Research Report in Physics

The study of Three-form Black Hole Thermodynamics in

Ruppeiner geometry

Proposed by
Mr. Chattong Yubonpan
Student ID No. : 633020014-6

Advisor
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Daris Samart

This report is a part of research project in DPST

Department of Physics, Faculty of Science
Khon Kaen University
2022
 CONTENTS

Introduction 1

1 Introduction 7

2 Theoretical Framework 8
2.1 Vector and Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.1 Vector components and Basis vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.2 Vector components transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.3 Coordinate-system transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.4 The product of component transformation and basis transformation . 14
2.1.5 Non-Orthogonal coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.6 Dual basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.7 Index notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Essential Physical and Mathematic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.1 Covector and One-forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.2 The Basics of Exterior Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.3 Differential Geometry for General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3 Thermodynamic properties of the Black Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4 The three-forms field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3 Static and Spherically symmetric Black Hole with three-forms field 46

3.1 Einstein gravity action with a three-forms field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.1.1 Equation of motion for three-forms field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1.2 Investigating Einstein field equation with effects form three-forms field 48

2
CONTENTS 3

3.1.3 The solution in spherically symmetric and static background . . . . . 49

3.2 Ruppeiner Geometry consideration on Black hole with effect from three-form
fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3 Summary and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
 LISTOFFIGURES

2.1 Rotation of 2-Dimension coordinate and Changing of their vector compo-

nents due to the rotation From : P.99 Daniel F., Coordinate-systems
transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Dependence of A′x on Ax and Ay From : P.100 Daniel F.,Coordinate-
system transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Rotation of vector From : P.106 Daniel F., Coordinate-systems trans-
formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Projection of vector in orthogonal coordinates From : P.9 Daniel F. ,
Projection of the vector in 2-D Cartesian coordinate . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Projection of vector giving by parallel light From : P.111 Daniel F. ,
Projection using light sources parallel to x- and y-axes . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 Projection of vector giving by perpendicular light From : P.111 Daniel F.
, Projection using light sources perpendicular to x- and y-axes . . . 16
2.7 Comparing combination of different vector-projection rules From : P.112
Daniel F. , Vector addition of components formed by parallel and
perpendicular projection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.8 Direction of dual basis From : P.115 Daniel F. , Perpendicular-projection
and dual basis direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.9 Geometry visualized as stacks of lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.10 Geometry visualized as stacks of lines and the covector α direction . . . . . . 26
2.11 Vector field ⃗u = ⃗ex and ⃗v = x⃗ey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.12 Determination torsion tensor on giving coordinate and vector field ⃗u and ⃗v . 41

4
LISTOFFIGURES 5

3.1 The diagram of rescale temperature Tr and thermodynamics curvature scalar

Rr in condition that constancy pressure and parametize respect to S(rh ) . . 56
3.2 The diagram of the temperature with respect to horizon radius of a black hole 57
3.3 The diagram of rescale temperature Tr and thermodynamics curvature scalar
Rr in condition that parametrize pressure P and entropy S(rh ) . . . . . . . 57
LISTOFFIGURES 6

The study of Three-form Black Hole Thermodynamics in Ruppeiner geometry

Chattong Yubonpan
Address : Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Khon Kean University
Email : chattong@kkumail.com

Advisor : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Daris Samart

Abstract

In this project we study the thermodynamics properties of the black hole with the
presence of three-form field. The thermodynamics variable of the three form black hole are
calculated in terms of geometrical quantities with the Ruppeiner approach. The microscopic
structure and the interaction of the black hole thermodynamics are revealed by the Ruppeiner
curvature tensor. As the results, the thermal interactions of the black hole depend on range of
the Three-form field parameters. In contrast to the conventional thermodynamics approach,
the Ruppeiner geometrical theory of thermodynamics can be used to study microscopic
properties of the black hole thermodynamics. In addition, more interesting features of the
black hole thermodynamics will be investigate in future work.
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In undergraduate physics we have learned the essential knowledge to describe the

nature in daily life for instance, we may illustrate a moving object by using Newtonian
mechanics or others different types of mathematics models to describe possibility of nature.
We have learned about how to measure the physical quantities based on vector measurement
and contact them with mathematics operate to form the physical meaning. In order to step
up to understanding the nature of the thing that difficult to measurement and realization in
physics such as time and space. We need more efficient mathematics tools to comprehension
the physical meaning and measurement of what we are face with, which is tensor and tensor
calculus. After we have a perception with the tools we are using there are the time to visualize
the interact between space and time. There are time for general relativity to elucidate this
problem by contact physical quantity to space-time geometry.
In this report we involve the basics to understanding the visualize of vector in
different coordinate, coordinate transformation. We define the tensor in many different
sources and conclude the tensor operation and transformation, covariant and contravariant
transformation. Curvature is also an essential idea to realize the curved of space which
affected by mass. In conclusion we will involved the basics of general relativity in terms of
energy momentum tensor and Einstein equation. Until, using the knowledge we achieve to
calculate and applied on 3-rank tensor or three-form field which applied in black holes and
its thermodynamics properties.

7
CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Vector and Components

2.1.1 Vector components and Basis vector

In general we define the vector is an entity that has the quantity and direction, sometimes
represent in form of arrow that has direction and length and maybe represented in term of
vector space. we call the quantity which shown from the vectors are vector components.
For the direction we called basis vectors.

⃗ = A0⃗e0 + A1⃗e1 + A2⃗e2 + ...

A
X
n
= Ai⃗ei (2.1.1)
i=0

From these relation we notice that

⃗
• Ai are the vector components of vector A.

⃗
• ⃗ei are the basis vectors of vector A.

2.1.2 Vector components transformation

For understanding the tensor. We have to prove that the identity which is defined in any
observe will be unchanging under the different measurement for any observer. For instance,
the length 1 meter can be measured in different unit but in the conclusion there are no
change of itself meaning. In the same way of vectors, vectors itself are not change under the

8
2.1. VECTOR AND COMPONENTS 9

coordinate transformation we call this properties of any entity as invariant.

In this section we will show the transformation coordinate as the rotation of coordinate.
After that we will cover the fact that vectors are invariant from the transformation of vector
components and basis vectors.

2.1.3 Coordinate-system transformation

From the statement that vector or tensor are unchanged for the changing of coordinate
system (The ways which the observer measure or understand the physical quantity). So if
coordinate-system transformation for instance, rotation, translation, and scaling there will
leave the physical quantities unchanged. Then there will be question that ”What exactly is
happen to the vector when there have coordinate-system transformation?”.

Transformation of Rotated coordinate

Considering the 2-dimension Cartesian coordinate (x, y) have been tilted counter-clockwise
by an angle θ with unchanging of an origin point. The rotated axes are labeled (x′ , y ′ ) are
draw by using dashed line to distinguish them from their original axes as shown in Figure
2.1. From previous figure you will notice that vector itself are unchanged under coordinate-

Figure 2.1: Rotation of 2-Dimension coordinate and Changing of their vector components
due to the rotation From : P.99 Daniel F., Coordinate-systems transformation

system transformation (In this case is rotation). However the way to represent the vector
are change due to the transformation we used the effect that appear here is the changing of
⃗ and its components. The rotation has clearly
its vector components. Take a look at vector A
⃗ to change : A′x (the x′ -component of A
caused the components of A ⃗ in the tilted coordinate
2.1. VECTOR AND COMPONENTS 10

⃗ in the original coordinate (non-rotated))

system) is longer than Ax (the x-component of A
and A′y (the y ′ -component of A
⃗ in the tilted coordinate system) is shorter than Ay (the
⃗ in their original coordinate system).
y-component of A
After you have an image in your mind of vector in their coordinate system transformation.
We will give the expression in their relationship between original (non-rotated) and rotated
coordinate axes.

Figure 2.2: Dependence of A′x on Ax and Ay From : P.100 Daniel F.,Coordinate-system

transformation

As you can see in both figure. A′x can be considered to be made up of two segments, labeled
as l1 and l2

A′x = l1 + l2 (2.1.2)
2.1. VECTOR AND COMPONENTS 11

After that, We also can write l1 and l2 in their original vector components coordinate as
following.

l1 = Ax cos(α11 )

l2 = Ay cos(α12 ) (2.1.3)

Adding the expression for l1 and l2 , We can write A′x as

A′x = Ax cos(α11 ) + Ay cos(α12 ) (2.1.4)

In the similar way to A′y when we give α21 is the angle between the y ′ -axis and the x′ -axis,
and α22 is the angle between the y ′ -axis and the y-axis. gives

A′y = Ax cos(α21 ) + Ay cos(α22 ) (2.1.5)

The relation between the rotated coordinate and non-rotated coordinate can write in term
of matrix representation (or matrix notation) as
    
A′x cos(α11 ) cos(α12 ) Ax
 =  
′
Ay cos(α21 ) cos(α22 ) Ay

⃗ and a two-column
This is called a ”Transformation equation” for the vector components of A
⃗ The elements inside the ma-
matrix is called a ”transformation matrix” for component of A.
trix are ”directional cosine”.
(Note : In others chapter the reader will find that the vector are contain of vector com-
ponent and basis vector that transformed inversely. The vector components are known as
contravariant component which transformed by obey the opposite way with the rule of basis
vector changed. That makes in some textbook we will cover the vector component transfor-
mation in name of ”Inverse” or ”Backward” transformation.)
In rigid rotation of the Cartesian coordinate will give α11 = α22 are both equal to θ while
α12 = 90◦ − θ and α21 = 90◦ + θ. The transformation matrix will become.
   
cos(θ) cos(90◦ − θ) cos(θ) sin(θ)
 = 
◦
cos(90 + θ) cos(θ) − sin(θ) cos(θ)

Basis-vector transformation

From previous section we illustrated the transformation of components of the vec-

tors when they have been rotated which the result give us that the components of the vector
2.1. VECTOR AND COMPONENTS 12

which refer to new (rotated) coordinate are different from original (non-rotated) coordinate.
More abstract, The components of vectors are weighted linear combination of the original
vector components.
But from the fact that vector are invariant under the coordinate transformation. We know
that when coordinate are transformed there are not change only their components but also
their basis vectors too. You will notice from previous section that the vector components
transformation the element of new component are measured or measured by scale of original
basis vector.
There are important for the studying along from vector to tensor : The different and mean-
ing of ”covariant” and ”contravariant” vector components. Because in this section we will
discuss in some area of covariant and contravariant transformation. We will give a simple
idea of the covariant and contravariant that is ”co = with” and ”contra = against” means
the covariant transformation for vector components will obey the same operation of basis
vector transformation. On the other hand for contravariant transformation will obey in the
inverse method of basis vector transformation.
⃗ in Figure 2.3 (a). The rotation
To understand the rotation of vector, consider vector A
⃗ to point in new direction, which means their
shown in Figure 2.3 (b) cause the vector A
⃗ ′ after the rotation). The relation
are no longer the same vector (which is why we labeled A
between rotated vector and non-rotated vector can be represented though geometry con-
struction that shown in Figure 2.4. In this example the angle of rotation angle is α. The x-

