Immune system

The immune system is a network of biological processes that protects an

organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of
pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as cancer cells and objects
such as wood splinters, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy
tissue. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. The
innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of
situations and stimuli. The adaptive immune system provides a tailored
response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously
encountered. Both use molecules and cells to perform their functions.

Nearly all organisms have some kind of immune system. Bacteria have a
rudimentary immune system in the form of enzymes that protect against virus
infections. Other basic immune mechanisms evolved in ancient plants and
animals and remain in their modern descendants. These mechanisms include
phagocytosis, antimicrobial peptides called defensins, and the complement
system. Jawed vertebrates, including humans, have even more sophisticated
defense mechanisms, including the ability to adapt to recognize pathogens
more efficiently. Adaptive (or acquired) immunity creates an immunological
memory leading to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that
same pathogen. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination.
Layered defense
Components of the immune system

Innate immune system Adaptive immune system

Pathogen and antigen specific
Response is non-specific
response

Exposure leads to immediate Lag time between exposure and

maximal response maximal response

Cell-mediated and humoral compone Cell-mediated and humoral compone
nts nts

Exposure leads to immunological

No immunological memory
memory

Found in nearly all forms of life Found only in jawed vertebrates

The immune system protects its host from infection with layered
defences of increasing specificity. Physical barriers prevent pathogens such as
bacteria and viruses from entering the organism. If a pathogen breaches these
barriers, the innate immune system provides an immediate, but non-specific
response. Innate immune systems are found in all animals. If pathogens
successfully evade the innate response, vertebrates possess a second layer of
protection, the adaptive immune system, which is activated by the innate
response. Here the immune system adapts its response during an infection to
improve its recognition of the pathogen. This improved response is then
retained after the pathogen has been eliminated, in the form of an
immunological memory, and allows the adaptive immune system to mount
faster and stronger attacks each time this pathogen is encountered.

Both innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune
system to distinguish between self and non-self molecules. In immunology, self
molecules are components of an organism's body that can be distinguished
from foreign substances by the immune system. Conversely, non-self
molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules.

Surface barriers
Several barriers protect organisms from infection, including mechanical,
chemical, and biological barriers. The waxy cuticle of most leaves, the
exoskeleton of insects, the shells and membranes of externally deposited eggs,
and skin are examples of mechanical barriers that are the first line of defense
against infection. Organisms cannot be completely sealed from their
environments, so systems act to protect body openings such as the lungs,
intestines, and the genitourinary tract. In the lungs, coughing and sneezing
mechanically eject pathogens and other irritants from the respiratory tract.
The flushing action of tears and urine also mechanically expels pathogens,
while mucus secreted by the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract serves to
trap and entangle microorganisms.
Chemical barriers also protect against infection. The skin and respiratory
tract secrete antimicrobial peptides such as the β-defensins. Enzymes such as
lysozyme and phospholipase A2 in saliva, tears, and breast milk are also
antibacterials. Vaginal secretions serve as a chemical barrier following
menarche, when they become slightly acidic, while semen contains defensins
and zinc to kill pathogens. In the stomach, gastric acid serves as a chemical
defence against ingested pathogens.
Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts, commensal flora
serve as biological barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and
space and, in some cases, changing the conditions in their environment, such
as pH or available iron. As a result, the probability that pathogens will reach
sufficient numbers to cause illness is reduced.
Innate immune system
Microorganisms or toxins that successfully enter an organism encounter the
cells and mechanisms of the innate immune system. The innate response is
usually triggered when microbes are identified by pattern recognition
receptors, which recognize components that are conserved among broad
groups of microorganisms, or when damaged, injured or stressed cells send
out alarm signals, many of which are recognized by the same receptors as
those that recognize pathogens. Innate immune defences are non-specific,
meaning these systems respond to pathogens in a generic way. This system
does not confer long-lasting immunity against a pathogen. The innate immune
system is the dominant system of host defense in most organisms, and the
only one in plants.

