Heredity

Heredity or Hereditary is the process of passing the traits and

characteristics from parents to offsprings. The offspring cells get their
features and characteristics aka genetic information from their mother
and father. Heredity and genetics are the reason you look so much like
your parents. Genetics is a branch of science that studies the genes,
genetic variation, and heredity in ​living organisms​. Let us learn all
about it.

What is Heredity?

In the simplest of ​words​, heredity refers to the passing of traits or

characteristics through genes from one generation (parent) to the other
generation (offspring). This heredity is very evidently seen in sexual
reproduction, as the variation of characteristics that are inherited is
high.

During the sexual ​reproduction​ process, variation occurs due to some

error in ​DNA​ copying. Variation is important because it contributes to
evolution and forms the basis of heredity. Variation is caused due to
positive gene mutations, the interaction of genes with the ​environment
and various combinations of genetic material. Remember that
variation can occur through asexual reproduction process too. But
these variations are not very noticeable.

(Source – Encyclopedia Britannica)

Gregor Mendel- The Father of Genetics

Acquiring characteristics or traits from one generation to the other is

nothing but inheritance. Here, both the parents contribute equally to
the inheritance of traits. It was Gregor Mendel, known as the Father of
Genetics, who conducted immense research and studied this
inheritance of traits.

It was with his research on plant breeding and hybridization that he

came up with the laws of inheritance in living organisms. He
conducted his experiments on pea plants to show the inheritance of
traits in living organisms.
He observed the pattern of inheritance from one generation to the
other in these plants. And thus he came up with Mendel’s ​Laws of
Inheritance​, which can be summarized under the following headings:

● Law of Dominance
● Law of Segregation
● Principle of Independent Assortment

Know Some Terms

● Gene​ – It is the basic unit of inheritance. It consists of a
sequence of DNA, which is the ​genetic​ material. A point to be
noted here is that genes can mutate and can take two or more
alternative forms.
● Alleles – ​The alternative forms of genes which arise as a result
of ​mutation​. They are found in the same place on the
chromosome and effect the same characteristic or trait but in
alternative forms.
● Chromosomes​ – These are thread-like structures of nucleic
acids and protein that are found in the nucleus of most living
cells. They carry the hereditary or genetic information in the
form of genes.
● Genotype​ – It is the complete heritable genetic identity of an
organism. It is the actual set of alleles that are carried by the
organism. This includes even the alleles that are not expressed,
which means even the alleles that do not influence a specific
trait that they code for.
● Phenotype​ – It is the description of the actual physical
characteristics of an organism, the way the genotype is
expressed.
● Dominant alleles – ​When an allele affects the phenotype of an
organism, then it is a dominant allele. It is denoted by a capital
letter. For example, “T” to express tallness.
​ n allele that affects the genotype in the
● Recessive alleles – A
absence of the dominant allele s called a recessive allele. It will
express itself in the small letter. For example – “t” for tallness.
● Homozygous​ – Each organism has two alleles for every gene.
(Each chromosome has one each) If both the alleles are same
then it is called homozygous. If tallness is the trait, then it is
expressed as “TT”
 ● Heterozygous​ – If the two alleles are different from each other,
then they are heterozygous in nature. If tallness is the trait, then
it is expressed as “Tt”.

Mendel’s Experiments
Monohybrid Cross

It is the cross between two pea plants which have one pair of
contrasting characters. For Example, a cross between a tall pea plant
and a short (dwarf) plant. The following diagram explains this in
detail.
 (Source – Pinterest)

Observations & Conclusion

● In the first generation (F1), the progeny were tall. There was no
medium height ​plant​.
● In the second generation (F2), 1/4​th​ of the offspring were short
and 3⁄4 were tall.
● The Phenotypic ratio in F2 is 3: 1 (3 tall: 1 short)
● The Genotypic ratio in F2 – 1: 2: 1 – (TT: Tt: tt)
 ● For a plant to be tall, a single copy of “T” is enough. But if a
plant has to be short, both the copies should be “t”
● Characters like ‘T’ are the dominant traits as they are expressed
and ‘t’ are recessive traits as they remain suppressed.