Figure 2.3: Rotation of vector From : P.106 Daniel F., Coordinate-systems trans-
formation
2.1. VECTOR AND COMPONENTS 13

⃗ and A
and y- components of vector A ⃗ ′ are

Ax = |A|
⃗ cos θ (2.1.6)

Ay = |A|
⃗ sin θ (2.1.7)
⃗ ′ | sin θ′
A′x = |A (2.1.8)

A′y = |A
⃗ ′ | sin θ′ (2.1.9)

But from Figure 5.4, θ′ = α + θ so the components will change to

A′x = |A
⃗ ′ | sin θ′

= |A
⃗ ′ | sin(α + θ)

= |A
⃗ ′ | (cos α cos θ − sin α sin θ) (2.1.10)

A′y = |A
⃗ ′ | cos θ′

= |A
⃗ ′ | cos(α + θ)

= |A
⃗ ′ | (sin α cos θ + cos α sin θ) (2.1.11)

Since the rotation of vectors cause no changing of vector length therefore |A|
⃗ = |A
⃗ ′ |, which

means that

A′x = |A
⃗ ′ | (cos α cos θ − sin α sin θ)

= |A|
⃗ (cos α cos θ − sin α sin θ)

= |A|
⃗ cos(α) cos(θ) − |A|
⃗ sin(α) sin(θ) (2.1.12)

A′y = |A
⃗ ′ | (sin α cos θ + cos α sin θ)

= |A|
⃗ (sin α cos θ + cos α sin θ)

= |A|
⃗ sin(α) cos(θ) + |A|
⃗ cos(α) sin(θ) (2.1.13)

We notice that Ax = |A|

⃗ cos(θ) and Ay = |A|
⃗ sin(θ). From this fact we can rewrite the

previous relation to be

A′x = Ax cos(α) − Ay sin(α) (2.1.14)

A′y = Ax sin(α) + Ay cos(α) (2.1.15)

Or, We can write them in term of matrix notation,

    
A′x cos(α) − sin(α) Ax
 =  
′
Ay sin(α) cos(α) Ay
2.1. VECTOR AND COMPONENTS 14

We can use these matrix equation to applied on basis vector rotation in Cartesian
coordinate. We called these matrix equation ”Direct transformation equation” and the
matrix in right-side of the equation as ”Direct transformation matrix” or in some textbook
may be you can see the following relation known as ”Forward Transformation”
Note : These relation are used to transform the basis vector from non-rotated basis (Old
basis) to rotated basis (New basis).

2.1.4 The product of component transformation and basis trans-

formation

From the axiom that we give to the vector that they are not changed under the coordinate
transformation or any transformation, You can visualize these fact by the two observers are
measure the velocity of moving object in the same frame the ways which the observers used
to measured are not effect to how fast the object moved once of them may be measure by
unit of km/hr others can maybe use mile/hr there are no different of the physical meaning.
When we consider the matrices from previous section

• Direct Transformation matrix : Using for vector components (Old to New basis)
transformation.  
cos(α) − sin(α)
 
sin(α) cos(α)

• Inverse Transformation matrix : Using for basis vectors (Old to New basis) trans-
formation.  
cos(θ) sin(θ)
 
− sin(θ) cos(θ)

Multiplying these two matrices the result will show in term of identity matrix that
means Inverse transformation matrix is the inverse of the Direct transformation. The fact
that in this case the transpose of the transformation matrix is equal to its inverse means
that this transformation matrix is ”orthogonal”.
You should remember that rotation of Cartesian coordinate axes is only one of amount
of coordinate transformation. There are essential to realize that when you defined new
coordinate and basis vector they may write in term of linear combination of the original
basis (We use the word ’may’ because in some cases the transformed coordinate cannot
write in term of linear combination of the original coordinate systems) ,which from this fact
2.1. VECTOR AND COMPONENTS 15

you can write the relation between them in term of matrix notation which each elements in
matrix describe how coordinate components are transform.

2.1.5 Non-Orthogonal coordinate systems

In general coordinate systems we learned for instance Cartesian, Cylindrical and Spherical
coordinate system. When we look at basis vector components each of them are perpendicular
to each others. In other word, There are no confuse in projection, the ways we determine
vector components in any basis or vector, of the vector onto a coordinate axes. In 2 dimen-
sional Cartesian coordinate system the way to consider the projection of vector onto their
basis we will use the light to help us to visualize how the projection of the vector are.

Figure 2.4: Projection of vector in orthogonal coordinates From : P.9 Daniel F. , Pro-
jection of the vector in 2-D Cartesian coordinate

In two-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, the direction of the light are specified in one
of two ways ; parallel to one of the axes, which is anti-parallel because the light are shined
⃗ onto x-axis by
toward the origin. In Figure 2.4 we will describe the projection of vector A
shine the light parallel with y-axis or perpendicular to x-axis.
There will be more complicated when we consider these idea with non-orthogonal co-
ordinates system from fact that their coordinate axes are not perpendicular to one another.
In non-orthogonal coordinate systems we can consider projection of the vector not only one
way but two ways which is ’parallel projection’ and ’perpendicular projection’ By comparing
2.1. VECTOR AND COMPONENTS 16

the shadow which cast onto coordinate axis, the projection of the vector, in Figure 2.5 and
Figure 2.6 we found that there are two way to define the projection of vector by the ways of
how we shine the light onto the coordinate axes which is in Figure 2.5 we shined the light
⃗ onto the x-axis. On the other hand
parallel to y-axis to determine the projection of vector A
⃗ onto the y-axis.
shine the light parallel to x-axis to consider the projection of vector A

Figure 2.5: Projection of vector giving by parallel light From : P.111 Daniel F. , Pro-
jection using light sources parallel to x- and y-axes

And in Figure 2.5 we will show the perpendicular projection which giving by using light
sources to shine perpendicular onto axes to consider the projection of the vector, We shine
⃗ on x-axis in opposite
the light perpendicular to x-axis to consider the projection of vector A
way we shine the light perpendicular to y-axis to consider the projection on y-axis.

Figure 2.6: Projection of vector giving by perpendicular light From : P.111 Daniel F. ,
Projection using light sources perpendicular to x- and y-axes

In each cases we have defined the same vector in form of combination of the projection
but the ways we use to find projection giving the different length of projection and rule to
produce the result vector.
2.1. VECTOR AND COMPONENTS 17

This may confused you that ”Then, How we can define or consider the vector in non-
orthogonal coordinate systems?” when we confronted with these two differing projections.
Does it matter we have a different tools to measured the same thing?
One way to solve this problem is Vector Addition. With the axiom that we can pro-
duce the resultant vector by combination of branch vectors in this case there are projection
of the vectors that lied in the coordinate axes. As you can seen in Figure 2.7 that process
work perfectly under if we use the parallel-projection but there are fails to giving the same
vector in perpendicular-projection (which we use in orthogonal coordinate systems) when
you attempt to use the perpendicular-projection components to produce the original vector.

Figure 2.7: Comparing combination of different vector-projection rules From : P.112

Daniel F. , Vector addition of components formed by parallel and perpendicular
projection.

In next section will discuss in the another way to appreciate the significance of the
different between parallel and perpendicular projection is to consider how the components
formed by these two types of projection transform between coordinate systems. We will learn
that the components formed by perpendicular projection are using a direct transformation
matrix. On the other hand, the components formed by parallel projection are using inverse
transformation matrix. From this behavior has cause the ”perpendicular projection” called
”covariant” components (co = with , from fact that we using direct transformation matrix
means that this components are transformed in the same way with coordinate changing) and
”parallel projection” called ”contravariant” components (contra = against , from fact that
we using inverse transformation matrix means that this components are transformed in the
2.1. VECTOR AND COMPONENTS 18

opposite way with coordinate changing)

Note : In the orthogonal coordinate system, There are no distinction between perpendicular
and parallel projection. The direction parallel to one of the coordinate axes is exactly the
same as the direction perpendicular to other axes.

2.1.6 Dual basis

In previous section. We have shown that in non-orthogonal coordinate systems geometric

consideration for the perpendicular projection of a vector onto the coordinate axes are not
formed the components as the way parallel projection do, the perpendicular projection are
not combine and give back original vector. Consider the vector addition of the parallel
projection onto the coordinate axes which have the basis vector ⃗e1 and ⃗e2 . We give the
parallel projection which cast onto x-coordinate as Ax which posit along the basis vector ⃗e1
and parallel projection which cast onto y-coordinate as Ay which posit along the basis vector
⃗e2 . From vector addition we get that combination of parallel projection with their basis are
⃗
vector A

⃗ = Ax⃗e1 + Ay⃗e2
A (2.1.16)

This same approach are not working with the perpendicular projection (or covariant
components) in the non-orthogonal coordinate systems. It shown that those two components
⃗ Therefore it
multiplied by their basis vector ⃗e1 and ⃗e2 are not giving us the original vector A.
is reasonable to wonder if there are alternative basis vectors that would allow us to form an
original vector by multiplied the perpendicular projection (covariant) components with the
assumed basis vector likely to equation (2.1.16). Fortunately there are alternatively basis
vector that match with these hypothesis we called that ”reciprocal” or ”dual” basis vector
Dual basis vectors have two defining characteristic properties there are

• 1.) Each one of dual basis vector must be perpendicular to all original basis vector
with the different indices. The direction of dual basis have shown in Figure 2.8
For example : if we have original coordinate systems which have basis vector ⃗e1 and
⃗e2 . Dual basis which define onto this coordinate system may write as ⃗e 1 and ⃗e 2 must
have properties that ⃗e1 must be perpendicular to ⃗e 2 and ⃗e2 must be perpendicular to
⃗e 1 .
2.1. VECTOR AND COMPONENTS 19

Figure 2.8: Direction of dual basis From : P.115 Daniel F. , Perpendicular-projection

and dual basis direction

• 2.) The dot product between basis vector in the original coordinates and the dual
basis with the same indices must be equal to 1. Written as

⃗e1 · ⃗e 1 = 1

⃗e2 · ⃗e 2 = 1 (2.1.17)

This means that you can find length of dual basis as soon as you know the length of
basis vector in original coordinates and angle between each dual basis corresponding
to original basis vector by using rule of dot product between basis vector and dual
basis vector.

