, 80, 84, 87, 98, 124,
240, 241, 242, 244, 245, 246, 247, 162, 245, 266
268 Appendix
Grace ......................... 101, 141, 142, 198 163, 175, 177, 180, 181, 191, 201,
Grave .........................................203, 204 208, 209, 210, 224, 241, 246, 261,
Hadith . 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 46, 64, 66, 266, 268
67, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 84, 88, 93, 95, Jews4, 6, 9, 11, 17, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,
96, 109, 111, 114, 117, 118, 121, 122, 28, 31, 35, 36, 55, 57, 64, 91, 108,
123, 125, 126, 129, 147, 149, 157, 110, 114, 116, 131, 132, 141, 176,
164, 165, 170, 188, 195, 197, 203, 193, 209, 210, 235, 238, 239, 260,
208, 210, 211, 220, 221, 225, 226, 261, 269, 270
230, 231, 232, 239, 253, 260, 261, Jihad .....29, 30, 31, 49, 65, 159, 196, 261
262, 263, 266, 269, 270 Jinns ..103, 147, 168, 169, 177, 205, 261
Hafiz ..................................... 40, 260, 267 Ka'ba................................. 260, 261, 263
Hafsah ...................... 39, 40, 89, 90, 264 Kafir .................................................. 261
Hajj 21, 49, 109, 154, 160, 161, 196, 254, Kalima ........................ 154, 156, 244, 261
260, 263 Khadijah ............... 6, 19, 48, 85, 111, 264
Halaal................................................260 Khalif ........................... 67, 261, 263, 264
Hanif .................................. 114, 260, 270 Khutba .............................................. 261
Haram ...............................................260 Kitab ....4, 69, 91, 93, 129, 260, 261, 267,
Heaven ................. 19, 112, 180, 203, 216 269
Hell 38, 66, 159, 163, 164, 168, 169, 170, Law ..1, 16, 101, 106, 129, 135, 142, 147,
172, 203, 205, 213, 214, 216, 218, 159, 174, 182, 191, 192, 193, 194,
261 195, 197, 198, 201, 214, 220, 240,
Hijrah (Hejira) ..................................260 265
Holy Spirit ............................ 20, 140, 262 Love ... 33, 105, 143, 145, 146, 191, 231,
Houris ................................ 113, 217, 261 233
Hubal 4, 5, 244, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, Luqman...................................... 163, 254
251, 261 Madrassah ....................................... 261
Iblis ............................................109, 261 Mahdi .........56, 57, 67, 69, 208, 209, 261
Ibrahim .......... 50, 94, 163, 240, 254, 266 Mansukh ...................................... 99, 261
Iman ........................... 154, 162, 221, 261 Mecca .... 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25,
Inheritance ...............................101, 220 28, 29, 44, 48, 49, 51, 55, 61, 67, 68,
Injil ....................................... 83, 162, 261 70, 71, 81, 84, 95, 98, 101, 108, 112,
Inspiration................................. 6, 85, 90 113, 114, 154, 157, 158, 161, 196,
Isa 111, 138, 140, 145, 147, 163, 216, 208, 231, 233, 238, 239, 240, 244,
243, 261, 266 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 251, 260,
Ishmael ... 3, 51, 109, 128, 131, 161, 163, 261, 265
201, 239, 245, 267 Medina 4, 8, 9, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, 35,
Isnad .................................................261 38, 39, 48, 49, 55, 61, 67, 75, 81, 84,
Jannah........................................216, 261 92, 111, 160, 161, 197, 208, 238, 239,
Jesus ..1, 4, 16, 17, 18, 20, 33, 38, 42, 45, 249, 253, 260, 261, 262, 265, 270
46, 50, 52, 63, 65, 68, 69, 89, 98, 106, Messiah ......... 67, 69, 140, 153, 260, 261
111, 112, 127, 130, 131, 133, 138, Mihrab .............................................. 262
139, 140, 142, 143, 145, 146, 153, Mimbar ............................................. 262
Appendix 269
Minaret ......................................158, 262 Paradise 30, 31, 47, 113, 114, 117, 124,
Miraj ............................ 19, 112, 206, 262 141, 149, 163, 164, 170, 171, 174,
Mishkat 12, 14, 15, 30, 31, 40, 47, 50, 64, 180, 191, 199, 205, 206, 213, 216,
77, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 102, 103, 231, 240
106, 121, 123, 124, 125, 164, 165, PARADISE ........................................... 216
166, 167, 170, 171, 172, 183, 186, Power 24, 134, 135, 147, 148, 171, 237,
188, 189, 204, 208, 209, 210, 211, 256
212, 213, 214, 225, 226, 227, 231, Predestination .... 51, 100, 132, 163, 164,
237, 240, 262, 267 165, 170, 195, 268
Moses 1, 7, 16, 19, 20, 23, 25, 45, 82, 98, Prophet.... 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16,
101, 106, 112, 124, 130, 131, 141, 17, 31, 32, 34, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43,
163, 164, 182, 193, 239, 263, 266 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 66, 80, 83, 84,
Muhammad .3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 85, 86, 88, 89, 93, 94, 97, 103, 117,
13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125,
24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 126, 158, 166, 170, 172, 183, 188,
40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 189, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209,
51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 62, 66, 67, 73, 211, 212, 213, 214, 223, 230, 237,
74, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88, 239, 240, 245, 248, 253, 263, 268
89, 90, 92, 96, 97, 99, 107, 108, 109, Punishment................ 48, 191, 203, 206
110, 111, 112, 114, 116, 117, 118, Qibla ................................. 239, 244, 262
122, 123, 126, 131, 132, 133, 134, Quraish .........5, 6, 57, 84, 91, 92, 98, 266
137, 140, 149, 154, 155, 157, 158, Qur'an....66, 67, 69, 74, 75, 76, 260, 261,
160, 161, 163, 168, 184, 194, 196, 262, 263, 264, 266
204, 205, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, Qurban ............................................. 262
217, 219, 220, 221, 223, 225, 226, Rabb ................................. 110, 134, 262
228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, Ramadaan..... 70, 80, 101, 109, 154, 160,
235, 236, 238, 239, 240, 245, 246, 235, 236, 237, 238, 262
247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 255, 260, Rasul .............. 9, 115, 163, 244, 262, 263
261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, Revelation ................. 6, 84, 85, 107, 131
268, 269, 270 Ruh ................................................... 262
Mushaf .........................................93, 262 Sabaens ........................................... 263
Nabi . 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 20, 27, 34, 35, 36, 38, Sacrifice ................................... 240, 262
51, 98, 114, 115, 116, 163, 236, 246, Salaam ............................................. 263
248, 250, 253, 262, 263, 268 Salat ...154, 157, 158, 196, 206, 244, 262,
Names of Allah...................................149 263
Nasikh ..........................................99, 262 Salvation .................... 143, 199, 213, 251
Nazil ..................................................262 Satan 21, 76, 97, 110, 121, 181, 183, 192,
Noah .............. 82, 98, 101, 130, 163, 255 203, 244
Occult...........................................74, 267 Sawm ................. 154, 196, 207, 236, 262
Osman ...............................................264 Shaháda ............................. 154, 196, 263
Pagan .................................................108 Shariah.1, 64, 65, 97, 180, 192, 193, 194,
195, 198, 209, 214, 263
270 Appendix
Shia ......................................................67 230, 232, 237, 238, 245, 247, 251,