Dihybrid Cross

It is the cross between two plants which have two pairs of contrasting
characters. This takes into consideration alternative traits of two
different characters. For example, a cross between one pea plant with
round and green seeds and the other pea plant having wrinkled and
yellow seeds. The following diagram explains the dihybrid cross in
detail.
Observations & Conclusion
● The F1 generation is 100% hybrid. When RRyy crosses with
rrYY, all were Rr Yy with round and yellow seeds in the first
generation. The Round and Yellow seeds are the dominant
characters.
 ● In F2, the phenotype ​ratio​ is 9:3:3:1. The genotype ratio is a
very complex one.
● This shows that the genes are inherited independently of each
other.

Solved Questions For You

Q: Name which Mendel’s experiments that show that traits are

inherited independently?

Ans: The Dihybrid cross experiment that Mendel performed with the
pea plants, shows that traits are inherited independently. In a cross
between two plants with two pairs of contrasting characters, the
expression of traits occurs independently.

Evolution

We have heard this particular statement that we have evolved from our
ancestors. What is seen now on planet ​earth​ is a result of evolution.
So, what exactly is evolution? Is there any science behind it? Come let
us find out interesting facts about evolution and speciation.
The Basic Idea of Evolution

There is a lot of science behind the theory of evolution. ​Scientists​ and

researchers have done intensive studies to show how living things
evolved and how traits and characteristics passed on from generations
to generations.

Ultimately, when we speak of evolution, we actually speak of the

genetic characteristics that are inherited and passed on from one
generation to the other. The whole process of evolution gives rise to
biodiversity at all levels, including species, ​organisms​, and even
molecules​.

An important basis on which the theory of evolution is based on is that

all species are related and gradually change over time. But the
frequency of an inherited trait that undergoes a change is spread over
generations. Genes control the traits. Therefore we can say that the
frequency of genes in a population changes over generations.

Acquired and Inherited Traits

Acquired traits are qualities that are developed in an individual in
response to certain conditions in the ​environment​. These cannot be
transferred to the progeny. They only help an organism to survive.
And therefore, they do not direct the evolution process. Examples
include bending of plants due to wind, calluses (Corns or even hard
skin) on fingers etc.

Inherited traits are the characters or qualities that are passed on from
parents to their offspring i.e. from one generation to the other
generation. They have a major role in the ​evolution​ process. Some
examples include the color hair, eyes, shape of the nose, bone
structure etc.

Speciation

( Source – Encyclopedia Brittanica)

The formation of new species from the existing species is called as
speciation. Here, a single evolutionary lineage splits up into two or
more genetically independent lineages. The occurrence of speciation is
due to the following reasons:

● Genetic drift – A random change in the frequency of alleles

over successive generations in a population.
● Gene flow – This speciation occurs between populations which
are partly separated but not completely separated.
● Natural selection – Nature selects and consolidates those
organisms which are more suitable and adaptable. They also
possess favourable variations.
● Geographical isolation – This is caused by mountains, rivers,
and other geographic features. This form of isolation leads to
reproductive isolation. As a result, there is no flow of genes in
the separated groups of the population.

Evolution and Classification

So, how does evolution play a role in classifying ​organisms​? In your

previous classes, you have learned how living organisms are classified
into various groups and subgroups. The basis of classification is the
closeness of the species in each group. Each subgroup of species has a
recent common ancestor which again has a distant common ancestor.
And, so as you go backward, you will then trace back to the very
beginning of life on earth, where all organisms have evolved from a
common ancestor. Thus you can see how classification and evolution
are interlinked.

Species are classified based on their evolutionary relationships. When

species have common characteristics, they are closely related. The
more closely they are related, the more likely is the chance of a
common ancestor. Similarities between organisms thus allow us to
classify them together.

Tracing Evolutionary Changes

(Source: DiffernceBetween.com)
When we trace the changes that have evolved over a period of time,
we notice that there is a common ancestor. When we trace these
evolutionary changes, we can conclude the evidence of evolution
through the following:

​ he homologous organs seen in organisms

Homologous evidence – T
show us they have a common ancestor. For example, when you look
at the forelimbs of whales, humans, birds, and dogs, the bone structure
is similar, but they look different on the outside.

​ ome physical features in organisms may look

Analogous evidence – S
alike. But these have no common ancestor. These traits have evolved
independently. The basic structure of the ​organs​ is different, but they
perform similar functions.

Fossils​ (Paleontological evidence)​ – These are the preserved remains

of organisms that lived in the past. These fossils also help us trace
back the evolution process.