With the concept of dual basis vector, We are allowed to do vector addition and give
⃗ as shown in Figure 2.8. That is why we can call the perpendicular
us original vector A
projection components as ”components” unless their addition rule are not working in original
⃗ as
basis vectors. That means we can write vector A

⃗ = Ax⃗e 1 + Ay⃗e 2
A (2.1.18)

Where Ax is the perpendicular projection components which cast on x-axis and Ay is the
perpendicular projection components which cast on y-axis
After you have seen equation (2.1.18), You might guess that we have used superscript
to denote the dual basis vector (as shown ⃗e 1 and ⃗e 2 ) is not accidental. Because in gener-
ally dual basis vector are transform by using inverse transformation matrix which will
provide with direct transformation matrix of the perpendicular projection (covariant)
2.1. VECTOR AND COMPONENTS 20

components to give the invariant quantities which is vector that are not changed under co-
ordinates transformation.
The concept of the dual basis vector can extend to 3-dimensional. The direction and
magnitude or length of dual basis vector can consider by the cross product between two
different indices basis vector in the original basis and from the principle that dot product
of the basis vector and dual basis vector is equal to 1 we can write the dual basis vector in
3-dimensional coordinate systems as
⃗e2 × ⃗e3
⃗e 1 = (2.1.19)
⃗e1 · (⃗e2 × ⃗e3 )
⃗e3 × ⃗e1
⃗e 2 = (2.1.20)
⃗e2 · (⃗e3 × ⃗e1 )
⃗e1 × ⃗e2
⃗e 3 = (2.1.21)
⃗e3 · (⃗e1 × ⃗e2 )
From the knowledge of dual basis, we can define the same vector in a different ways
in non-orthogonal basis there are truth to comparing the equation (2.1.16) and (2.1.18) to
consider the same vector combined them and we get
⃗ = Ax⃗e1 + Ay⃗e2 = Ax⃗e 1 + Ay⃗e 2
A (2.1.22)

There are serve to emphasize an important axiom that if we define an invariant object in these
case is ”vector” there are reasonable when we transformed the vector under any rule we using
direct transformation to vector components, which denote with superscript (contravariant),
and inverse transformation to basis vector, which denote by subscript (covariant). Similarly,
The dual basis components, which denote by subscript (covariant), are transformed by in-
verse transformation and dual basis vector, which denote by superscript (contravariant), are
transformed by direct transformation. Multiplying them give us quantities guarantees that
the result is not change under any transformation. We will summary the result of these
section as the short idea there will be essential for next section

• Covariant quantities : We can be visualize them as the perpendicular-projection

components in the non-orthogonal coordinate systems or the basis vector. We de-
note them by using subscript. For the transformation we using a direct (or forward)
transformation matrix.

• Contravariant quantities : We can be visualize them as the parallel-projection

components in the non-orthogonal coordinate systems or the dual basis vector. We
denote them by using superscript. For the transformation we using an inverse (or
backward) transformation matrix.
2.1. VECTOR AND COMPONENTS 21

2.1.7 Index notation

Reader would have seen bunch of index notation in previous section or rather in others
physical textbook. In many of them are using letter notation for instance the basis vector
(⃗ex , ⃗ey , ⃗ez ) or in any topic that talking about the vector, quantities that have to be specify
the direction. But there are several good reason to move on from letter notation to number
notation or using 1, 2, 3, ... instead of x, y, z, ... one of those result is when we are talking
about the dimension or notation of any physical thing the letter have the limit of itself
(such as in English we can denote only from A to Z) and sometimes the letter can cause the
incorrect in itself after you have work in long term derive in field of theory physics. Another
reason is that index notation enables the great convenience of the summation convention or
Einstein summation convention. Therefore, from now on the reader may see we have using
a number notation rather that letter.
Apply the index notation to the equation of inverse transformation or the transformation
of the contravariant vector components which produced by the rotation of two-dimensional
axes, From matrix notation of equation (2.1.4) and (2.1.5) becomes
    
′1 1
A cos(α11 ) cos(α12 ) A
 =  
A′2 cos(α21 ) cos(α22 ) A2

In three-dimensional, this written as

    
′1 1
A cos(α11 ) cos(α12 ) cos(α13 ) A
    
 ′2    2 
 A  =  cos(α21 ) cos(α22 ) cos(α23 )  A 
    
A′3 cos(α31 ) cos(α32 ) cos(α33 ) A3

We can also write the transformed components in term of linear combination of the original
components,

A′1 = a11 A1 + a12 A2 + a13 A3

A′2 = a21 A1 + a22 A2 + a23 A3 (2.1.23)

A′3 = a31 A1 + a32 A2 + a33 A3

Or in the summation forms

X
3
′i
A = aij Aj (2.1.24)
j=1

For the last simplification the ”if the index are repeated once in superscript and once in
subscript (In equation (2.1.24) there is ”j” in this case) we can omit the summation symbol
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 22

in the equation.” This fact is called Summation convention.

A′i = aij Aj

In which the reader knows to sum over the repeated index (j in this case). Such repeated
indices are often called ”dummy” indices, since any letter may be used for that index the
result will be the same. And indices which indicate summation, i is called ”free” index and
no summation is implied.
This is the end of the visualize section that will help you to realize the important of
consideration the physical quantities in different way we can observe. In next chapter we
will discuss about mathematical objects and use them as a tool to define and help us to
understand the physics in term of math operation better.

2.2 Essential Physical and Mathematic Identities

2.2.1 Covector and One-forms

In some textbooks which are recently publish especially those dealing with General Rela-
tivity, you may surprised to find a little mention of contravariant and covariant components
is many of term such as ”covectors” and ”one-forms”. In this section we will handle with
basics of covector and one-forms and help reader to understand these mathematical object
by using visualizing technical.
Definition α : V → ℜ Which means covector are function that using vector space as an
input for the function operation and giving back the real number as the output.
Define : Two special covectors ϵ1 and ϵ2 which have properties

 1 if i = j;
ϵi · ⃗ej = δji (2.2.1)
 0 if i ̸= j.

Where δji are Kronecker delta of i and j. From these relation you will notice the fact that
we have shown that covectors ϵi are taking basis vector ⃗e1 as an input and give back real
number output.
Consider covectors ϵ1 and ϵ2 and vector input ⃗v = v 1⃗e1 + v 2⃗e2


ϵ1⃗v = ϵ1 v 1⃗e1 + v 2⃗e2

= v 1 (ϵ1⃗e1 ) + v 2 (ϵ1⃗e2 )

= v1 (2.2.2)
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 23

And

ϵ2⃗v = ϵ2 v 1⃗e1 + v 2⃗e2

= v 1 (ϵ2⃗e1 ) + v 2 (ϵ2⃗e2 )

= v2 (2.2.3)

From equation (2.2.1) , (2.2.2) and (2.2.3) we can expand these relation to any basis of vector
space V . That will give us the result

ϵi⃗v = vi (2.2.4)

Where vi is the vector component of vector ⃗v in coordinate basis i.

When we define the function that operate on the vector space V . We should check that the
operate we defined have linearity property or not.

α(⃗v ) = α(v 1⃗e1 + v 2⃗e2 )

= αv 1⃗e1 + αv 2⃗e2 (2.2.5)

Apply covectors ϵi into these equation. From equation (2.2.4).

αv 1⃗e1 + αv 2⃗e2 = ϵ1⃗v α⃗e1 + ϵ2⃗v α⃗e2 (2.2.6)

We give α1 = αϵ1 and α2 = αϵ2 . We can rewrite the linearity relation,

α⃗v = α1 ϵ1⃗v + α2 ϵ2⃗v

= α1 ϵ1 + α2 ϵ2 ⃗v

∴ α = α 1 ϵ1 + α 2 ϵ2 (2.2.7)

We found that any real number α can be written as the linear combination of covector
function. From these fact we know that covectors can use to be the basis for any weight
combination to form an invariant quantities (in this case α is the scalar that is invariant
quantity which is tensor rank 0, we will discuss them in next chapter). From these fact we
call ϵi as dual basis.
From the definition that we have given to the covector there have to take vector as an
input and give out the real number value as an output. The way to make readers realize these
function operation we assume that vector are column vector (column matrix represented)
and covector is row vector (row matrix represented). But that’s not quiet that simple, You
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 24

might aware of this, but column vector and row vector are fundamentally different types
of objects. And the reason you might think is that you have normally dealing with them
in the orthonormal basis, which is the coordinate that have all basis perpendicular to each
other and all of them are one unit length. With the orthonormal basis the rule that flipping
between row vector and column are actually true (these operate maybe known as ”transpose”
in matrix operation). But it is not true in any general coordinate systems. And the reason
why we have to think about row vector as functions, We can think of a row vectors (covector)
as a function on a column vectors (vector).
Example : We define
  covector as a row vector [ 2 1 ] and vector for become an input
3
as column vector   . We can define the process of covector by the product operation
−4
between row vector and column vector shown as
 
3
[ 2 1 ]   = (2)(3) + (1)(−4)
−4

=2

Which is give us back the real number or a scalar output.

The row vectors have the properties of linearity as we have shown you before in this path
we will prove them by the row vector rules.
Consider the operation between row vector and two column vectors in the following
    
3 0
[ 2 1 ]   +   
−4 3

We notice that we have two ways to calculating the output of these operation first is distribute
the row vector to each of the column vector and do operation in each product. The second
way is added the column vector before doing the operation to find an output. Each of them
have give us the same result which is 5 for these case. So if we defined the row vector α
which take vector ⃗v and w
⃗ as an input. The row vector has the properties that

α(⃗v + w)
⃗ = α(⃗v ) + α(w)
⃗ (2.2.8)

We can also found that the row vector operator have the properties to scale the input and
pull out the coefficient scale out and get the same result that can write as

α(n⃗v ) = nα⃗v (2.2.9)

2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 25

The meanings of equation (2.2.8) and (2.2.9) is row vector operation have the linearity
property. Combining these two equations we can get

α(n⃗v + mw)
⃗ = nα(⃗v ) + mα(w)
⃗ (2.2.10)

Summary for Covector in row vector form

• A function that takes vector and produce a scalar/number

α:V →ℜ

• We can add inputs or add output and get the same result

α(⃗v + w)
⃗ = α(⃗v ) + α(w)
⃗

• We can scale inputs or scale outputs and get the same result

α(n⃗v ) = nα⃗v

Geometry visualize for Covector

The way to visualize the covector which is function, We need to define the vector space to
be and input and defined the covector operation which will shown in this section.
Example : Define the covector which is row  vector
 α = [ 2 1 ] which apply on the 2-
x
dimensional Cartesian coordinates which is ⃗v =   . We can find the output result as
y
 
x
α(⃗v ) = [ 2 1] 
y

= 2x + y

The way we use these result is give them and output of scalar or number such as ..., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, ...
We will get bunch of the equation from the operation result which can build the set of line
as (where ⃗e1 and ⃗e2 are the basis for the vector input) shown in Figure 2.9 And note that
since the stack is increasing toward the upper-right. Therefore the stack has a direction.
It increase in the upper-right and decrease in the opposite direction. If we add the arrow
which shown the direction of α you will notice that line is perpendicular to all the lines in
the stack. As shown in the Figure 2.10
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 26

Figure 2.9: Geometry visualized as stacks of lines

Figure 2.10: Geometry visualized as stacks of lines and the covector α direction
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 27

Covector Transformation rules

From previous section we know that covector can write in term of linear combination
of covector components and dual basis. In this section we will figure out how covectors
themselves transform. So, not covector components or dual basis but covector themselves.
First of all, like a vector transformation we will determined the transformed covectors can
be written in term of linear combination of original covectors.
Define : Transformed (New basis) covector ϵ̃1 and ϵ̃2 and weighted quantities Q11 , Q12 , Q21
and Q22 from these assumption we can write the relation between old-new basis by previous
fact as

ϵ̃1 = Q11 ϵ1 + Q12 ϵ2 (2.2.8)

ϵ̃2 = Q21 ϵ1 + Q22 ϵ2 (2.2.9)

We apply basis vector ⃗e1 and ⃗e2 into this equation we get

ϵ̃1⃗e1 = Q11 ϵ1 (⃗e1 ) + Q12 ϵ2 (⃗e1 ) (2.2.10)

ϵ̃1⃗e2 = Q11 ϵ1 (⃗e2 ) + Q12 ϵ2 (⃗e2 ) (2.2.11)

ϵ̃2⃗e1 = Q21 ϵ1 (⃗e1 ) + Q22 ϵ2 (⃗e1 ) (2.2.12)

ϵ̃2⃗e2 = Q21 ϵ1 (⃗e2 ) + Q22 ϵ2 (⃗e2 ) (2.2.13)

From the equation (2.2.1) and (2.2.4) we can consider in the indices of the covector i=and
basis vector therefore.

