CLASS 12

Alternating Current PHYSICS phasors

25
A phasor is a vector which rotates about
Alternating Current and Alternating EMF
An
alternating current is one whose magnitude changes continuously with time between zero the origin with
angular speed w

and a maximum value and whose direction reverses periodically. The Vertical components of phasors V and I

all opti
will
i
represent the sinusoidally varying quantities
is v and i.

-> t

alternating current is which varies with time simple harmonically.

The simplest type of one
AC voltage applied to a Resistor
It is represented by i-isinet or i=iceset
where it instantaneous value of current at time -
we consider a source which produces sinusoidally varying
maximum (or peak) value of the current and
is called "Current Amplitude." its terminals. This potential difference
i =
otential difference
↑ across

Angular Frequency (w)

also called
voltage, given by
·

where T= time period as ac

W= 2IT=2177
T f =
frequency. 1 =
Vmsinut applying K2) and Law we
get
Alternating enf
Ymsinct=iR i
Imsinet
·

= =

The comof (or

voltage) whose magnitude changes continuously with time between zero and a

maximum value and whose direction reverses periodically, is known as alternating emf.
The instantaneous
E= E sincet
value of alternating
or E=
emit
Ecosnt
may be represented by
Im= im so i= imsinut
Note: The
graphical representation of Eas sine and cosine functions of the are of the same

form those of i
#Graphical Representation
as

Amplitude maximum
The alternating current varies in magnitude and reverses in direction periodically. The

value of the current in either direction is called the "peak value" or the "amplitude" of the

Sunil J
current. It is represented by io

a
Periodic Time
The time taken
·
by the alternating current to complete one cycle of variation is called the
current is
periodic-time" of the current. The periodic time 7 of the alternating given by

ng
NOTE: and Currents in phase
with each other.
T= 21T Voltage are
To
Phasor: A phasor is which rotates about the
vector

ra P ysics
- a

Frequency second is called the frequency origin with angular speed o

The number of cycles completed by an

alternating current in one

ofthe current. Hertz (H2)

cycles/second Phasor diagram
Unit or
F
->

f
or g
=

frequency = =>

the domestic alternating current

t Note: The frequency of

h
is 30
cycles/second.

Mean (or Average Value)*

alternating current flows during one half-cycle in one-direction and during the
An other

in opposite direction. Hence, for one complete cycle, the mean value of alternating
half-cycle #
A.C voltage applied to a inductor
current is zero. However, the mean value of alternating current over half a cycle is finite An Gu connected inductor. Let the
are source to an
voltage
quantity and in fact, it is the quantity which is defined as the 'mean value of alternating across the source be V =
Umsinct
current. It is given by where i is the instantaneous value of the current. Apply ruji
KC2, we
get X-(diz0X = Ldi

↑mean=Yedt
dE dE
value
i =
isinut i peak
=

Ldi =
xdt = Ldi =
Umsinutdt
T= 27T/c equation both side

Tw
Integrate above

SLdi=/Umsintat FF
fiolcossi-coson
Mw Li Vncosnto
·mean a Sinutdt
imean mCrot
=> =

Pmean Cocoscut)
-
-
-

=
Tw
=>

T ⑳
where XECL
1msinkut-1T)"-cost-sinput-4)
=

imean io "mean =00637%

imean-to 71-17 => or

Inductive Reactance (Resistance

and
i=imsinpot-42) where in
tam
* = Lw= due to inductor
unit of X2 is ohm (e).
Root-men Square value NOTE: Current lags the voltage by IT/2.
9) is defined as that value of a direct current which produces the same amount of
heating
The average power supplied to inductor
effect
alternating
in when over
a
given resistor as is produced by the
given current
passed
an one

complete cycle is LERO.

for the same time
during a complete cycle.
9 t is also called virtual value or effective value of A.C.
Inductive Reactance (x2): -> Opposition offered by
Instantaneous value of alternating current
inductive circuit/inductor to the flow of Current.
I
=
I sincet an Xz= (w= 2TTOL VazO for d02 X- 0
in time then
if dH is small amount of heat produced at in Resistor R, Pac30H2 X,- Very large value, so inductor
doc only.
dH = Rdt (in one complete cycles
passes

is

simtdt
then total heat produced t An ac a
generating ac voltage V Ymsincut
source =

HdH="/iRdt H = issintRat H
=> iR
=
connected to capacitor only, a purely capacitive ac circuit.
a