Immune sensing
Cells in the innate immune system use pattern recognition receptors to
recognize molecular structures that are produced by pathogens. They are
proteins expressed, mainly, by cells of the innate immune system, such as
dendritic cells, macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils and epithelial cells to
identify two classes of molecules: pathogen-associated molecular patterns
(PAMPs), which are associated with microbial pathogens, and damage-
associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), which are associated with
components of host's cells that are released during cell damage or cell death.
Recognition of extracellular or endosomal PAMPs is mediated by
transmembrane proteins known as toll-like receptors (TLRs). TLRs share a
typical structural motif, the leucine rich repeats (LRR), which give them a
curved shape. Toll-like receptors were first discovered in Drosophila and
trigger the synthesis and secretion of cytokines and activation of other host
defense programs that are necessary for both innate or adaptive immune
responses. Ten toll-like receptors have been described in humans.
Cells in the innate immune system have pattern recognition receptors, which
detect infection or cell damage, inside. Three major classes of these "cytosolic"
receptors are NOD–like receptors, RIG (retinoic acid-inducible gene)-like
receptors, and cytosolic DNA sensors.

Innate immune cells

Some leukocytes (white blood cells) act like independent, single-celled
organisms and are the second arm of the innate immune system. The innate
leukocytes include the "professional" phagocytes (macrophages, neutrophils,
and dendritic cells). These cells identify and eliminate pathogens, either by
attacking larger pathogens through contact or by engulfing and then killing
microorganisms. The other cells involved in the innate response include innate
lymphoid cells, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, and natural killer cells.
Phagocytosis is an important feature of cellular innate immunity
performed by cells called phagocytes that engulf pathogens or particles.
Phagocytes generally patrol the body searching for pathogens, but can be
called to specific locations by cytokines. Once a pathogen has been engulfed by
a phagocyte, it becomes trapped in an intracellular vesicle called a phagosome,
which subsequently fuses with another vesicle called a lysosome to form a
phagolysosome. The pathogen is killed by the activity of digestive enzymes or
following a respiratory burst that releases free radicals into the
phagolysosome. Phagocytosis evolved as a means of acquiring nutrients, but
this role was extended in phagocytes to include engulfment of pathogens as a
defense mechanism. Phagocytosis probably represents the oldest form of host
defense, as phagocytes have been identified in both vertebrate and
invertebrate animals.
Neutrophils and macrophages are phagocytes that travel throughout the
body in pursuit of invading pathogens. Neutrophils are normally found in the
bloodstream and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, representing 50%
to 60% of total circulating leukocytes. During the acute phase of inflammation,
neutrophils migrate toward the site of inflammation in a process called chemo
taxis, and are usually the first cells to arrive at the scene of infection.
Macrophages are versatile cells that reside within tissues and produce an array
of chemicals including enzymes, complement proteins, and cytokines, while
they can also act as scavengers that rid the body of worn-out cells and other
debris, and as antigen-presenting cells (APC) that activate the adaptive
immune system.

Dendritic cells are phagocytes in tissues that are in contact with the
external environment; therefore, they are located mainly in the skin, nose,
lungs, stomach, and intestines. They are named for their resemblance to
neuronal dendrites, as both have many spine-like projections. Dendritic cells
serve as a link between the bodily tissues and the innate and adaptive immune
systems, as they present antigens to T cells, one of the key cell types of the
adaptive immune system.
Granulocytes are leukocytes that have granules in their cytoplasm. In
this category are neutrophils, mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils. Mast cells
reside in connective tissues and mucous membranes, and regulate the
inflammatory response. They are most often associated with allergy and
anaphylaxis. Basophils and eosinophils are related to neutrophils. They secrete
chemical mediators that are involved in defending against parasites and play a
role in allergic reactions, such as asthma.
Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a group of innate immune cells that are
derived from common lymphoid progenitor and belong to the lymphoid
lineage. These cells are defined by absence of antigen specific B or T cell
receptor (TCR) because of the lack of recombination activating gene. ILCs do
not express myeloid or dendritic cell markers.
Natural killer cells (NK) are lymphocytes and a component of the innate
immune system which does not directly attack invading microbes. Rather, NK
cells destroy compromised host cells, such as tumor cells or virus-infected
cells, recognizing such cells by a condition known as "missing self." This term
describes cells with low levels of a cell-surface marker called MHC I (major
histocompatibility complex)—a situation that can arise in viral infections of
host cells. Normal body cells are not recognized and attacked by NK cells
because they express intact self MHC antigens. Those MHC antigens are
recognized by killer cell immunoglobulin receptors which essentially put the
brakes on NK cells.