ϵ̃1⃗e1 = Q11 (2.2.14)

ϵ̃1 e⃗2 = Q12 (2.2.15)

ϵ̃2⃗e1 = Q21 (2.2.16)

ϵ̃2⃗e2 = Q22 (2.2.17)

We substitute the Equation (2.2.14), (2.2.15), (2.2.16) and (2.2.17) into equation (2.2.8) and
(2.2.9). We get that

ϵ̃1 = ϵ̃1 (⃗e1 )ϵ1 + ϵ̃1 (⃗e2 )ϵ2 (2.2.18)

ϵ̃2 = ϵ̃2 (⃗e1 )ϵ1 + ϵ̃2 (⃗e2 )ϵ2 (2.2.19)

Example : We give basis vectors which is transformed shown as

⃗e˜1 = 2⃗e1 + 1⃗e2

1 1
⃗e˜2 = − ⃗e1 + ⃗e2
2 4
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 28

Where ⃗e˜1 and ⃗e˜2 are transformed basis vector which transform by ”Direct or Forward”
transformation matrix. While ⃗e1 and ⃗e2 are old basis vector.
After that we apply ”Inverse or Backward” transformation matrix to find old basis which
can write in term of linear combination of new basis vector as

1
⃗e1 = ⃗e˜1 + (−1)⃗e˜2
4
1
⃗e2 = ⃗e˜1 + 2⃗e˜2
2

From equation (2.2.18) and (2.2.19). We will get

ϵ̃1 = ϵ̃1 (⃗e1 )ϵ1 + ϵ̃1 (⃗e2 )ϵ2

   
1˜ 1
1
ϵ̃ = ϵ̃ 1
⃗e1 + (−1)⃗e˜2 ϵ + ϵ̃
1 1
⃗e˜1 + 2⃗e˜2 ϵ2
4 2

After that when we distribute the ϵ̃1 in to the inside term and apply equation (2.2.1). We
can find that

1 1
ϵ̃1 = ϵ1 + ϵ2
4 2

In the same way of ϵ̃2 . We found that

ϵ̃2 = (−1)ϵ1 + 2ϵ2

If you look closely to the coefficient in the ϵ̃1 and ϵ̃2 . They look similarly to the coefficient of
old basis vector which form by using inverse matrix transformation. So this means that to
go from the old dual basis to new dual basis we use the inverse or backward transformation.
The next step is expand this expression to any dimension.
Define : [ej ] is old basis and [ẽi ] is new basis for V ∗
We know that

i
ϵ (⃗ej ) = δji ; 
(1) (2.2.20)
ϵ̃i (⃗e˜j ) = δji . 

And

X
n

e⃗˜j = Fij ⃗ei ; 



j=1
X
n (2) (2.2.21)

⃗ej = Bij ẽi . 



j=1
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 29

X
n X
n
Where Fij and Bij are ”Forward (Direct)” and ”Backward (Inverse)” transformation
j=1 j=1
matrix.
Since,

ẽi = Qi1 ϵ1 + Qi2 ϵ2 + Qi3 ϵ3 + ...

X
n
= Qij ϵj (2.2.22)
j=1

Apply these equation with new-basis vector ⃗e˜k . We will get

X
n
ẽ · ⃗e˜k =
i
Qij ϵj (⃗e˜k )
j=1
Xn X
n
δki = Qij ϵ j
Flk⃗el
j=1 l=1
Xn Xn
= Qij Flk (ϵj ⃗el )
j=1 l=1
Xn X n
δki = Qij Flk δlj (2.2.23)
j=1 l=1

From the property for Kronecker delta there will give the only one value when l = j
X
n X
n
δki = Qij Flk δlj
j=1 l=1
X
n X
n
δki = Qij Fjk (2.2.24)
j=1 l=1

The following equation means that Qij and Fjk are inverse to each other. If Fjk are Forward-
transformation then Qij (transformation of dual basis) must be Backward-transformation.
Summary for Transformation Rules

• Basis vector : Covariant basis vector

X
n
⃗e˜j = Fij ⃗ei
i=1
Xn
⃗ej = Bij ⃗ei
i=1

• Basis vector transformed by

Old to New basis : using forward or direct transformation matrix.
New to Old basis : using backward or inverse transformation matrix.
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 30

• Vector components : Contravariant components

X
n
i
ṽ = Bij v j
j=1
Xn
vi = Fij ṽ j
j=1

• Vector components transformed by

Old to New basis : using backward or inverse transformation matrix.
New to Old basis : using forward or direct transformation matrix.

• Covector / One-forms dual basis : Contravariant dual basis vector

X
n
i
ϵ̃ = Bij ϵj
j=1
X
n
ϵi = Fij ϵ̃j
j=1

• Covector / One-forms dual basis transformed by

Old to New basis : using backward or inverse transformation matrix.
New to Old basis : using forward or direct transformation matrix.

• Cevector components : Covariant components

X
n
α̃j = Fij αi
i=1
Xn
αj = Bij α̃i
i=1

• Covector components transformed by

Old to New basis : using forward or direct transformation matrix.
New to Old basis : using backward or inverse transformation matrix.

2.2.2 The Basics of Exterior Algebra

Permutation

Consider the positive integer k. We define a permutation of the set A = 1, ..., k is a

bijection, one-to-one correspondence, σ : A → A. In more concretely way, σ can be thought
of as a rearranging of the list 1, 2, ..., k respect to its natural increasing order to new order
σ(1), σ(2), ..., σ(k). By the definition of a permutation we can construct the permutation
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 31

which more systematic.

The cyclic permutation
For (a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., ar ) where each ai are distinct to each others. The cyclic permutation
define by σ(a1 ) = a2 , σ(a2 ) = a3 , ..., σ(ar ) = a1 , and σ fixes all the other elements of A.
A cyclic permutation (a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., ar ) is also called a cycle of length r or an r-cycle. A
transposition is a 2-cyclic, that is a cycle of form (a b) that interchanges a and b, leaving
all other elements of A fixed. Two cycles (a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., ar ) and (b1 , b2 , b3 , ..., bs ) are said to
be disjoint if the sets (a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., ar ) and (b1 , b2 , b3 , ..., bs ) have no elements in common.
The product τ σ of two permutation τ and σ of A is the composition τ ◦ σ : A → A in that
order ; first apply σ, the τ .
Example : Consider a permutation which represented in matrix forms, The permutation
σ:A→A  
1 2 ... k
 
σ(1) σ(2) ... σ(k)
Consider group of all permutation of the set 1, 2, ..., k be Sk . We called a permutation
to be odd or even permutation depend on whether it is the product of an even or an odd
number of transposition. From the fact that permutations, There are clearly that a even
permutation cannot be written in product of an odd permutation and vice versa. The sign
of a permutation σ, denote by sgn(σ) or sgn σ, is defined to be +1 or −1 depending on
whether the permutation is even or odd.

2.2.3 Differential Geometry for General Relativity

Under the assumption that physical meaning of any physics quantities measurement
are invariant in any coordinate system. Due to the fact that space and time are not absolute
and being relativity, we needed to figure out the way to determine the physical measurement
which acceptable in any coordinate system whether it transforms or being curved by effects
from the matters. The concept of the differential geometry can take the rest of this problem
due to the powerful abstract mathematical property which also work in any coordinate
transformation and our space-time can also be represent by curve surface or in differential
geometry often called manifold.
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 32

Metric tensor

We already know that in the flat space background, we can consider the length of
any vector by using their inner product (or dot product) of those vector itself. This
fact obey the Pythagorus theorem for the orthogonal basis (If you are consider the vector in
non-orthogonal, you have to deal with the dot product of each basis vector which sometimes
are not zero due to their non-orthogonal axes).
Example : Let’s consider the vector ⃗v which written in orthogonal basis ⃗e1 , ⃗e2 and the
non-orthogonal basis ẽ1 , ẽ2 which all of them has the same origin point.
We can consider the inner product which the product is scalar by the multiplication of
matrices as (In orthogonal basis or Cartesian coordinate)
  
h i 1 0 v1
||⃗v ||2 = v 1 v 2   
0 1 v2

Recall that v 1 and v 2 are component of the vectors which have already shown in section 2.1.
But when we have to deal in non-orthogonal coordinate we need to consider the vector
by those basis and also the components which is transform obey the contravariant transfor-
mation rule.
  
h i ẽ1 · ẽ1 ẽ1 · ẽ2 ṽ 1
||⃗v ||2 = ṽ 1 2    
ṽ
ẽ2 · ẽ1 ẽ2 · ẽ2 ṽ 2
We called the square matrix in the middle as metric tensor : gµν (Notice that the metric
tensor are not necessary to be square metric depend on how coordinate systems are defined).
Writing in more compactly by using Einstein notation we will get

l = ||⃗v ||2 = v i v j (⃗ei · ⃗ej ) = v i v j gij

= ṽ i ṽ j g̃ij (2.2.25)

From this equation you can notice that metric tensor are represent by inner product
of basis vector and the metric tensor are obey the 2-covariant transformation rule
In most of general relativity textbook we often saw the length of vector in term of the
infinitesimal length (ds) so we can write our length in term of

ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν (2.2.26)

Where dxµ and dxν are considered as each coordinates and taking their inner product.
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 33