Let a be the charge on the capacitor at any time to the

1.2 ozwtdt instantaneous voltage across the Capacitor is

H =

iRptdt-Proszwed+ v =

8
applying KCI and Law "mSinct =9 cUmsinot =

g
=

i
H=
iR (7-01 pirwt)I ieR/7-c/SinzwT-sinzwxos]
-

= H =
Here T = LIT
To find Current, we use
=19+i=d (CUmsinart to ·
Ew
i (UmCoscte T cost I=Umcost o
Im
=

=> =

Te
H =

(RT -t(sin4T-sinol] it iRT H =

-
(i)
where x= Capacitive Rectance (Resistance due to Capacitor) and Xc=//cw w=240

i =-incoscut
current,
and
inSinut +it/)
=
NOTE: Current leads the
voltage by 412
if Irms is rms value of alternating current and it is the heat produced by us

then H= lEmsRT -
(ii) NOTE: -> The average power supplied to an capacitor
rms value of alternating emf. over one complete cycle is LERO
from eq(i) and (ii)
Erms =TrmsR E: IoR
Capacitive Rectance (x2) Opposition
lYmsRT IET
· =
offered by
Erms R
Fo
=

capacitive circuit Xc =
1 = 1 for de
X20
=

⑧C GITVC
Iris
*

Irms
to
F
doe can't pass through
I capacitors
=
7Oo7f. of E ② So
=>

Erms 0.7OFE.
Eo
= =

trms= 00707 Io =>

Tums=7007% of fo Admittance (x)= Reciprocal of impedance Susceptance (S): Reciprocal of reactance is
i.e x= defined susceptance. It is of two types.
I as

(i) inductive susceptance (ii) Capacitive susceptance

SYL So To
 ⑱ Wattless Current: The Current in arc circuit is said to be wattless if the average power consumed
-

th
in the circuit is zero.
Figure shows a series (CR circuit connected to an ac source s #UR
power-factor: - defined as the ratio of the true power to the apparent power of an arc circuit
The
voltage of the source to be 1= Umsinut *
Apparent Power =Vrms X Trms
truepower reserver
Power-factor
phasor diagram solution Va
# True Power=Apparent Power x CoS4·
we know that current and voltage remain in same phase in
UL
also COSP =
of Resistor. and In there is
-
case case of inductor and Capacitor K

a phase difference of it in voltage and current. Then

Transformer
Here
N iR
O
device which is either used to increase or decrease the voltage in Arc circuits
is
through
=
T
& It a
"L a

Y =
iX2 and V =
ixc mutual induction. A transformer consists of two coils wound on the same core.

Versa------ diagram
From phasor at The coil connected to input is called primary

Ye +Cu-ls-->vECIRS-ixcXC-EITELEOS)
while the other connected to output is
↑P I called secondary coil
Yes
-" Here the potential difference leads the current
An
the primary
alternating current
creates a
passing through
continuously changing
by an angle. flux through the core. This changing
so x =
Umsin(et+P) in case of series (CR Circuit flux induces an alternating emf in the
Direction of Resultant voltage is given by tand=
xc/ +P=tan(YE Secondary.
closed
As magnetic field
curves, the flux per turn of
lines are
⑳o

and P tant
id crimary must be equal to thex perturn of the secondary.
O
8p Os dop=foos (as excl es- Asthe
Therefore = or so -

Resonance
#
condition of a (CR Circuit
series Np
Aseries is said to be in the resonance condition when the current In ideal transformer, is loss of power. Hence
(CR Circuit through it. NOTE: - an there no

eaD@s= Ep ilscalleolraection
has its maximum input from
=>CS=E
value Power Power Output => CsIs=ep1p
=

The frequency at which the current amplitude to attains a peak value is called Natural or

Condition for Resonance is In step-up transformer Ns>Np. it increases voltage and reduces currento
·
resonant
frequency. X2 xc=

i wh w for In step-up transformer Mp>1Is: it increases current and reduces voltage.

