Lesson 8: General Problem-Solving Tools STEP 1: Identify Possible Causes

• Aim: To generate a list of all the possible causes of a defined problem.

 Problem is “a deviation from normal expectations.” “a gap between desired and
actual situation”.  MAIN TOOLS: Brainstorming, Cause and effect Analysis

THE PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS - A methodical and effective approach for  OTHER TOOLS: Process Flowcharts
analysing problems and generating workable solutions to them.

When to use it - • A problem exists • Needs improvement. STEP 2: Investigate and Fix
Aim: To identify which possible causes actually contribute to the problem and fix
Why use it? Can identify quick fixes as well as permanent solutions to the ROOT
CAUSES. those that can be acted upon immediately.
 MAIN TOOLS: Checksheets, Concentration Diagrams, Pareto Analysis, Data
The Problem-Solving Process
Handling and Display.
em  OTHER TOOLS: Process Flowcharts, Interviews and Questionnaires.
2. Investigate & Fix
3. Analyse Data & Identify Root Causes STEP 3: Analyse Data and Identify Root Causes
4. Identify Possible Solutions • Aim: To identify the root causes of a problem.
mplementation stages if viable,  MAIN TOOLS: Pareto Analysis, Data Handling and Display.
Review/re-start if not viable.
 OTHER TOOLS: 5 Whys, Process Flowcharts

Define the
STEP 4: Identify Possible Solutions
problem
• Aim: To identify possible solutions which could be used to eliminate the identified
root cause(s).
Problem  MAIN TOOLS: Brainstorming
solving wheel
STEP 5: Select and Test Solutions
• Aim: To select an effective, practical and implementable solution that will remove the

Implementation root cause of a problem.

Stages  MAIN TOOLS: Ranking and Rating, Solutions Effect Analysis.

 OTHER TOOLS: Force Field Analysis.
DEFINE THE PROBLEM
WHAT? Backlogs of XYZ claims have increased
Implementation Stages – implementation of the solution generated at the previous
WHERE? In Special Claims Processing Unit
stage together with the establishment of indicators to monitor the effectiveness of the
WHEN? In the past 6 days
solution.
WHO? 5 staff in the SCPU
HOW BIG? Backlog has increased to 40 claims and is rising by 5 per day.
Education, Training and Communication
• Involve all those affected by the problem solution
• Listen to feedback Affinity Diagram - Allow individuals to Brainstorm onto Cards or Post-it Notes (one
• Consider education and training needs idea per card), stick all the ideas on a wall, then arrange them into groups of similar
ideas.
Implementation Planning The Magnificent 7 Tools
• Identify planned activities and critical path 1. Checksheets
• Identify measures and resource requirements • It is used to document data at a certain point over a period of time.
• Involve and train those affected by the solution • It is an easy data collection tool that can be applied in a variety of applications
Applications:
Implementation and Follow Up – To collect and analyze data at a fixed place, usually by the same person.
• Implement your solution – To record the probability and pattern of events, defects or similar issues.
• Measure improvement – To keep track of steps of an established procedure in a production process.
• Follow up – make sure it sticks 2. Histogram
• Report on success • Graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data
• Values are assigned “bins or intervals” and frequency of each bin is plotted.
BRAINSTORMING - is a technique that encourages creative thinking and the Applications:
generation of ideas. To represent numerical data.
When to use it To see the shape of the distribution of data.
• To generate a list of potential problems to solve To see the change in process for different periods of time.
• To identify possible causes of a problem To provide an easy and efficient way of sharing data.
• To identify possible solutions to a problem To check the frequency of occurrences between different ranges.
• To develop action plans 3. Cause and Effect Analysis/Fish- Bone Diagram (Ishikawa diagram or cause-
and-effect diagrams)
Rules for Brainstorming It is a cause analysis tool which is used to identify all possible causes leading to an
• Choose the right team and have a leader event or a problem. It is also useful for sorting all ideas into categories.
• Ensure everyone knows the rules • It usually classifies causes into 6 categories: Man. Materials, Machine, Methods,
• Define the problem/topic clearly Measurements.
• Allow time for individual thought before generating ideas as a group  Environment/Mother nature Applications:
• Ensure everyone participates • Detecting the possible causes of a problem.
• Generate as many ideas as possible • For collective brainstorming about resolving the problem with the team.
• Ban discussion and evaluation during the idea generation stage • For designing a new product.
• Record every idea, on a Flipchart • Troubleshooting for a business challenge
• Allow incubation time before evaluating the ideas 4. Pareto Charts
• Keep a relaxed atmosphere It is fundamentally a bar chart. The chart was named after the Pareto principle (80/20
rule). Used to observe the factors which carry the highest weight.
 Applications:
 When using the 80/20 rule to analyze the most important causes of a process or
event(s).
 When analyzing the frequency of recorded occurrences.
 To distinguish the biggest causes in a large set of defects or problems.
5. Control Charts
a statistical tool for monitoring the behaviour of the processes withrespect to time .
against the controls dictated by the process itself. RULE 2. Two out of three consecutive points fall beyond 2 σ on the same side of the
Introduced by Walter A. Shewhart. centerline.
Purpose: to monitor process output to see if it is random (in control) or not (out of
control).
 A time ordered plot representative sample statistic obtained from an ongoing
process (e.g.sample means).
 Upper and lower control limits define the range of acceptable variation
Applications:
 Used to determine if a manufacturing or business process is in a state of RULE 3. Four out of five consecutive points fall beyond 1 σ on the same side of the
statistical control centerline.
 Used to detect/identify assignable causes.
 One of the most commonly used methods of Statistical Process Control (SPC),
which monitors the stability of a process.