Shirk ...........................................242, 263 260, 263, 265
Sin132, 174, 181, 183, 189, 191, 192, Tafsir .................................................. 117
201, 242, 254, 269 Taqdir ....................................... 164, 263
Submission .....................................5, 126 Tasbih ........................................ 149, 263
Sufi ........... 62, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 79, 263 Taslim ............................................... 263
Sufism ...................................... 71, 72, 73 Taurat ......................... 83, 114, 162, 263
Sunnah ...... 50, 51, 56, 66, 97, 117, 118, Trinity ........................ 111, 140, 141, 153
122, 124, 126, 196, 230, 240, 263 Truth ...28, 30, 41, 86, 97, 100, 105, 141,
Sunnat..........................................56, 263 151, 153, 193, 260, 269
Sunnis ................................... 66, 69, 197 Umar.... 20, 26, 32, 39, 53, 86, 87, 89, 90,
Surah....5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 92, 93, 96, 118, 121, 170, 203, 206,
19, 20, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30, 39, 40, 43, 264
45, 46, 47, 48, 52, 67, 73, 74, 75, 80, Umma ........................................ 232, 263
82, 83, 84, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, Umrah ........11, 32, 49, 86, 154, 160, 263
101, 102, 103, 107, 108, 110, 111, Uthman ...53, 54, 91, 92, 94, 95, 97, 114,
112, 116, 124, 125, 126, 131, 132, 115, 264
134, 135, 137, 140, 141, 144, 147, Worship .................... 104, 110, 140, 185
149, 156, 159, 162, 163, 164, 165, Wudu ................................................ 263
166, 167, 168, 169, 177, 178, 184, Yahya ....................... 117, 120, 163, 266
185, 186, 187, 189, 190, 193, 194, Yunus ......................................... 163, 254
199, 200, 201, 205, 211, 212, 213, Yusuf 11, 19, 80, 163, 165, 167, 185, 200,
214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 222, 254, 270
223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, Zabur .................................. 83, 162, 263
Zakat .......................... 154, 159, 196, 206