Christoffel’s Symbol or Connection

Until now, we learn about the components and their transformation both vector and
covector. But if you notice that these derivative of the vector are interesting by taking

dA⃗ d(Aµ⃗eµ ) dAµ d⃗eµ

ν
= ν
= ν
⃗eµ + Aµ ν (2.2.27)
dx dx dx dx

The problem is we don’t know how the basis vector is changed with respect to the coordinate
xν (At least in an intrinsic observer). But if we assume that the changing of basis vector
which has a direction then the product of these term should have a direction (be a vector),
and also have the component for itself. From these assumption leads us to define new
mathematical identity

d⃗eµ
= Γρµν ⃗eρ (2.2.28)
dxν

Where Γρµν is stand for component of basis vector that changed respect to coordinate (Realize
that these equation is written in Einstein summation notation which µ and ν are running
for free indices), We call this symbol Christoffel’s symbol. If you take a time with this
relation you will notice that the new direction ⃗eρ cannot be determined by intrinsic observer
which we were in normally. It seem like we are not solve any problem. But with helping
from metric tensor we can also define Christoffel’s symbol by
Consider

∂gij ∂
k
= (⃗ei · ⃗ej )
∂x ∂xk
∂⃗ej ∂⃗ei
= ⃗ei k + ⃗ej k
∂x ∂x
= Γljk (⃗ei · ⃗el ) + Γlik (⃗ej · ⃗el )

= gil Γljk + gjl Γlik (2.2.29)

After consider the derivative of metric tensor with respect to others coordinate (xi , xj )

∂gki
j
= gil Γlkj + gkl Γlij (2.2.30)
∂x
∂gjk
i
= gkl Γlij + gjl Γlki (2.2.31)
∂x
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 34

We can get

∂gij ∂gki ∂gjk

2gil Γljk = + −
∂xk  ∂xj ∂xi 
1 ∂gij ∂gki ∂gjk
g im
gil Γljk = g im + −
2 ∂xk ∂xj ∂xi
 
1 im ∂gij ∂gki ∂gjk
δlm Γljk = g + −
2 ∂xk ∂xj ∂xi
 
1 im ∂gij ∂gki ∂gjk
Γm
jk = g + − (2.2.32)
2 ∂xk ∂xj ∂xi

This equation above shown us that we can define the Christoffel’s symbol or may be
known as Levi-Civita connection which is preserved an intrinsic observer property that
an observer in general relativity lived in, by changing unknown-basis vector product into
derivative of the metric tensor.

Covariant Derivative

Before we step into the abstract definition of covariant derivative we have to recall
the knowledge in the vector and its direction. Generally, we realize that the direction of the
vector can be determined by its components of basis vector. But, in calculus and differential
geometry we visualize the vector that they are live in tangent space which we are considered
Tp (Rn ) at point p in Rn space as the vector space of all arrows emanating out from point
p. By the correspondence between arrows and column vectors, the vector space Rn can be
identified with this column space. To distinguish between point and vectors, we write a
point in Rn as (p1 , p2 , ..., pn ) and the vector in the tangent space Tp (Rn ) as
 
v1
 
 
.
 

 
v =  .  = v 1 , ..., v n
 
 
.
 
vn

The line though a point p = ((p1 , p2 , ..., pn ) with direction v = ⟨v 1 , ..., v n ⟩ in R3 has
parametrization

c(t) = (p1 + tv 1 , ..., pn + tv n ) (2.2.33)

It’s i-th component ci (t) is pi +tci . If f is C ∞ (be diffeomorphism function) in a neighborhood

of p in R3 and v is a tangent vector at p, the directional derivative of f in the direction v at
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 35

p is defined to be

f (c(t)) − f (p) d 
Dv f = lim = f (c(t)) (2.2.34)
t→0 t dt t=0

By using the chain rule

X
n
dci ∂f
Dv f = (0) (p)
i=1
dt ∂t
Xn
∂f
= ci (p) (2.2.35)
i=1
∂t

The notation Dv f means the partial derivatives are to be evaluated at point p, since the v
is a vector at point p. So Dv f is a number, not a function. We can write them in term of
operator instead of using them as functional,

X ∂ 
i
Dv = v  (2.2.36)
∂t p

The essential of this topic is the fact we obtained that directional vector can be represent by
the operator which is not contain any vector input. Moreover, if you notice the definition
of directional derivative there are covariant derivative for using vector as an input and find
derivative in any v vector direction which defined in the flat space.
From the definition we give the direction derivative which important to determine the direc-
tion on the manifold which we are going to find the changing (derivative) respect to those
direction. In this section we will cover how to find covariant derivative of the vector field
which is one of the tensor field. Keep in mind that we can also find covariant derivative of
any tensor field not only just vector field but also covector, scalar , or any rank tensor field.
By the way we find derivative of vector respect to its coordinate

dA⃗ dAµ d⃗eµ

ν
= ν
⃗eµ + Aµ ν
dx dx dx
dAµ
= ⃗eµ + Aµ Γρµν ⃗eρ (2.2.37)
dxν

By considering the µ in the left term is dummy index and also ρ in the right term is also
dummy index we can write them in more convenient form as

⃗  
dA ∂Aσ µ σ
= + A Γµν ⃗eσ (2.2.38)
dxν ∂xν

From now on the definition of derivative can be applied on curved space and with help from
the definition of Christoffel symbol for intrinsic observer in Eq.(2.2.32).
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 36

We will denote this characteristic derivative as intrinsic covariant derivative on curved

space (∇ν ) as
 
∂Aσ
∇ν A
⃗= µ σ
+ A Γµν ⃗eσ (2.2.39)
∂xν
Where the Christoffel component can be found from
 
1 im ∂gij ∂gki ∂gjk
m
Γjk = g + − (2.2.40)
2 ∂xk ∂xj ∂xi

Parallel Transport and Geodesics

From previous section, we have learned that in flat space, the covariant derivative of a
vector field is just ordinary derivative which basis vector are not depend on the coordinate.
Now then, when we came back to our axiom that vector field is invariant under coordinate
changed, Then how can we know that vector field are invariant or be constant due to the
curve of the surface which we are considered. In flat space, it’s easy to visualize, If we have
two vector to be compared we can just slide them to be overlap and determine that if there
overlap completely? But now in curve surface you can try yourself that the vector cannot
be preserved their magnitude and direction in the same time, if we want to preserve their
magnitude under travel vector along the curve we have to let their direction become changed,
oppositely to consider when direction are preserved.
Therefore, when we have to keep our vector be constant in their magnitude how can we
consider changing of the vector along the curve. The answer is using covariant derivative,
keep in mind that vector are constant only their magnitude not direction. If we setting
covariant derivative to be zero which means vector are constant along direction curve we
consider as
Definition : Let S be a regular surface and let γ : I → S be a regular curve in S. Let v be
a vector field along γ, which means a smooth function v : I → R3 such that v(t) ⊂ Tγ(t) S
for all t ⊂ I. Then the parallel transport is defined by

∇γ(t)⃗v = 0 (2.2.41)

Now we know how to keep our vector be constant under curved surface. What about
the path we have to move those vector. According to the least action principle, the physical
quantity are obey their rest condition and change in the way that have action product be
least as possible. From these fact if we are consider the vector travel along the curve between
two point those paths have to be straightest possible in the space which we are considered.
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 37

That bring us the question that, How do we know if a path is straight in space?
Note : We already know that the straightest path in flat space is the straight line between
two points.
If we consider how vector in the tangent space on the manifold are changed when it travel
along the curve space. we figure out that in curve space we can separate those changed
component into term of tangential and normal components on the manifold itself. Giving
⃗ which is vector on the
the parameter λ to be parameterization of the cure and vector R
manifold to determine the geodesics line, in curved space, we need to compute curve which
the acceleration vector is normal to the surface.
Consider acceleration vector
! !
2⃗ 2⃗ 2⃗
dR dR dR
= + (2.2.42)
dλ2 dλ2 dλ2
tangential normal

From the fact above us, we needed to set the term of tangential acceleration to be zero to
compute the geodesic line. By considering the velocity vector in coordinate (u, v), due to
chain rule
⃗
dR ⃗
du dR ⃗
dv dR
= + (2.2.43)
dλ dλ du dλ dv
The acceleration vector can be written as
!
⃗
d2 R d dR ⃗
=
dλ2 dλ dλ
!
d du dR ⃗ dv dR⃗
= +
dλ dλ du dλ dv
! !
du d ∂ R ⃗ ∂R⃗ d2 u dv d ⃗
∂R ⃗ d2 v
∂R
= · + + · + (2.2.44)
dλ dλ ∂u ∂u dλ2 dλ dλ ∂v ∂u dλ2

The derivative term in above equation can be founded as

⃗   ⃗
d ∂R du ∂ dv ∂ ∂ R
= + (2.2.45)
dλ ∂u dλ ∂u dλ ∂v ∂u
And
⃗   ⃗
d ∂R du ∂ dv ∂ ∂R
= + (2.2.46)
dλ ∂v dλ ∂u dλ ∂v ∂v
By substituting the result will be written as
! !
⃗
d2 R ⃗
d2 u ∂ R du ⃗
du ∂ 2 R ⃗
dv ∂ 2 R ⃗
d2 v ∂ R dv ⃗
du ∂ 2 R ⃗
dv ∂ 2 R
= · + + + 2· + +
dλ2 dλ2 ∂u dλ dλ ∂ 2 u dλ ∂ 2 v dλ ∂v dλ dλ ∂v∂u dλ ∂ 2 v
(2.2.47)
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 38

By considering our vector is located on a tangent space of manifold. Dealing them as usual
we found out that the first order-derivative respect to coordinate (u, v) are just tangential
velocity vector in each coordinate, Those terms will refer to tangential components. Then
rewrite our result as
⃗  2 ⃗  2 2 ⃗
d2 R du ∂ 2 R du dv ∂ 2 R dv ∂ R
= + + (2.2.48)
dλ2 dλ ∂u 2 dλ dλ ∂v∂u dλ ∂v 2

Replace u1 = u and u2 = v for using Einstein summation convention. The outcome will be
represented by
Located in tangential plane
z }| {
2⃗ ⃗ ⃗
dR d 2 ui ∂ R dui uj ∂ 2 R
= + (2.2.49)
dλ2 dλ2 ∂ui dλ dλ ∂ui ∂uj
⃗
∂ 2R
The unknown term , we can visual them on 3 dimensional space as
∂ui ∂uj
⃗ ⃗
We will construct R⃗ by these basis vector n̂ , ∂ R and ∂ R . Consider that vector can be
∂u ∂v
written by the linear combination of the components and their basis vector

∂ 2R⃗ ⃗ ⃗
1 ∂R 2 ∂R
= Γ ij + Γ ij + Lij n̂ (2.2.50)
∂ui ∂uj ∂u1 ∂u2

Where Lij is second fundamental forms which tell us the normal component and Γkij is
Christoffel symbol give us the tangential component. Using summation convention then

∂ 2R⃗ ⃗
k ∂R
= Γ ij + Lij n̂ (2.2.51)
∂ui ∂uj ∂uk

∂R ⃗
We notice that the basis we given have the property that n̂ ⊥ , therefore the dot product
∂uk
between normal vector and tangential basis vector will become zero.
⃗
∂R
Contract Eq.() with basis vector n̂ and separately we will get
∂uk