RULE 4. Nine or more consecutive points fall on the same side of the centerline.

Reading Control Charts

Control chart is out of statistical control if:
RULE 1. Any point falls beyond 3 σ from the centerline(this is represented by the
upper and lower control limits)
Control Charts • If the sample variability is not in statistical control, then the entire process is judged
to be not in statistical control regardless of what the X bar chart indicates.

Steps in Constructing the X Bar Chart

1.Find the mean of each subgroup and the grand mean of all subgroups.
Continuous Categorical or Discrete 2. Find the UCL and LCL
numerical Data Numerical Data 3. Plot the LCL, UCL, center line, and subgroup means
4. Interpret the data and determine if the process is in control.

Types of control charts

• Control charts for attributes - are used to monitor characteristics that have
discrete values and can be counted, e.g. defective, number of flaws in a shirt, number
of broken eggs in a box, etc.
• Control charts for variables - are used to monitor characteristics that can be
measured, e.g. length, weight, diameter, time, etc.
Are typically used used in pairs: monitors process average monitors
the variation in the process

Variables Control Charts

• Mean control charts
– Used to monitor the central tendency of a process.
– X-bar charts
• Range control charts
– Used to monitor the process dispersion
– R charts
Mean Chart (X-bar chart)
Guidelines in X Bar and R Chart: Example
• The R chart is examined first before the X bar chart A quality inspector took five samples, each with four observations of the length of time
• If the R chart indicates the sample variability is in statistical control, the X bar chart is for glue to dry. The analyst computed the mean of each sample and then computed
examined to determine if the sample mean is also in statistical control. the grand mean. All values are in minutes. Use this information to obtain three-sigma
(i.e., z = 3) control limits for the means of future time. It is known from previous
experience that the standard deviation of the process is 0.02 minute.