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Islam

Please keep in mind:

1Cor 14:20 (ASV)

THIS IS A TEACHER’S TEXTBOOK – NOT A DO-IT-YOURSELF

2 THE PROPHET AND HIS WORLD............................................... 3

3 HISTORY-MAKERS SHAPING NATIONS................................. 52

4 BOOKS THAT MATTER TO MUSLIMS .................................... 82

5 ALLAH – HIS NATURE AND ESSENCE .................................. 131

6 FAITH AND PRACTICE BELONG TOGETHER .................... 154

8 THE SHARIAH ............................................................................. 191

9 ISLAMIC IDEAS ABOUT SALVATION ................................... 197

10 SPECULATIONS ABOUT FUTURE LIFE................................ 200

11 THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN ISLAM ..................................... 216

13 OUR FINAL CONCLUSION ........................................................ 238

14 APPENDIX .................................................................................... 240

Recommended Literature for Chapter 1

2 The Prophet and his World

2.1.2 Life in Arabia

2.1.3 The available Scriptures

2.1.4 The Religion of the Pagans

2.1.5 Deities of the Pagans

2.2 Muhammad - The Prophet Of Islam

2.3 Muhammad’s Childhood and Youth

Being part of a merchant family, Muhammad, accompanying trading caravans,

2.3.1 How Muhammad Received Revelation

 the Divine Inspiration) to Allah’s Apostle was in the form of true

 muscles between his neck and shoulders were trembling till he

 mission and showed mercy on His servants thereby, Gabriel

Muhammad’s first revela-tions

2.3.2 The Abyssinian Exile of the Early Muslims

2.3.3 The Islamic Concept of Prophethood

2.3.4 Alleged “Proofs” of Muhammad’s Prophethood

2.3.4.1 Muhammad’s Alleged Illiteracy

 Those who follow the Apostle, the unlettered Prophet [‘an-nabbiyyal-

 from among themselves, to rehearse to them His Signs, to

2.3.4.2 Prophecies Attributed To Muhammad

 future events. This is not a political forecast but a forecast of

2.3.4.3 Alleged Miracles Done By Muhammad

 former generations treated them as false: We sent the She-

Bara’a-b-A’jeb reported: We were 1400 on the Day of

 Hudaibiyyah with the Apostle of Allah, and in Hudaibiyyah was

2.3.4.4 Alleged Prophecies About Muhammad In The

2.3.4.5 Prophethood as defined in the Bible

 hill? He whose walk is blameless and who does what is righteous,

2.3.4.6 The Biblical Mark of a Prophet

 established my ancient people, and what is yet to come - yes, let

Hundreds of biblical prophecies were fulfilled in great detail in Jesus Christ

2.3.5 Muhammad - Allah’s Warner for Arabia

2.3.6 The Miraj, the Mysterious Night Journey to

2.3.7 The Satanic Verses

2.3.8 The Hijra - the Flight from Mecca to Medina

2.3.9 Muhammad in Mecca versus Muhammad in

2.3.10 Muhammad and the Jews of Medina

 A few months after his arrival in Medina, Muhammad saw the

Compare what the Bible says:

Muhammad’s nicknames in Mecca1

Kahin fortune-teller / soothsayer, (Surah 52:29; 69:42) - one receiving

‘Unless you have divine credentials, we cannot accept you as a prophet

These verses obviously point to Elijah on Mt. Carmel. Muhammad’s