Fourth Edition

CHAPTER MECHANICS OF

1 MATERIALS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf

Lecture Notes:
Introduction –
Concept of Stress
J. Walt Oler
Texas Tech University

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Contents

Concept of Stress Bearing Stress in Connections

Review of Statics Stress Analysis & Design Example
Structure Free-Body Diagram Rod & Boom Normal Stresses
Component Free-Body Diagram Pin Shearing Stresses
Method of Joints Pin Bearing Stresses
Stress Analysis Stress in Two Force Members
Design Stress on an Oblique Plane
Axial Loading: Normal Stress Maximum Stresses
Centric & Eccentric Loading Stress Under General Loadings
Shearing Stress State of Stress
Shearing Stress Examples Factor of Safety

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Concept of Stress

• The main objective of the study of the mechanics

of materials is to provide the future engineer with
the means of analyzing and designing various
machines and load bearing structures.

• Both the analysis and design of a given structure

involve the determination of stresses and
deformations. This chapter is devoted to the
concept of stress.

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Review of Statics

• The structure is designed to

support a 30 kN load
• The structure consists of a
boom and rod joined by pins
(zero moment connections) at
the junctions and supports
• Perform a static analysis to
determine the internal force in
each structural member and the
reaction forces at the supports

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Structure Free-Body Diagram

• Structure is detached from supports and
the loads and reaction forces are indicated
• Conditions for static equilibrium:
 M C = 0 = Ax (0.6 m ) − (30 kN )(0.8 m )
Ax = 40 kN
 Fx = 0 =Ax + C x
C x = − Ax = −40 kN
 Fy = 0 = Ay + C y − 30 kN = 0
Ay + C y = 30 kN

• Ay and Cy can not be determined from

these equations

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Component Free-Body Diagram

• In addition to the complete structure, each
component must satisfy the conditions for
static equilibrium
• Consider a free-body diagram for the boom:
 M B = 0 = − Ay (0.8 m )
Ay = 0
substitute into the structure equilibrium
equation
C y = 30 kN

• Results:
A = 40 kN → Cx = 40 kN  C y = 30 kN 

Reaction forces are directed along boom

and rod

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Method of Joints
• The boom and rod are 2-force members, i.e.,
the members are subjected to only two forces
which are applied at member ends

• For equilibrium, the forces must be parallel to

to an axis between the force application points,
equal in magnitude, and in opposite directions

• Joints must satisfy the conditions for static

equilibrium which may be expressed in the
form of a force triangle:

 B =0
F
FAB FBC 30 kN
= =
4 5 3
FAB = 40 kN FBC = 50 kN

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Stress Analysis
Can the structure safely support the 30 kN
load?
• From a statics analysis
FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)

• At any section through member BC, the

internal force is 50 kN with a force intensity
or stress of
dBC = 20 mm P 50 103 N
 BC = = = 159 MPa
A 314 10-6 m 2

• From the material properties for steel, the

allowable stress is
 all = 165 MPa
• Conclusion: the strength of member BC is
adequate

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Design
• Design of new structures requires selection of
appropriate materials and component dimensions
to meet performance requirements
• For reasons based on cost, weight, availability,
etc., the choice is made to construct the rod from
aluminum (all= 100 MPa). What is an
appropriate choice for the rod diameter?
P P 50 103 N
 all = A= = = 500 10− 6 m 2
A  all 100 106 Pa
d2
A=
4

d=
4A
=
(
4 500 10− 6 m 2 ) = 2.52 10−2 m = 25.2 mm
 

• An aluminum rod 26 mm or more in diameter is

adequate
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Axial Loading: Normal Stress

• The resultant of the internal forces for an axially
loaded member is normal to a section cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• The force intensity on that section is defined as

the normal stress.
F P
 = lim  ave =
A→0 A A

• The normal stress at a particular point may not be

equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy
P =  ave A =  dF =   dA
A

• The detailed distribution of stress is statically

indeterminate, i.e., can not be found from statics
alone.

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Centric & Eccentric Loading

• A uniform distribution of stress in a section
infers that the line of action for the resultant of
the internal forces passes through the centroid
of the section.

• A uniform distribution of stress is only

possible if the concentrated loads on the end
sections of two-force members are applied at
the section centroids. This is referred to as
centric loading.

• If a two-force member is eccentrically loaded,

then the resultant of the stress distribution in a
section must yield an axial force and a
moment.

• The stress distributions in eccentrically loaded

members cannot be uniform or symmetric.
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Shearing Stress
• Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to the
member AB.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the plane
of section C and are called shearing forces.
• The resultant of the internal shear force
distribution is defined as the shear of the section
and is equal to the load P.
• The corresponding average shear stress is,
P
 ave =
A
• Shear stress distribution varies from zero at the
member surfaces to maximum values that may be
much larger than the average value.
• The shear stress distribution cannot be assumed to
be uniform.
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Shearing Stress Examples

Single Shear Double Shear

P F P F
 ave = =  ave = =
A A A 2A

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Bearing Stress in Connections

• Bolts, rivets, and pins create

stresses on the points of contact
or bearing surfaces of the
members they connect.