Solution:
n=4, Z=3, σ=0.02

Mean Chart
This approach is recommended when the process standard deviation is not known
A second approach to calculate the control limits:
This approach assumes that the range is in control

Where:
A2 = A factor from table
R = Average of sample ranges
Example Using Mean and Range Charts
Twenty samples of n = 8 have been taken from a cleaning operations. The average • Mean control charts and range control charts provide different perspectives on a
sample range for the 20 samples was 0.016 minute, and the average mean was 3 process.
minutes. Determine three-sigma control limits for this process. • The mean charts are sensitive to shifts in process mean, whereas range charts
Solution: are sensitive to changes in process dispersion.
X= 3 min, R=0.016, A2= 0.37 for n= 8 • both types of charts might be used to monitor the same process.

Control Chart for Attributes

• used when the process characteristic is counted rather than measured.
Two types are available:
• P-Chart - Control chart used to monitor the proportion of defectives in a process
Range Control Chart (R-chart) • C-Chart - Control chart used to monitor the number of defects per unit
• The R-charts are used to monitor process dispersion; they are sensitive to changes • Attributes generate data that are counted.
in process dispersion. Although the underlying sampling distribution of the range is
not normal, the concept for use of range charts are much the same as those for use Use of p-Charts
of mean chart. • When observations can be placed into two categories.
 Control Limits: – Good or bad
– Pass or fail
– Operate or don’t operate
• When the data consists of multiple samples of several observations each
R-chart • The theoretical basis for the P-chart is the binomial distribution, although for large
• Example sample sizes, the normal distribution provides a good approximation to it.
Twenty-five samples of n = 10 observations have been taken from a milling process. • A P-chart is constructed and used in much the same way as a mean chart.
The average sample range was 0.01 centimeter. Determine upper and lower control • The center line on a P-chart is the average fraction defective in the population, P.
limits for sample ranges. • The standard deviation of the sampling distribution when P is known is:
• Solution
R = 0.01 cm, n = 10

The Control limits

If p is unknown, it can be estimated from the samples. That estimates p, replaces p in
the preceding formulas, and σp replaces σp.
P-Chart Example
• An inspector counted the number of defective monthly billing statements of a
company telephone in each of 20 samples. Using the following information, construct
a control chart that will describe 99.74 percent of the chance variation in the process
when the process is in control. Each sample counted 100 statements.

Use of c-Charts
Use only when the number of occurrences per unit of measure can be counted; non-
occurrences cannot be counted.
– Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item
– Cracks or faults per unit of distance
– Breaks or Tears per unit of area
– Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume
– Calls, complaints, failures per unit of time
• When the goal is to control the number of occurrences (e.g., defects) per unit, a C-
chart is used.
• Units might be automobiles, hotel rooms, typed papers, or rolls of carpet.
• The underlying sampling distribution is the Poisson distribution.
• Use of Poisson distribution assumes that defects occur over some continuous
region and that the probability of more than one defect at any particular point is
Control limits are negligible.
• The mean number of defects per unit is c and the standard deviation is:

Control Limits:
C- Chart Example  When multiple points can be plotted for a dependent variable.

Correlation describes the type of relationship between two data sets.

The line of best fit is the line that comes closest to all the points on a scatter plot.

Average number of defects per coil = c = 45/18 =2.5

Positive correlation: both data sets increase together.
No correlation
Negative correlation: as one data set increases, the other decreases.

7. Flow Charts
When the computed lower control limit is negative, the effective lower limit is zero. Process Flowcharts are used to show the steps in a process. These include the inputs
The calculation sometimes produces a negative lower limit due to the use of normal and outputs as well as the intermediate steps and decision points.
distribution as an approximation to the Poisson distribution. INPUTPROCESSOUTPUT