∂ 2R⃗ ⃗ei × ⃗ej

Lij = · (2.2.52)
∂ui ∂uj |⃗ei × ⃗ej |

And
⃗ ∂ 2R
∂R ⃗
Γkij = g lm (2.2.53)
∂ul ∂ui ∂uj

Therefore, the acceleration vector is

⃗   ⃗
d2 R d 2 uk i
k du du
j
∂R dui duj
= + Γ ij + L ij n̂ (2.2.54)
dλ2 dλ2 dλ dλ ∂uk dλ dλ
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 39

According to the axiom that we give to geodesic line definition, the tangential changed term
has to be zero.
Then we will obtain the geodesic equation for consider the moving of physical quantity
on the curved space which has the least action as

d 2 uk i
k du du
j
+ Γij =0 (2.2.55)
dλ2 dλ dλ

Riemann and Ricci curvature

Now we already know that how the vector are travel along the curve surface or
manifold. The curiosity bring us the question that how do we know that we are living in
the curve surface. In this section, I will bring the ways to determine the curvature of the
space by the tools from all previous chapter. There are good start point that we know how
vector change under coordinate transformation but, what about we travel along the vector
field itself. I will introduce the mathematic object to determine how vector are changed
according to the path it travels the Lie brackets

[⃗u, ⃗v ] = ⃗u(⃗v ) − ⃗v (⃗u) (2.2.56)

In differential geometry the Lie bracket can be found as derivative of the vector due to form
of the basis vector which we have already cover in the previous section, which basis vector
can be represent by using the derivative operator.

⃗v (⃗u) = v i⃗ei (uj ⃗ej )

= v i ∂i (uj ∂j )
 
= v i uj (∂i ∂j ) + (∂i uj )∂j

= v i (∂i uj )∂j + v i uj (∂i ∂j ) (2.2.57)

Where ∂i and ∂j is basis vector in each coordinate (i, j) , respectively. (The way how we
figure out the term ⃗u(⃗v ) is the same way as above)
Now applied the Lie bracket to determine on the vector field, Giving vector field ⃗u = ⃗ex
and ⃗v = x⃗ey We can compute the Lie bracket of these vector field separately and found that
[⃗u, ⃗v ] = ⃗ey which means the step in coordinate x and y the path which travel by

• (i) : Walking through the path which tangent to x and then y

2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 40

Figure 2.11: Vector field ⃗u = ⃗ex and ⃗v = x⃗ey

• (ii) : Walking through the path which tangent to y and then x

These two path will make different end point so the way we travel along the vector field have
shown us there are not closed path. Referring to curve of surface which vector field travels.
Therefore, we are using Lie brackets to measures how much vector field flow curves
fail to close
Now to deal with physical vector field which travels by obey the parallel transport. We have
to define the mathematical objects which work similarly to Lie bracket, The torsion tensor.
Giving vector field ⃗u and ⃗v which has two way to travel along the curve, the dash vector
is result for parallel transport the vectors field and normal line is proper way that vector
field travel along the curve. The different between these two path can be considered from
the covariant derivative respect to coordinate which them travel along (Shown it red line).
The Lie bracket is considered from different between proper travelled-vector field (Shown in
dark-blue line [⃗u, ⃗v ]). The torsion tensor is giving by the different between parallel transport
vector field. Respect to vector product rule, We got

T (⃗u, ⃗v ) = ∇⃗u⃗v − [⃗u, ⃗v ] − ∇⃗v ⃗u (2.2.58)

Therefore, The torsion tensor T (⃗u, ⃗v ) is used to measure separation between parallel trans-
ported vectors lines.
Torsion-Free property : is the condition that T (⃗u, ⃗v ) is equal to zero which means parallel-
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 41

Figure 2.12: Determination torsion tensor on giving coordinate and vector field ⃗u and ⃗v

transported vectors close properly. We can find the components of the torsion tensor by

T (⃗u, ⃗v ) = ∇⃗u⃗v − ∇⃗v ⃗u − [⃗u, ⃗v ]

= ∇⃗u⃗v − ∇⃗v ⃗u − (⃗u(⃗v ) − ⃗v (⃗u))

= ui ∂i v k + v j Γkij ∂k − v i ∂i uk + uj Γkij ∂k



− ui (∂i v j )∂j + ui v j (∂i ∂j ) − v i (∂i uj )∂j + v i uj (∂i ∂j )

= ui v j Γkij ∂k − v i uj Γkij ∂k

= ui v j Γkij ∂k − v j ui Γkji ∂k


= ui v j Γkij − Γkji ∂k (2.2.59)

Therefore, the torsion free property will obey us the swapping of index in the Christoffel
symbol as

Γkij = Γkji (2.2.60)

And the component of torsion tensor is depend on only connection, independence to vector
field, as

Tijk = Γkij − Γkji (2.2.61)

In general relativity and differential geometry we have to find the solution to identify
that our space are curve before find the answer for how its curved. The way to figure out
curvature of the space is consider the difference of vector field which travel along the closed
2.2. ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATIC IDENTITIES 42

path (in some textbook referred to holonomy). The Riemann curvature tensor is taking
vector fields as input and giving us difference of vector fields which travel in closed loop
which is vector field as

⃗ = ∇⃗u ∇⃗v w
R(⃗u, ⃗v )w ⃗ − ∇⃗v ∇⃗u w
⃗ − ∇[⃗u,⃗v] w
⃗ (2.2.62)

The components of Riemann curvature tensor is giving by

∂Γµσγ ∂Γµαβ
µ
Rαβγ = Γσαγ Γµσβ − Γσαβ Γµσγ + − (2.2.63)
∂xβ ∂xγ

The Riemann curvature components is satisfies the Bianchi Identity

∇γ Rραβ
λ
+ ∇α Rρβγ
λ
+ ∇β Rργα
λ
=0 (2.2.64)

And components of Ricci tensor is determined by contracting indices of Riemann compo-

nents. This is another mathematical objects to describe the curvature of the space.

µ
Rαβ = Rβα = Rαµβ (2.2.65)

The trace of Ricci tensor is called Ricci scalar or scalar curvature. Computed by contracting
the Ricci tensor with the inverse metric tensor as

R = g µν Rµν = g µν g αβ Rαµβν (2.2.66)

Einstein Field Equation

Until now, we learned how to describe the curved surface which will be used to applied
with general relativity. We define the parameter which refer to the curvature of space-time
by combining scalar curvature and Ricci tensor called Einstein tensor by

1
Gµν = Rµν − g µν R (2.2.67)
2

By the assumption that gravity can be represented as the curvature of space-time which
in classical mechanics the gravity is the caused from appearance of the matter and energy.
By using Newtonian limit which our general relativity will reduce the form to Newtonian
mechanics we found out that the constant of our energy-matter and curvature of space-time
can be written as Einstein field equation by

8πG
Gµν = Tµν (2.2.68)
c4
2.3. THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF THE BLACK HOLE 43

2.3 Thermodynamic properties of the Black Hole

In the black hole mechanics, we consider a black hole as isolated systems which has
conservative of the energy property in itself. Recall from section 3.2.2, Eq(3.9), from Black
Holes, Derek J. Raine. that the area of event horizon is given by
h
1/2 i
Ah = 8πm m + m2 − a2 (2.3.1)

After taking the derivative respect to mass m, we can re write them in to term of

16mr+
δAh = [δm − ω+ δj] (2.3.2)
(m2 − a2 )1/2
where r+ stands for horizon radius given by

1/2
r + = m + m 2 + a2 (2.3.3)

Until now, note that a is parameter in the unit of length. And, j is referred to angular
momentum of the black hole. ω+ stands for angular velocity of a black hole defined by

a
ω+ = (2.3.4)
2mr+
After rearranging the equation into term of mass of a black hole we will get

κ
δm = δAh + ω+ δj (2.3.5)
8π
Where κ is given by κ = (m2 − a2 )1/2 /2mr+
This relation is refer to the conservation of energy of a black hole system. Changing
in energy of a black hole δm come partly from change in rotational energy in term of δj,
and others is partly from changed of surface which will refer to entropy T δS, temperature
of a black hole is proportional to its surface gravity κ. By comparing the conservation of
energy of black hole with thermodynamics law. We figure out that constancy of κ on the
horizon refers to the constancy of temperature between system. and form the area law, the
area of the horizon cannot be decrease, is analogous to the second law of thermodynamics,
entropy cannot decrease for the closed system. The problem which comes with the analogy
assumption is a black hole is perfectly absorber, not radiate, which will violate the law of
thermodynamics. Until, S. Hawking reveal that black holes radiate like the blackbodies at
temperature that depend on their mass. know as Hawking’s process
We are now in the position to state the laws of thermodynamics which is applied to black
holes.
2.3. THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF THE BLACK HOLE 44

• Zeroth law : The temperature of a black hole is constant on the horizon. This law is
follow Th ∝ κ and the surface gravity κ is constant on the horizon. Note : Th stands
for Hawking temperature which can be computed by

hc3 hκ
Th ∝ = (2.3.6)
GM k 2πck

where k is determined by peak temperature wavelength which respect to Wien’s law.

• First law : According to Eq.(2.3.5) we can write them in term of thermodynamics

parameter as

dm = Th dSh + ω+ dJ + Φdq (2.3.7)

Where the entropy is proportional to the surface horizon of a black hole. we can add
an extra term which refer to the work which cause by charged of the black hole dq with
electrostatics potential Φ. This laws is seem like the second law of thermodynamics
which means for conservation of energy in the system.