Wic
=
1 = Wp =
21 ·

=
=>

WC ·
It works only on A.C
A transformer increase (decreases voltage and Currentsimultaneously. As ex constant
frETTc
cannot
hitr=x tr frequency.
=
so => = Natural ·

LIC Some Power is always lost due to

eddy currents, hysterests, etc.
Wp=Angular frequency. (Natural) ·

Sunil J
The Current amplitude at resonance
frequency will be ·
some
energy losses in Transformer
maximum. Current is
I
=20 XXc
Dueto z=R ie2 is minimum and

a
NOTE:+ Series Resonant circuit is also called an "acceptor circuit"
-> Resonance occurs only in series LCR Circuit, not in IR and LC circuit

I
SHARPNESS OF RESONANCE: Q- Factor

ng
The sharpness of resonance is measured by a coefficient called the quality or &-factor. The resonance

frequency is independent of R, but sharpness of peak depends on R.

i
Because
Eo
=

ra P ysics
9 factor: The G-factor of a series (CR-Circit
may be to
Bow R

defined as the ratio of

voltage drop across the inductance
the &
·igh R
(or capacitance) at resource to the applied voltage.

Q Voltage drop across (corc) p

coirsand
=

- =>
W=
r

etis
Efficiency of transformer: output Power=
EFs
h
4% N
=
· =>

Applied Voltage
&
(y) Input Power
9
wrL
we know that
art,
so we
get
ptE ·
=

Power in A.C Circuit For ideal Transformer 100%. But for Practical Transformer lies between 70% 90%
=
-

The rate of dissipation of energy in an electrical circuit is called the power.

it is equal to the product of voltage and current.
The power of an
alternating current -

circuit depends upon the phase difference between the voltage and current. Gu
The instantaneous values of the voltages and current in an AC Circuit are given by

v =
4 SinCet + P i=isinut
ruji
difference between and current
d =
phase the
voltage
The instantaneous power in the circuit is

Pins =V:

Isincut +4
= x I since
Vi sinut
=

(sinutcos+cosntsind)
vio (sinutcos+ sinutcost sind
=>

for one complete cycle, Simut=and Sinzut=o

Therefore, the
average power pin the Circuit is given by
Parg
=

VicosP
Parg: tocost is
Pag=Yrms Frms of a

the
Note:Cost is known as power factor of the Circuit and its value depends upon
nature of the circuit.

special cases
Class 12 3.M Waves
physics 2023 source of
An electric
Electromagnetic wave

at rest has electric field in

27

charge
an

When
Electromagnetic Waves
magnetic field.
a
·
region
the around it but no

EM Waves are those waves in which electric and magnetic

charge moves, it produces both electric
and
magnetic
field Vectors change sinusoidally and are perpendicular fields

to each other as well as at

right angles to the direction If the
charge
moves with a constant velocity, the

time. It cannot
of
propagation of wave.Uelectric field
field
magnetic field will not
change
with

Magnetic produce electromagnetic wave.

on
Displacement Current

keypation.
·

It is a current which
NOTE: - Maxwell found that, the accelerated or
oscillating
·
charge electromagnetic
radiate waves -

produces in the
region
in

which the electric field and

These
change produce an oscillating electric field in space, which
hence the electric flux with produces an oscillating magnetic field, which in turn is a source of
changes electric field and
time. oscillating so on.

magnetic fields regenerate each

T
electric
Edofe oscillating other as
Displacement Current In P2 : Electric flux he and

a continuous wave which propagates through space.

hiration Sunil change

electric field The frequency of
NOTE: is equal frequency
Ja0
to the of
if E is the in the em wave
-

region oscillation of
the plates of capacitor
=>

between the
C
=
·

i
->

then

ng
E
3 I

progressive electromagnetic
of
The equation of plane can be written

Ezv=OfA
= wave as

ra P ysics
v=
8 surface
charge density
on the capacitor plate en eosinckz-ctsEn along araxis aBoth laries sinusoidayan
whose area is Ar 12 is the direction of
propagation).
= EA
h
8

so 0 =
GEA or 9780 where K =
2IT x=
wavelength of wave
T
W=
angular frequency. K Wave Vector
=

i w=cK
=C=l(speed of propagation of the wave)

=4o= id=Godd is displacement

Thus -
Gu
current. Properties of E.M Waves
ruji
EM waves are transverse in nature.
#
·

cation of Circuital Law Ampere's · These waves

propagate through space with speed of
light,
i.e 3x188m/s. given by c=1.

10.T=nolinial
↑Mt.E
Mo is permeability of free space and 3 is permittivity of free space.

id= displacement ·
speed of em wave in a medium is v =

Ths
Current
material medium.
↳3 and as are the
permittivity and magnetic permeability of a

id=3.ddg c=
·

Eo E. and B are maximum values of electric and magnetic

dt field Vectors o

The rate of flow of

·
energy in an electromagnetic wave is described

by the vector I called the pointing vector.