Inflammation
Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to
infection. The symptoms of inflammation are redness, swelling, heat, and pain,
which are caused by increased blood flow into tissue. Inflammation is
produced by eicosanoids and cytokines, which are released by injured or
infected cells. Eicosanoids include prostaglandins that produce fever and the
dilation of blood vessels associated with inflammation, and leukotrienes that
attract certain white blood cells (leukocytes). Common cytokines include
interleukins that are responsible for communication between white blood
cells; chemokines that promote chemotaxis; and interferons that have anti-
viral effects, such as shutting down protein synthesis in the host cell.[47]
Growth factors and cytotoxic factors may also be released. These cytokines
and other chemicals recruit immune cells to the site of infection and promote
healing of any damaged tissue following the removal of pathogens.[48] The
pattern-recognition receptors called inflammasomes are multiprotein
complexes (consisting of an NLR, the adaptor protein ASC, and the effector
molecule pro-caspase-1) that form in response to cytosolic PAMPs and DAMPs,
whose function is to generate active forms of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β
and IL-18.

Humoral defenses
The complement system is a biochemical cascade that attacks the
surfaces of foreign cells. It contains over 20 different proteins and is named for
its ability to "complement" the killing of pathogens by antibodies. Complement
is the major humoral component of the innate immune response. Many
species have complement systems, including non-mammals like plants, fish,
and some invertebrates. In humans, this response is activated by complement
binding to antibodies that have attached to these microbes or the binding of
complement proteins to carbohydrates on the surfaces of microbes. This
recognition signal triggers a rapid killing response. The speed of the response is
a result of signal amplification that occurs after sequential proteolytic
activation of complement molecules, which are also proteases. After
complement proteins initially bind to the microbe, they activate their protease
activity, which in turn activates other complement proteases, and so on. This
produces a catalytic cascade that amplifies the initial signal by controlled
positive feedback.

Adaptive immune system

The adaptive immune system evolved in early vertebrates and allows for
a stronger immune response as well as immunological memory, where each
pathogen is "remembered" by a signature antigen. The adaptive immune
response is antigen-specific and requires the recognition of specific "non-self"
antigens during a process called antigen presentation. Antigen specificity
allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens
or pathogen-infected cells. The ability to mount these tailored responses is
maintained in the body by "memory cells". Should a pathogen infect the body
more than once, these specific memory cells are used to quickly eliminate it.

Recognition of antigen
 The cells of the adaptive immune system are special types of leukocytes,
called lymphocytes. B cells and T cells are the major types of lymphocytes and
are derived from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. B cells are
involved in the humeral immune response, whereas T cells are involved in cell-
mediated immune response. Killer T cells only recognize antigens coupled to
Class I MHC molecules, while helper T cells and regulatory T cells only
recognize antigens coupled to Class II MHC molecules. These two mechanisms
of antigen presentation reflect the different roles of the two types of T cell.
A third, minor subtype are the γδ T cells that recognize intact antigens
that are not bound to MHC receptors. The double-positive T cells are exposed
to a wide variety of self-antigens in the thymus, in which iodine is necessary for
its thymus development and activity. In contrast, the B cell antigen-specific
receptor is an antibody molecule on the B cell surface and recognizes native
(unprocessed) antigen without any need for antigen processing. Such antigens
may be large molecules found on the surfaces of pathogens, but can also be
small haptens (such as penicillin) attached to carrier molecule. Each lineage of
B cell expresses a different antibody, so the complete set of B cell antigen
receptors represent all the antibodies that the body can manufacture. When B
or T cells encounter their related antigens they multiply and many "clones" of
the cells are produced that target the same antigen. This is called clonal
selection.