• The resultant of the force

distribution on the surface is
equal and opposite to the force
exerted on the pin.

• Corresponding average force

intensity is called the bearing
stress,
P P
b = =
A td

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Stress Analysis & Design Example

• Would like to determine the

stresses in the members and
connections of the structure
shown.

• From a statics analysis:

FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)

• Must consider maximum

normal stresses in AB and
BC, and the shearing stress
and bearing stress at each
pinned connection

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Rod & Boom Normal Stresses

• The rod is in tension with an axial force of 50 kN.

• At the rod center, the average normal stress in the

circular cross-section (A = 314x10-6m2) is BC = +159
MPa.

• At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-sectional

area occurs at the pin centerline,
A = (20 mm )(40 mm − 25 mm ) = 300 10− 6 m 2

P 50 103 N
 BC ,end = = = 167 MPa
A 300 10− 6 m 2

• The boom is in compression with an axial force of 40

kN and average normal stress of –26.7 MPa.

• The minimum area sections at the boom ends are

unstressed since the boom is in compression.

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Pin Shearing Stresses

• The cross-sectional area for pins at A, B,
and C,
2
 25 mm  −6 2
A =r = 
2
 = 49110 m
 2 

• The force on the pin at C is equal to the

force exerted by the rod BC,
P 50 103 N
 C , ave = = − 6 2
= 102 MPa
A 49110 m

• The pin at A is in double shear with a

total force equal to the force exerted by
the boom AB,
P 20 kN
 A, ave = = = 40.7 MPa
A 49110−6 m 2

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Pin Shearing Stresses

• Divide the pin at B into sections to determine
the section with the largest shear force,
PE = 15 kN
FBC = 50 kN PG = 25 kN (largest)

• Evaluate the corresponding average

shearing stress,
PG 25 kN
 B, ave = = = 50.9 MPa
A 49110− 6 m 2

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Pin Bearing Stresses

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the boom AB,

we have t = 30 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b = = = 53.3 MPa
td (30 mm )(25 mm )

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the bracket,

we have t = 2(25 mm) = 50 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b = = = 32.0 MPa
td (50 mm )(25 mm )

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Stress in Two Force Members

• Axial forces on a two force

member result in only normal
stresses on a plane cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• Transverse forces on bolts and

pins result in only shear stresses
on the plane perpendicular to bolt
or pin axis.

• Will show that either axial or

transverse forces may produce both
normal and shear stresses with respect
to a plane other than one cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

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Stress on an Oblique Plane

• Pass a section through the member forming
an angle q with the normal plane.

• From equilibrium conditions, the

distributed forces (stresses) on the plane
must be equivalent to the force P.

• Resolve P into components normal and

tangential to the oblique section,
F = P cos q V = P sin q

• The average normal and shear stresses on

the oblique plane are
F P cos q P
= = = cos 2 q
Aq A0 A0
cos q
V P sin q P
= = = sin q cos q
Aq A0 A0
cos q
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Maximum Stresses
• Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique
plane
P P
= cos 2 q = sin q cos q
A0 A0

• The maximum normal stress occurs when the

reference plane is perpendicular to the member
axis,
P
m =  = 0
A0

• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at

+ 45o with respect to the axis,
P P
m = sin 45 cos 45 = =
A0 2 A0

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Stress Under General Loadings

• A member subjected to a general
combination of loads is cut into
two segments by a plane passing
through Q

• The distribution of internal stress

components may be defined as,
F x
 x = lim
A→0 A

V yx Vzx
 xy = lim  xz = lim
A→0 A A→0 A

• For equilibrium, an equal and

opposite internal force and stress
distribution must be exerted on
the other segment of the member.

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State of Stress
• Stress components are defined for the planes
cut parallel to the x, y and z axes. For
equilibrium, equal and opposite stresses are
exerted on the hidden planes.
• The combination of forces generated by the
stresses must satisfy the conditions for
equilibrium:
 Fx =  Fy =  Fz = 0
Mx = My = Mz = 0
• Consider the moments about the z axis:
 M z = 0 = ( xy A)a − ( yx A)a
 xy =  yx
similarly,  yz =  zy and  yz =  zy

• It follows that only 6 components of stress are

required to define the complete state of stress
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Factor of Safety

Structural members or machines Factor of safety considerations:

must be designed such that the • uncertainty in material properties
working stresses are less than the • uncertainty of loadings
ultimate strength of the material. • uncertainty of analyses
• number of loading cycles
FS = Factor of safety
• types of failure
u ultimate stress
FS = = • maintenance requirements and
 all allowable stress
deterioration effects
• importance of member to integrity of
whole structure
• risk to life and property
• influence on machine function

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