6. Scatter Diagram - It is commonly recognized as the most powerful analysis tool.  A process is a series of activities that converts an input to an output, by doing
 It is a plot to show the relationship between “paired data”. The data is plotted work.
in the form of points with the horizontal and vertical axis determining the  Process
value.  Flowcharts create a common understanding of the steps involved in carrying out
Applications: any process.
 To find the correlation between two variables. Applications:
 To find relationships between two seemingly unrelated variables objectively. • Organize a team for the purpose of examining the process
 To find the root cause of a problem or an event. • Construct a flow chart to represent each process step
 After using an Ishikawa diagram to better analyze data and determining • Discuss and analyze each step in detail
whether a particular cause and effect are related. • Ask the key question, “Why do we do it this way?”
• Compare the actual process to an imagined “perfect” process Process Capability
• Is there unnecessary complexity? • Represents the performance of a process in a state of statistical control. It is
• Does duplication or redundancy exist? determined by the total variability that exists because of all common causes present
• Are there control points to prevent errors or rejects? Should there be? in the system
• Is this process being run the way it should? • A common measure of process capability is given by 6σ, which is also called the
• Improvement ideas may come from substantially different processes process spread.

Lesson 9: Tools for Measuring Quality: Process Capability Index Process Capability Analysis
• Estimates process capability
SPECIFICATION LIMITS AND CONTROL LIMITS • Involves estimating the process mean and standard deviation of the quality
Specifications limits and tolerance limits are often used interchangeably and are characteristic.
defined as the acceptable bounds on quality characteristics. • Additionally, the form of the relative frequency distribution of the characteristic of
Tolerance limits - generally preferred in evaluating manufacturing or service interest is estimated. If specification limits are known, a process capability analysis
requirements will also estimate the proportion of nonconforming product.
Specification Limits - more appropriate for categorizing materials, products, or
services in terms of their stated requirements. Specification limits are determined by Benefits of Process Capability Analysis
the needs of the customer 1. Uniformity of output
Tolerance Limit - Can be two-sided (with upper and lower limits) or one-sided with 2. Maintained or improved quality
either upper or lower limits 3. Product and process design facilitated
A lower tolerance limit defines the lower conformance boundary for an individual 4. Assistance in vendor selection and control
unit of manufacturing or service operation; an upper tolerance limit defines the upper 5. Reduction in total cost
conformance boundary.
NATURAL TOLERANCE LIMITS
Specification limits are determined by the needs of the customer. It’s placed on a • also known as process capability limits, are established or influenced by the process
product characteristic by designers and engineers to ensure adequate functioning of itself.
the product. • They represent the inherent variation in the quality characteristic of the individual
items produced by a process in control.
PROCESS CAPABILITY ANALYSIS • They are estimated based on the population of values or, more typically, from large
• The determination of process capability begins only after the process has been representative samples.
brought to a state of statistical control.
• A process is said to be in statistical control when the only sources of variation in the
system are common causes
Example
The diameter of a part has to fit an assembly. The specifications for the diameter are
5 ± 0.015 cm. The samples taken from the process in control yield a sample mean X
of 4.99 cm and a sample standard deviation * of 0.004 cm. Find the natural tolerance
limits of the process. Would you consider adjusting the process center?
Solution: The upper and lower natural tolerance limits based on the sample estimates
are found using eq
• UNTL = 4.99 + (3) (0.004) = 5.002
• LNTL = 4.99 - (3)(0.004) = 4.978
• Assuming a normal distribution of diameters, the process spread is (6)(0.004) =
0.024 cm, which is the difference between the natural tolerance limits
• For the current process, we would expect the diameters to lie between 5.002 and
4.978 cm
• The difference between the specification limits is 0.03 cm.
If the process were left in its original state, some proportion of the parts would
fall below the lower specification limit of 4.985 cm. SPECIFICATIONS AND PROCESS CAPABILITY
• Technically, there might not be any mathematical relationship between the process
capability limits (or the natural tolerance limits) and the specification limits. The former
are determined by the condition of the process and its inherent variability; the latter
are influenced by the needs of the customer.

Thus, it would be desirable to adjust the process center to the target value of 5 cm. If
this is done, since the process spread is 0.024 cm and the difference between the
specification limits is 0.03 cm, virtually all parts would fall between the specification
limits, and we would have a capable process.