What’s an Antibiotic?
Antibiotics are medications used to fight infections caused by bacteria.
They’re also called antibacterials. They treat infections by killing or decreasing
the growth of bacteria. The first modern-day antibiotic was used in 1936.
Before antibiotics, 30 percent Trusted Source of all deaths were caused by
bacterial infections. Thanks to antibiotics, previously fatal infections are
curable.
Today, antibiotics are still powerful, life-saving medications for people
with certain serious infections. They can also prevent less-serious infections
from becoming serious. There are many classes of antibiotics. Certain types of
antibiotics work best for specific types of bacterial infections.
Antibiotics come in many forms, including:
  Tablets
 Capsules
 Liquids
 Creams
 Ointments
Most antibiotics are only available with a prescription from your doctor.
Some antibiotic creams and ointments are available over the counter

How do antibiotics work?

Antibiotics fight bacterial infections either by killing bacteria or slowing
and suspending its growth. They do this by:
 attacking the wall or coating surrounding bacteria
 interfering with bacteria reproduction
 blocking protein production in bacteria

Disorders of Immune System

Immune system disorders cause abnormally low activity or over activity
of the immune system. In cases of immune system overactivity, the body
attacks and damages its own tissues (autoimmune diseases). Immune
deficiency diseases decrease the body's ability to fight invaders, causing
vulnerability to infections.
 In response to an unknown trigger, the immune system may begin
producing antibodies that instead of fighting infections, attack the body's own
tissues. Treatment for autoimmune diseases generally focuses on reducing
immune system activity.
Examples of autoimmune diseases include:
1. Rheumatoid arthritis:
The immune system produces antibodies that attach to the linings of
joints. Immune system cells then attack the joints, causing inflammation,
swelling, and pain. If untreated, rheumatoid arthritis causes gradually causes
permanent joint damage. Treatments for rheumatoid arthritis can include
various oral or injectable medications that reduce immune system over
activity. See charts that list rheumatoid arthritis drugs and their side effects.

2. Systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus):

People with lupus develop autoimmune antibodies that can
attach to tissues throughout the body. The joints, lungs, blood cells,
nerves, and kidneys are commonly affected in lupus. Treatment often
requires daily oral prednisone, a steroid that reduces immune system
function. Read an overview on lupus symptoms and treatments.
3. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD):
The immune system attacks the lining of the intestines, causing
episodes of diarrhea, rectal bleeding, urgent bowel movements,
abdominal pain, fever, and weight loss. Ulcerative colitis and Crohn's
disease are the two major forms of IBD. Oral and injected immune-
suppressing medicines can treat IBD. Learn about the differences
between ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease.
4. Multiple sclerosis (MS):
The immune system attacks nerve cells, causing symptoms that
can include pain, blindness, weakness, poor coordination, and muscle
spasms. Various medicines that suppress the immune system can be
used to treat multiple sclerosis. Read more on multiple sclerosis drugs
and their side effects.

5. Type 1 diabetes mellitus:

Immune system antibodies attack and destroy insulin-producing
cells in the pancreas. At diagnosis, people with type 1 diabetes require
insulin injections to survive. Learn about the symptoms to look for in
type 1 diabetes.
6. Guillain-Barre syndrome:
The immune system attacks the nerves controlling muscles in the
legs and sometimes the arms and upper body. Weakness results, which
can sometimes be severe. Filtering the blood with a procedure called
plasmapheresis is the main treatment for Guillain-Barre syndrome.
7. Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy:
Similar to Guillain-Barre, the immune system also attacks the
nerves in CIDP, but symptoms last much longer. About 30% of patients
can become confined to a wheelchair if not diagnosed and treated early.
Treatment for CIDP and GBS are essentially the same. Find out what the
treatment options are for CIDP.