• Second law : From the result of general relativity shown us that the area of a black
hole cannot be decreased which similar to non-decreasing of entropy in closed system.
This is not valid once quantum mechanics comes into play, because the Hawking radia-
tion carries off mass and therefore reduces the surface area of the black hole and hence
its entropy. The correct statement is a generalised form of the law, that the entropy
of the universe, including that of the black hole Sh , cannot decrease. If Sext stands for
entropy of the world after including the black hole Sh + Sext which is the entropy of
the universe which cannot decrease. For example, for an isolated radiating black hole
a detailed calculation shows that, although the entropy of the black hole decreases,
the increase in entropy in the external world coming from the emitted radiation ex-
ceeds the loss in entropy of the hole, so this generalised form of the second law is obeyed

• Third law : According to Planck statement, the entropy of any system are tend to
be zero at absolute zero temperature. (There are not valid for the special case of black
hole mechanics, extremal black hole, which we will not cover them in our research.)
2.4. THE THREE-FORMS FIELD 45

2.4 The three-forms field

In this paper, we show the effects of three-forms field which applied in black hole solution
and its potential. From the studied of cosmology, Three-forms field can give us a similar
effect to dark energy with potential observable which distinct from standard scalar field and
vector field. The action of three-forms field can be written as
Z  
√ 1
S = d x −g
4
R + LA (2.4.1)
2κ2

The others essential result which come from three-forms field will be shown in chapter 3 that
cover to how we represent three-forms field effects to curvature of space not only particular
system but also thermodynamics presence.
CHAPTER 3

STATIC AND SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC BLACK HOLE

WITH THREE-FORMS FIELD

3.1 Einstein gravity action with a three-forms field

First of all, we can consider the action for Einstein gravity action with the effect due to
three-forms filed by Z  
√ 1
S= d x −g
4
R + LA (3.1.1)
2κ2
where we have define the variable

• κ = 8πG when G is gravitational constants

• R is Ricci scalar

• g is stand for determinant of metric tensor gµν

And the last term of the right handed side of the equation is LA which stands for the
lagrangian density of three-forms field defined by

1 2
LA = − F − V (A2 ) (3.1.2)
48

where we have used the notation of F 2 and A2 for

• The field strength tensor F 2 = Fαβγδ F αβγδ , the Fαβγδ stands for field strength tensor
which define by

Fαβγδ = ∇α Aβγδ − ∇δ Aαβγ + ∇γ Aδαβ − ∇β Aγδα (3.1.3)

46
3.1. EINSTEIN GRAVITY ACTION WITH A THREE-FORMS FIELD 47

We use Aαβγ denote the three-forms and ∇µ for the covariant derivative respect to µ
coordinate.

• The three-forms field potential V (A2 ) which depend to A2 which stand for the con-
traction of three-forms field
A2 = Aαβγ Aαβγ (3.1.4)

3.1.1 Equation of motion for three-forms field

We notice that the equation of motion for three-forms field can be obtained by vary the
action in Eq.(3.1.1) with respect to three-forms itself. We get that the result can be founded
by using Euler-Lagrange equation
 
∂L ∂L
− ∇µ =0 (3.1.5)
∂Aαβγ ∂ (∇µ Aαβγ )
Notice that we using L to cover all lagrangian density function in the bracket. Respect to
Eq.(3.1.2) which the left term and independence to three-forms field. Therefore, the left side
of Eq.(3.1.5) can be founded separately by
∂L ∂LA
=
∂Aαβγ ∂Aαβγ
∂V ∂

=− 2 · Aαβγ Aµ1 µ2 µ3 g µ1 α g µ2 β g µ3 γ
∂A ∂Aαβγ
 
∂V
∂Aαβγ ∂Aµ1 µ2 µ3
=− 2 · g g g
µ1 α µ 2 β µ 3 γ
Aµ1 µ2 µ3 + Aαβγ
∂A ∂Aαβγ ∂Aαβγ
∂V
 
= − 2 · g µ1 α g µ2 β g µ3 γ Aµ1 µ2 µ3 + Aαβγ δµα1 δµβ2 δµγ3
∂A
∂V

= −2 2 · g µ1 α g µ2 β g µ3 γ (Aµ1 µ2 µ3 )
∂A
∂V
= −2 2 Aαβγ (3.1.6)
∂A
And the right term can be written as
∂L ∂LA
=
∂ (∇µ Aαβγ ) ∂ (∇µ Aαβγ )
1 ∂

=− Fµαβγ Fµ1 µ2 µ3 µ4 g µ1 µ g µ2 α g µ3 β g µ4 γ
48 ∂ (∇µ Aαβγ )
1 µ1 µ µ2 α µ3 β µ4 γ
∂Fµαβγ Fµ1 µ2 µ3 µ4
=− g g g g (3.1.7)
48 ∂ (∇µ Aαβγ )
By the definition of field strength tensor and its antisymmetric property we can write them
in more compact by
4 1
Fµαβγ = ∇µ (Aαβγ ) = ∇µ (Aαβγ ) (3.1.8)
4! 6
3.1. EINSTEIN GRAVITY ACTION WITH A THREE-FORMS FIELD 48

Which cause
 
∂L 1 µ1 µ µ2 α µ3 β µ4 γ
1 ∂ (∇µ1 (Aµ2 µ3 µ4 )) 1 ∂ (∇µ (Aαβγ ))
=− g g g g Fµαβγ · + F µ1 µ 2 µ3 µ4 ·
∂ (∇µ Aαβγ ) 48 6 ∂ (∇µ Aαβγ ) 6 ∂ (∇µ Aαβγ )
1
 
=− g µ1 µ g µ2 α g µ3 β g µ4 γ Fµαβγ δµµ1 δµα2 δµβ3 δµγ4 + Fµ1 µ2 µ3 µ4
288
1 1
=− (2 · 4!)F µαβγ = − F µαβγ (3.1.9)
288 6

Substitute all these term into Eq.(3.1.5) we will get

 
∂V αβγ 1 µαβγ
−2 2 A − ∇µ − F =0
∂A 6

∂V
∇µ F µαβγ = 12 2 Aαβγ (3.1.10)
∂A

Or writing in reverse index term will be

∂V
∇µ Fαβγ
µ
= 12 2 Aαβγ (3.1.11)
∂A

3.1.2 Investigating Einstein field equation with effects form three-

forms field

To construct the Einstein field equation we know that the energy-momentum tensor of
three-forms field can be obtained by variational principle used in equation (2.1) with respect
to a metric tensor gµν . The energy-momentum tensor can be founded that

δLA
Tµν = −2 + gµν LA
δgµν
1 ∂V
= (F ◦ F )µν + 6 2 (A ◦ A)µν + LA gµν
6 ∂A
1
∂V

= Fµαβγ Fναβγ + 6 2 Aµαβ Aαβν + LA gµν (3.1.12)
6 ∂A

In order to write our three-forms in its dual vector which is one-forms, we can construct
the one-forms with helping of Hodge-star operator

1 1 µαβγ
B µ = (⋆A)δ = √ ϵ Aαβγ (3.1.13)
3! −g

where ϵµαβγ stands for 4-dimensional Levi-Civita symbol which is defined by



 +1 if (i,j,k,l) is an even permutation of (1,2,3,4);


ijkl
ϵ = −1 if (i,j,k,l) is an odd permutation of (1,2,3,4); (3.1.14)



 0 otherwise;
3.1. EINSTEIN GRAVITY ACTION WITH A THREE-FORMS FIELD 49

By inverting the relation to find Aαβγ we will construct

√
Aαβγ = −g ϵαβγδ B δ (3.1.15)

By giving component of B δ by radial parameter ζ = ζ(r)

B δ = (0, ζ(r), 0, 0)T (3.1.16)

From the antisymmetric property of Levi-Civita symbol which transitive to differential forms,
when we reach the solution for ζ(r), others three-form components are automatically fulfill
determined by the relation in equation (2.7) By the giving forms of B δ we can write the
invariant quantity F 2 by

1 2 4! 1
− F = − F0123 F 0123 = (∇µ B µ )2 (3.1.17)
48 48 2

The parametrizing of ζ(r) has a reason for us to reach the application of general form of
these solution to applied in the static and spherically symmetric spacetimes.

3.1.3 The solution in spherically symmetric and static background

Under the determination in the static and spherically symmetric system. We can deter-
mine the line element by the following relation


ds2 = −eα(r) dt2 + eβ(r) dr2 + r2 dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2 (3.1.18)

From the fact that we have determined the solution for Aαβγ in previous section. Consider
non-vanishing term of Aαβγ from equation (2.7) and definition of 4-dimensional Levi-Civita
symbol, we will get

A023 = A230 = A302 = −A032 = −A302 = −A320 (3.1.19)

Writing these relation on our background

Atθϕ = Aθϕt = Atϕθ = −Atϕθ = −Aϕtθ = −Aϕθt (3.1.20)

Therefore, the invariant A2 is be given by

A2 = Aαβγ Aαβγ

= −3!g 11 A023 A023

= −6eβ(r) ζ 2 (r) (3.1.21)

3.1. EINSTEIN GRAVITY ACTION WITH A THREE-FORMS FIELD 50

And the field strength tensor which explaining the kinetic term of the three-forms can be
represented by
   2
′ ′ 4 ′
F = −6 ζ α + β +
2
+ 2ζ (3.1.22)
r

Notice that the prime notation is used for derivative those term with respect to the radial
component.
Recall the equation of motion for three-forms field.

∂V
∇µ F µαβγ = 12 2 Aαβγ (3.1.23)
∂A

These equation can be written in term of parameter ζ(r) , by using the metric from line
elements equation.
   
′′ ′4 ′ ′ ′′ 4 ′′
2ζ + α + β + ζ + α +β − 2 ζ + 2V,ζ (3.1.24)
r r

where we use V,ζ to denotes ∂V /∂ζ

By contracting the energy-momentum tensor with inverse metric tensor. The components
of energy momentum tensor can be found by

F2 ∂V
Ttt = −ρ = −V +ζ (3.1.25)
48 ∂ζ
2
F
Trr = Pr = −V (3.1.26)
48
Tθθ = Tϕϕ = P = Ttt (3.1.27)

Where the F 2 is given by equation Eq.(3.1.22) we use ρ , Pr and P to represent energy

density, radial pressure and tangential pressure, respectively, of the three-forms field. Also,
we can written the components of Einstein tensor as

1 d −β

e−β
Gtt = r(e − 1) = 2 (1 − rα′ − e−β ) (3.1.28)
r2 dr r
−β
e
Grr = 2 (1 + rα′ − e−β ) (3.1.29)
r
Gθθ = Gϕϕ
   
e−β ′′ 1 α′ ′ ′
= 2 α + + (α − β ) (3.1.30)
r r 2
3.1. EINSTEIN GRAVITY ACTION WITH A THREE-FORMS FIELD 51

From these Einstein tensor components we can construct three field equation in each coor-
dinate as (we setting κ = 1)
e−β F2 ∂V
(1 − rα′ − e−β ) = −V +ζ (3.1.31)
r2 48 ∂ζ
e−β F 2

2
(1 + rα′ − e−β ) = −V (3.1.32)
  r   48
e−β ′′ 1 α′ ′ ′ F2 ∂V
α + + (α − β ) = −V +ζ (3.1.33)
r2 r 2 48 ∂ζ
Combine Eq.(3.1.31) and Eq.(3.1.32), we find
∂V
α′ + β ′ = −reβ ζ (3.1.34)
∂ζ
And using Eq.(3.1.31) and Eq.(3.1.33), we will get
 
2 ′ ′′ 1 α′
(1 − rβ − e ) = α +
β
+ (α′ − β ′ ) (3.1.35)
r2 r 2
The result from these following non-ordinary differential equation will be used to find the
elements of metric tensor of line elements in next section.
Exact vacuum solution with effect from three-form fields
In this section we will attempt to find the solution of field equations in Eq.(3.1.31) -
Eq.(3.1.33) with including helping from Eq.(3.1.24), once the equation is depend to po-
tential of three-form field V . We can separate the solution to types of three-form fields are
given