Stages of Evolution

When you see the evidence of evolution, you can come to a

conclusion that the stages of evolution have occurred bit by bit, over
many generations. An example could be the emergence of feathers,
which may have started as a means to provide insulation in cold
weather. Slowly, this must have improvised to help in the ability to
fly.

The artificial selection also has a role to play in the evolutionary

stages. Humans have successfully used this concept, in developing
certain varieties of ​food​ crops and vegetables, to suit their needs. For
example, the different varieties of broccoli, cauliflower, red cabbage,
kale etc. have been developed through the artificial selection process.
The common ancestor here is the wild cabbage!

Human Evolution

When we speak about evolution, I am sure, as science students, you all

would love to know about human evolution. Even the evolution of
humans has been traced using the same evidence such as the fossils,
DNA sequencing, time dating, excavating etc. According to
established theories, all human beings evolved in the continent of
Africa. And therefore all humans are a single species, ​Homo sapiens​.
 (Source – Encyclopedia Britannica)

Solved Question For You

Q: Differentiate between homologous organs and analogous organs

with examples.

Ans. Homologous organs are the organs that have a same structural
design but different function. Eg. The forelimbs of whales, humans,
birds, and dogs have the same bone structure. But each performs
functions according to the habitat that the animals live in.

Analogous organs are the organs that perform similar ​functions​ but
have the basic structural design is different. Eg. The wings of a bat
and a fly are analogous organs.

Sex-Linked Inheritance
How is it that parents and the offspring look similar? The progeny
shares some traits or characteristics that are inherited from the parents,
and this passes on again to the next generation. In a broader
perspective, everything is related to genes, ​genetics​, and ​heredity​. In
humans, this concept can be understood clearly through ​sex​-linked
inheritance.

What is Sex-Linked Inheritance?

How does one determine whether an unborn baby is a male or a

female? Did you know that the genes and the chromosomes play an
important role in this determination? The sex of the individual is
largely genetically determined.

A human being has 23 pairs of chromosomes. The 22 pairs of

chromosomes are called autosomes and are the non-sex chromosomes.
One pair of chromosomes is called the sex chromosomes. Every
human individual, both male and female, has two sex chromosomes.
Depending on the type of sex chromosomes present, the ​gender​ is
determined. Females have XX, i.e. two X chromosomes while males
have XY, i.e. one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.
Genes that are carried by the sex chromosomes are said to be
sex-linked. They carry the genes that determine whether an individual
is a male or female, along with other traits.

Sex Determination

Sex-Determination-( Source -Science of biogenetics)

Males have XY chromosome and Females have XX chromosomes.

When a baby inherits the X chromosome from the ​father​ and the X
chromosome from the ​mother​, then the baby will be a female baby.
When a baby inherits the Y chromosome from the father and the X
chromosome from the mother, then the baby will be a male baby.
When you see the chromosomes, notice that it is the Y chromosome
that determines the sex-linked inheritance of the baby. A mother i.e. a
female has both XX chromosomes, whereas the father (male) has XY
chromosomes. The Y chromosome of the male has a gene called SRY
(“sex-determining region of Y”).

It is this gene that determines that a developing embryo will be a male.

An embryo having XX chromosomes does not have SRY gene and
hence develop into a female, while the embryo with XY chromosomes
has the SRY gene and develops into a male.

Human Blood Groups and Their Inheritance

Did you know that your ​blood​ group is determined by the blood group
of your parents? The inheritance of the blood groups is controlled by
specific genes. In ​humans​, there are different types of blood groups.
The standard recognized form of classifying blood groups is the ABO
blood grouping, given by Karl Landsteiner. According to this, there
are four main blood groups, which are A, B, O and AB groups.

The following figure explains how blood groups are inherited from
parents.
 Determination Of Blood Groups( Source – Wikihow)

Solved Questions for You

Q.1: Explain why the father determines the sex-linked ​inheritance​ of

the child?

Ans. The father (male) has XY chromosomes. The Y chromosome of

the father has the SRY gene. (“Sex-determining region of Y”). This
gene determines if an embryo will be a male or a female. An embryo
having XX chromosomes does not have SRY gene and hence develop
into a female, while the embryo with XY chromosomes has the SRY
gene and develops into a male.