51 (EX). SI unit of is watt/m or joules/second.

Mo
· The energy in electromagnetic waves is divided equally between
electric field and magnetic field rectors.

· The energy density (energy peruit volume) in an electric field in

- vacuum

is
tE" and that in
magnetic field i is
bro
·
The electric rector is responsible for the optical effects of an

electromagnetic wave.

·
Intensity of EM waves: Energy crossing per unit area per unit time
perpendicular to the directions of
propagation of electromagnetic waves

Intensity - IfE or
ILBE
· linear momentum of EM wave is
p=b X-Rays 28
incident completely absorbing surface, P 18 km m
if then
0 Wavelength range: to 10
=
a wave on a

if a wave incident on a totally reflecting surface, then P =

z
production ·
By Bombardment of High-energetic
electrons on
heavy Target,
The existence of electromagnetic was confirmed by
properties of Gamma Rays but
·
waves

Hertz experimentally in 1888. Properties All

·

less penetrating and more ionising.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Uses Reveal Structures of inner atomic
·

The orderly arrangement of EM waves in increasing Op

frequency ⑮S in
decreasing wavelength
crystals, helps
and
order of
electron shells and
x r
called
electromagnetic spectrum.
medical diagnosis.
UN Radiation
10m to 40m
Wavelength range:
Production: By sun, electric discharge of gases.
but less
Properties All
· properties of Gamma rays
penetrating, produce photodectric effect
Sunil J
Uses · In detection of invisible writing, forged
a documents, fingerprint and to preserve
free
food stuffs, make drinking water

ng
from bacterias.
visiblelight

ra P ysics
4x18Fm to 7.8N8Fm
Wavelength range:
production Radiated by excited atoms in gases

h
·

·D and incandescent bodies.

Properties: Reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction,
action
polarisation, photoelectric effect, photographic
and sensation
Gu of sight.
Uses: In all
ruji optical devices eg microscopes, telescopes,
It is used to molecular structure
camera etc.
study
and of electrons in external shells of
arrangement
atoms.

Infrared Radiation
7.8x10Fm to 10 m
Wavelength range:
production: From hot bodies

Properties: Heating effect, reflection, refraction, diffraction

penetration through fog.
the plants warm, in
uses: In
green
houses to keep
electronic devices
infrared photography, for operating
Gamma Rays by remote

Microwaves
Wavelength range: 10to 10km 10 m to 10m
production ·By disintegration of atomic Nuclei
Wavelength range:
production: By oscillating currents in special vacuum tubes.

Properties ·chemical reaction on photographic

lates, fluorescence, ionisation,

↑ Properties: Reflection, polarisation
from Imm to sem are also
The waves of range
diffraction, highly-penetrating and
called microwaves.
changeless Uses: In radar,
long distance wireless communication
Uses Provide information
·
about structure of via satellites and in microwave ovens.

atomic nuclei, for the treatment of Radio Waves:

Cancer disease. 18'm to 10m
Wavelength range: circuits.
Production: Weak radiation from Arc

Properties: Reflected by layers of atmosphere

Uses: In radio and television transmission.
 29
Ray Optics
CLASS 12
physics · Reflection of light
strikes the surface of object, some of the
light light is a form of energy which produces sensation When light an

light is returned into the same medium. This phenomena

&vision to our
eyes
and makes objects visible
is called reflection.
Optics
s
I Reflected
"Scenvay
which deals with the study of incidence
The branch of physics V
a pay ↳i-angle of
nature of
light, its properties, effects and
propagation ↳=
angle of reflection

in...
is known as optics.
Optics -

ay gemetrical
I Optics wave of physical optics laws of Reflection:

This branch of optics deals This branch of optics i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
deals reflection.
with propagation of light in with wave

like
of which are phenomenon
terms
rays ii). The incident way, the normal to the mirror at the
point
varid, if sizes of obstacles interference, diffraction
of incidence lie in the same
and reflected ray
are
large in comparison
and polarisation. plane.
with
wavelength of light Mirror
(in surface is
nm
range). Asmooth and
highly polished reflecting
Sunil J
characteristics of light called a mirror.

a
waves, whose nature
·
light waves are
electromagnetic i). Plane Mirror A
highly polished plane surface
is

is transverse. called mirror.

a plane

ng
in is 3x108mls but it
·
The speed of light vacuum
formed by plane mirror
is media.
Different properties of image

ra P ysics
different in different
when
are
given below
· The speed and wavelength of light change size of
·
image = size of object
it travels from one medium to another but its
Unity
magnification =

h
the mirror. Distance
of object
frequency remains unchanged. · Distance of
image from from the mirror.