8. Psoriasis:
In psoriasis, immune system blood cells called T-cells collect in
the skin. The immune system activity stimulates skin cells to reproduce
rapidly, producing silvery, scaly plaques on the skin. See a photo of what
psoriasis looks like.

9. Graves' disease:
The immune system produces antibodies that stimulate the
thyroid gland to release excess amounts of thyroid hormone into the
blood (hyperthyroidism). Symptoms of Graves' disease can include
bulging eyes as well as weight loss, nervousness, irritability, rapid heart
 rate, weakness, and brittle hair. Destruction or removal of the thyroid
gland, using medicines or surgery, is usually required to treat Graves'
disease. Learn more about treatments for Graves' disease.

10.Hashimoto's thyroiditis:
Antibodies produced by the immune system attack the thyroid
gland, slowly destroying the cells that produce thyroid hormone. Low
levels of thyroid hormone develop (hypothyroidism), usually over
months to years. Symptoms include fatigue, constipation, weight gain,
depression, dry skin, and sensitivity to cold. Taking a daily oral synthetic
thyroid hormone pill restores normal body functions. Find out more on
treatments for an underactive thyroid.

11. Myasthenia gravis:

Antibodies bind to nerves and make them unable to stimulate
muscles properly. Weakness that gets worse with activity is the main
symptom of myasthenia gravis. Mestinon (pyridostigmine) is the main
medicine used to treat myasthenia gravis. Read an overview on the
symptoms of myasthenia gravis.
12.Vasculitis:
The immune system attacks and damages blood vessels in this
group of autoimmune diseases. Vasculitis can affect any organ, so
symptoms vary widely and can occur almost anywhere in the body.
 Treatment includes reducing immune system activity, usually with
prednisone or another corticosteroid. Learn more about vasculitis
symptoms and treatments.

Antibody Structure
Antibody
Antibodies are immune system-related proteins called immunoglobulin.
Each antibody consists of four polypeptides– two heavy chains and two light
chains joined to form a "Y" shaped molecule.
The amino acid sequence in the tips of the "Y" varies greatly among
different antibodies. This variable region, composed of 110-130 amino acids,
give the antibody its specificity for binding antigen. The variable region
includes the ends of the light and heavy chains. Treating the antibody with a
protease can cleave this region, producing Fab or fragment antigen binding
that include the variable ends of an antibody. Material used for the studies
shown below originated from Fab.
 The constant region determines the mechanism used to destroy antigen.
Antibodies are divided into five major classes, IgM, IgG, Iga, IgD, and IgE, based
on their constant region structure and immune function.

The variable region is further subdivided into hypervariable (HV) and

framework (FR) regions. Hypervariable regions have a high ratio of different
amino acids in a given position, relative to the most common amino acid in
that position. Within light and heavy chains, three hypervariable regions exist –
HV 1, 2 and 3. Four FR regions which have more stable amino acids sequences
separate the HV regions.
 The HV regions directly contact a portion of the antigen's surface. For this
reason, HV regions are also sometimes referred to as complementarity
determining regions, or CDRs. The FR regions form a beta-sheet structure
which serves as a scaffold to hold the HV regions in position to contact antigen.
MAHARISHI PUBLIC
SCHOOL
ACADEMIC YEAR 2021-2022
12TH CBSE

BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

SUBMITTED BY
MAHEK ARUN LULLA
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the accomplishment of this project many people have

best owned me their blessings and heart pledged support. I
would like to thank all the people who have been concerned
with this project.

I would like to thank God, for being able to complete

this project with success. Then I would like to thank my
Principal and my Biology teacher for their valuable guidance.
Their suggestions and instructions have served as a major
contributor towards the completion of this project.

I would like to thank my parents who have supported

and helped me in the various phases of the completion of
this project. Lastly I would like to thank my classmate who
have helped me throughout the project.
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mahek Arun Lulla of class XII has

successfully completed the biology investigatory project
entitled.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
This report is the result of her endeavours and research. It is
analysed under our guidance and supervision in the academic
year 2020-2021.

Principal’s Signature School Stamp

External Teacher’s Internal Teacher’s

Signature Signature