First case V = 0

We set potential of three-forms field to be vanished, V ≡ 0, Eq.(3.1.34) will reduce its

form and by taking integral over radial function we will get

α = −β (3.1.36)

According to we have setted, without lost in generality, the arbitrary constant from integrated
term become zero. Then applied V ≡ 0 into Eq.(3.1.35) we find
2

α′′ + α′2 = 1 − e −α
(3.1.37)
r2
By setting α = ln(f ) and solving the equation, result shown as
2f 2
f ′′ − 2
+ 2 =0 (3.1.38)
r r
c1
f (r) = 1 + + c2 r2 (3.1.39)
r
3.1. EINSTEIN GRAVITY ACTION WITH A THREE-FORMS FIELD 52

where c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants which come from integration. If we taking them back
in to term of eα and eβ , we notice that in limit of F 2 → 0 the solution which are metric tensor
elements of line element will reduce their form into Schwarzschild solution, so we will call
c1 by effective mass of black hole in this case. While c2 can be referred to the cosmological
constant Λ, where c2 → −Λ which analogous to Schwarzschild-de Sitter solution written as

2M
eα = e−β = 1 − − Λr2 (3.1.40)
r

And the radial function ζ(r) can be compute by Eq.(3.1.24) as

2 ′ 2
ζ ′′ + 2
ζ − 2ζ = 0 (3.1.41)
r r

Which has the general solution which written by

C2
ζ(r) = C1 r + (3.1.42)
r2

With Eq.(3.1.42) we can find the effect from three-form fields which parametrize by ζ(r) by

F 2 = −216C12 ≡ constant (3.1.43)

Where C1 is an arbitrary constant that can be determined by Eq.(3.1.32), we will obtain

p
F 2 = 144c1 = −288M so C1 can be represent as C1 = 4M/3

Second cases V = V0 = constant

For this solution, there are effect from potential of three-forms applied on field equations.
As the potential are constant their derivative with respect to radial function will be vanished.
Receiving again F 2 = −216C12 . The interesting result will shown in term c1 or an effective
mass which we given before by
Z r 
1 ∂V F2
Mef f = V −ζ − (3.1.44)
2 0 ∂ζ 48

And metric tensor element is written as

2Mef f
e−β = 1 − (3.1.45)
r

By substituting the constancy potential we will obtain

 
1 9 2 3
Mef f (r) = V0 + C1 r + c′1 (3.1.46)
6 2
3.2. RUPPEINER GEOMETRY CONSIDERATION ON BLACK HOLE WITH
EFFECT FROM THREE-FORM FIELDS 53

Hence, we found out that

 
−β c1 1 9
e =eα
=1− − V0 + C12 (3.1.47)
r 6 2

This solution is also obey the rule that under the suitable limit as F 2 → 0 the solution
will become Schwarzschild solution and also for de - Sitter solution. But, If you notice that
our result can cover all following solution which I have said, by parametrizing the constant
potential.

3.2 Ruppeiner Geometry consideration on Black hole

with effect from three-form fields
In previous section we have obtain the result of field equation which include the effects
from constancy potential of three-form fields for statics and spherically-symmetric black hole,
written as

ds2 = −eα(r) dt2 + eβ(r) dr2 + r2 dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2 (3.2.1)

Where
 
−β c1 1 9 2 2
α
e =e =1− − V 0 + C1 r (3.2.2)
r 6 2

The basic thermodynamics of Schwarzschild de - Sitter solution reveal as below with function
that respect to event horizon radius rh , written by
Λ
• Pressure : P = −
8π
Note that in our case the cosmological constant will be considered as effective value
with effect from three-form fields.
1
• Temperature : T = + 2P rh
4πrh
Ah
• Entropy : S = = πrh2
4
4
• Thermodynamics Volume : V = πrh3
3
2(1 + 8P S)
• Heat capacity at constant pressure : Cp = −
1 − 8P S
3.2. RUPPEINER GEOMETRY CONSIDERATION ON BLACK HOLE WITH
EFFECT FROM THREE-FORM FIELDS 54

In our paper, the event horizon radius can be computed by setting the element of metric
tensor to be singularity and find out that radius. By solving the singularity of the element
eβ which respect to radius function, we obtain that
 1/3
2 √ !1/3
  −9a 2
b + 12b 3 + 81a2 b4
rh = −  √3  + (3.2.3)
−9a b + 12b + 81a b
2 3 2 4 18b3

Where

a = −c1 (3.2.4)
 
1 9
b=− V0 + C12 (3.2.5)
6 2
Notice that, a means to effective mass of the black hole, not involve the effect of three-forms
field. While, b directly stands for the effective cosmological constant with effect from three-
form fields.
The Ruppeiner geometry, which based on the theory of equilibrium thermodynamics,
is established and obeyed the rules of Riemannian geometry. For the microscopic interpre-
tation of information in thermodynamics. The line elements of Ruppeiner geometry in term
of entropy can be represented by
∂ 2S
ds2 = − dxµ dxν (3.2.6)
∂xµ xν
Where xµ and xν stand for independence thermodynamics parameters. Moreover, a helping
from basic law of thermodynamics in differential forms dM = T dS + V dP . we can adjust
our relation to be written as entropy function
1 V
dS = dM + dP (3.2.7)
T T
Using the result as the coordinate xµ , and then conjugate quantities corresponding to xµ ,
xµ = ∂S/∂xµ . Therefore, we can write our line element in general form of entropy as
1 1
ds2 = dT dS + dV dP (3.2.8)
T T
The way to determine a line elements is depend on phase space that we select which have

• {S, P } phase space : Our line elements taking a forms of enthalpy representation shown
as
   
2 1 2 ∂T 1 ∂V
ds = dS 2 + dSdP + dV 2 (3.2.9)
CP T ∂P S T ∂P T
3.2. RUPPEINER GEOMETRY CONSIDERATION ON BLACK HOLE WITH
EFFECT FROM THREE-FORM FIELDS 55

Note that we can write the heat capacity Cp = T (∂S/∂T )P and using Maxwell ther-
modynamics property (∂T /∂P )S = (∂V /∂S)P . The third term in Eq.(3.2.9) become
zero due to non-independence of entropy, (∂V /∂P )T = 0. We found out that under
this condition the line element is well-define and does not have singularity.

• {T, V } phase space : The line element is written in term of Helmholtz free energy
presence    
CV 2 ∂P 1 ∂P
2
ds = 2 dT 2 + dT dV + dV 2 (3.2.10)
T T ∂T V T ∂V T

Where we used Maxwell relation which based on thermodynamics, (∂P/∂T )S = (∂S/∂V )P .

According to Helmholtz free energy which has form by dF = −SdT − P dV where F
stands for Helmholtz free energy. The first term in Eq.(3.2.10) will be vanish due to
heat capacity is equal to zero in constancy volume.

From our thermodynamic parameters which are defined and line element relation in different
phase space. We can compute the curvature scalar or Ricci scalar for each phase spaces,
separately. The result shown that

• For {S, P } phase space

1
RSP = − (3.2.11)
S(1 + 8P S)

• For {T, V } phase space

1
RT V = − (3.2.12)
3πT V

At the same moment we found out that RSP = RT V , with these fact we will using
these two curvature scalar by R. Moreover, we notice that R is less than zero which
means information attractive between black hole molecule for Schwarzchild anti-de
Sitter black hole.

Next we combine our solution for black hole with effect from three-form fields, event
horizon radius, and substitute them into thermodynamics variable. The result can shown us
that relation between the curvature scalar and black hole temperature.
First, consider the case of Schwarzchild anti-de Sitter black hole with fixed pressure P ≡
constant, After that analyse the relation between curvature scalar and temperature. With
the increase of the absolute value of curvature scalar means that the interaction of a black
hole gradually weakening, the black hole temperature shows us a trend of deceasing at first
3.2. RUPPEINER GEOMETRY CONSIDERATION ON BLACK HOLE WITH
EFFECT FROM THREE-FORM FIELDS 56

Figure 3.1: The diagram of rescale temperature Tr and thermodynamics curvature scalar Rr
in condition that constancy pressure and parametize respect to S(rh )

and increasing rapidly show as Figure 3.1. According to [1], the increase of temperature
means that the irregular free motion of the black hole molecule is dominant. While, the
decrease of temperature means that interaction is significant, which will inevitably suppress
the temperature. From previous statement, we discussed that the line element of Ruppeiner
geometry do not have singularity no matter what phase space we have chosen. The way to
determine Schwarzchild solution (P = 0), say that there is no AdS background, the result
shown that RSchwarzchild = −16πTSchwarzchild
2
. But from the studied [2], the curvature of the
2
Schwarzschild can be written as RSchwarzchild = 16πTSchwarzchild . That seem unreasonable to
have different solution for Schwarzschild solution. Let’s consider the expression of tempera-
ture for RN-Ads background, which can be reduced its form to Schwarzschild solution under
suitable limit.

1 Q
TRN −AdS = + 2P r − (3.2.13)
4πr 4πr3

Using this relation we can compute the solution for each types of black hole in term of
thermodynamics parameter as Figure 3.2. Realize that the event horizon radius and others
thermodynamics parameter are now have the effect due to three-form fields.
Consider, the pressure to be parameter which directly refers to the effect from three-form
field. The result show us a similar to Figure 3.1 with the trend of decrease temperature at
first and increase rapidly after parametrize P and S to suitable value.
3.2. RUPPEINER GEOMETRY CONSIDERATION ON BLACK HOLE WITH
EFFECT FROM THREE-FORM FIELDS 57

Figure 3.2: The diagram of the temperature with respect to horizon radius of a black hole

Figure 3.3: The diagram of rescale temperature Tr and thermodynamics curvature scalar Rr
in condition that parametrize pressure P and entropy S(rh )
3.3. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION 58

3.3 Summary and Discussion

In our paper, we show the effect of three-form fields in the solution of statics and
spherically-symmetric black hole. To consider the thermodynamic property in our black
hole solution, there are essential to introduce the Ruppeiner geometry, which using mathe-
matical language of Riemannian geometry. By compute the even horizon radius we reveal
that those radius is depend in value of potential of three-forms fields. By substituting the
result into thermodynamics variable we can conclude that the three-form black hole can
represent in presence of thermodynamic which carried that property to suppress the incre-
ment of black hole temperature obey its gravitational property which similar to dark energy.
And result from parametrizing the pressure which directly refer to three-form fields show us
that thermal interaction of microscopic black hole are depend on range of our three-form
field potential P (b), where b include effect from three-form fields in presence of cosmological
constant. By result that thermal interaction and exact solution of our black hole are depend
on range of three-form fields. Therefore, we can find suitable value of potential to valid our
result to exact solution for instance, Schwarzschild, de-Sitter, anti de-Sitter and Reissner-
Nordstrom, which include effect from charged of a black hole. In addition, the process and
principle that drives the interaction of black hole which shown in thermodynamics result are
not unknown, also need to be figure out in further.
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