Important Terms
A plane mirror form a virtual as well as real
may
·
1). Luminous Objects
The objects which emits its own
light are called
image Gu
luminous objects, e.g. sun, other stars, an oil lamp · A man ruji see his full image in a mirror of half height
etc.
of man.

----intage
o.-. manwage
2)
. Non-luminous objects

or"
but become
The objects which do not emit its light own

them
visible due to the reflection oflight falling on

are called non-luminous objects.

table, chair, trees etc.
e.g moon,
formation of plane Mirror.
3). Beam of light
images by a

location of
is beam Note: To find the image

ftvirtue
called
bundle of the adjacent light rays a an
A
of an object from an inclined
of
light. ⑰
* plane mirror, you have to see the

3 1
*
- perpendicular distance of object

"I
⑧ ⑭ & * from the mirror.
S

"...
⑱ *

Parallel beam of beam =formation of

image by plane
Divergent convergent beam
8
8

light of
light of light.
mirror of a virtual object.
Deviation Reflection
. Real
Image produced by plane Mirror
by Single
4)

image obtained by the real meeting of light rays A

The 188-(itr)

"
B 6=
O

image.
-
Is called a real S=188-21
7
Op
Real image can be obtained
· a screen. on

8 180-20
Real image is inverted.
8,11
· Plane Mirror =

accesses ////
if I /

3) . Virtual Image
are not deviation by reflection
two
obtained when light rays really The produced
at
The
image is called a Mirrors inclined to each other at an
angle o is
meeting but appears
to meet
only,
=360-20
virtual
image.
 rotation of a 6. M,CM2, subtented at C the
otation produced in reflected
R ray
due to
Angular Aperture; The
angle by
diameter of the spherical is
plane mirror
plane
fixed incident the the Mirror
mirror called the
angular
1). given
For a ray, a
perture of the mirror.
is rotated o in the plane of
through an
angle .
7) Principal focus: Principal focus is a point on the principal
incidence, the reflected ray turns through an angle axis of the mirror at which the
20. light rays coming

i isfile. .
parallel to principal axis actually meet after reflection
N

⑧
E
Cor appears

is aba
to meet).
⑮ -

.
[

3
C

in itsown placeatthe
-

ii)ifaplane Mirrorsrotated I

S
positions o

in Plane Mirrors 9). Concave Mirror

Multiple Images Mitron (diverging Mirror).
b. Convex
Number of formed
(converging Mirror).
images N107E
8)Focal The distance between the
if even if two plane mirrors
length (f): pole and
n=
360-1 360 are parallel to each
focus is called focal (f).
· then, then infinite length
SuConventions
nil J
n= 368 if 368-odd. number of images will

a
be formed
E E

Mirrors
Sign
·
Spherical All distances have to be measured from the
mirror is hollow
1)
pole of
spherical
* a part of a
sphere, whose

ng
the mirror.
side is
one side is
reflecting and other opaque.
in the direction of incident
2). Distances measured light

ra P ysics
Two spherical mirrors
types of
are positive, and those measured in
opposite direction
Concave Mirror
(converging Mirrors
·

are taken as positive.

Convex Mirror
(Diverging Mirrors.
Heights measuredupwardsandnormal totheease,
·

h
3)

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
Concave Mirror. (Converging Mirrors
·

while those measured downwards are taken as

-e.
-

Gu
the Mirror is a
part ruji
#== Consider a concave mirror of small
aperture with pole at P

↳-----EupEhoF
A B
-

centre of curvature at C. Then

· Convex Mirror
(Diverging Mirrors.
by definition PC-R and PF = f

surface is
reflecting
whose

Fromfiguresa
away
from the centre of the
sphere of
which the mirror is a
part,
CBF is isosceles
Sincei zr (BCF= LFBC: Triangle
Some Definitions so that CF = FB

to point 4 and hence FB =

PF
P.
by CF=
· PF. This means that F is the midpoint of

2). Centre of Curvature: The centre of curvature of spherical CP. f

mirror is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror
io
PF=IPC or
=R
forms a part. It is represented by 2.

Radius of
3) Curvature: Radius of curvature of a spherical
mirror is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror
forms a part. It is
represented R
by
4).
Principal Axis: It is a
straight line joining the pole (P)
and the Centre of curvature (C) extended on both sides.

5). Linear Aperture: The diameter Mike of the spherical

mirror is called the aperture or lineal
aperture of
the mirror.
Mirror Formula. Simple Relation between the distance u cause of Refraction The speed of light is different in different media.

&the object from the mirror, the distance of the Note: As a

way of light moves fromitsmedium
I to medium 2,
remains constants
its
wavelength changes but frequency
for the mirror.
image from the mirror and focal
length Absolute Refractive index.
B
It+ This is known as Mirror Formula
speed of light in
u vacuum M
E
= =

·
Valid for both Concave & Convex Mirror. speed of light in medium

Derivation Principle reversibility light states that when final path of

F
A of of
I ⑧
suffering
*
a ray of light after any number of reflections &
From pair of similar Triangles ⑪
I L
refractions is reversed, the
way retraces its path, exactly

I
Normal
ABC and ABC. 1
O

Ba
D
#21 x
4.z
=
① Raven ↳
B ⑭ ⑪E S

AB =
c-0 A 12- Ma =1 ② Denser
AB' CB
I
KU-
412 ve
mirror.
Ie
plane

Ray agree.
The
from another pair of similar Refraction of Light Through a
Rectangular Glass slab.

effe
triangles A'BF and EP'F. lateral displacement air Ma
formation of concave perpendicular distance between

POF
incident ray and
ASLIBp e emergent
mirror. A
But is called as
ray

ABIPF
Lateral displacements
·D'E=AB s -
Here we have to find KL.

Sunsincline
il Ja
DNKLI
comparing egOa @ In

"
NK A

cB=PH
MMK.

PERCEIKF
find
= To NK
using a

Note
I @

ng
cosr
tosh
=
=> NK = -

Focal
length
using sign convention. KW

ra P ysics
f Gr using & and Q = NK Sin (9,-v.)

Convex concave KW sincel-v)

-UTR=ff
= -

# # COSU,
positive Negative
h
Apparent Depth shift: E
equation
and Normal
on
solving the
when is in denser medium and D
an object *

↳= ++ f
observer is in rarer medium, then object

arrrwE
to be at lesser depth than its
appears L

actual depth.
Linear
Magnification: The Linear magnification of a Acc Gu to
SInY
shell's Law.
sin in Lane=AB
formed Ma
spherical mirror is the ratio of
height of image (I)
=

by the mirror
ruji
sing
· Since tanv=AB
Al
to the
height of the object (0).
AO
ie linear
Magnification na=
A XNAO A1
n = = h =

m=
= ↑O-Actualdepthstep th
AO =
Al = = Al
In similar triangles ABP 8ABp

AB'Ep = =
O
= -
1
"U MzE F Normal shift=A0-Al =

d ("h)
Total internal Reflection: When from
a
light ray travelling
is incident at the
dense medium towards a rarer medium
interface at an angle of incidence greater than critical
back into the
angle, then light ray totally reflectedcalled
densel medium. This phenomena is TIR.
(2)
* +B
Critical Angle Raver
of incidence in

order COTAN ohhaos"

The angle a medium
(Air)
denser medium for which Water-a ir
interface
the angle of refraction in O
raver medium becomes 90° is I is
critical
Totelsare away
called angle
"I
a N
M

i i=c v=900
Denser
when medium
Partially
(water) reflected rays
A 2
an
SinC= Reaver-Ur= sin
sin"
Mr air=1 c=
(i)
=

&
Ud = U

Condition must be obeyed for TIR

1). The way must travel from denser medium to Raver medium
2) The of incidence must be than critical
angle greater angle.
 Application of TIR Ego Some definitions related to lens
1) Totally reflecting prism. -- 3 Ego
B S 3
Optical Centre: The Optical Centre is a point within or outside the
·
Prism I 4 ------
50
Lens, at which incident ways refract without deviation in its
right angled isosceles
<
are a A

~v· Patho
triangle90% which turn, the
1800. The critical
light 7900 4
50) Al
p- P S
ray by C or
> O =
optical
for material of prism
L

angle W
Ba
4 so O centre o O
must be less than 450. True B** Al S

⑬
-

D
for both crown glass a dense S
(a) (b ·
flint glass.
Principal focus
First Principal focus 2)second principal focus.

I
1)
2)Diamond: The critical angle for diamond is very small, 9 t is a point on the principal it is a point on the principal axis
axis of lens, the rays starting at which the rays coming parallel
therefore once light enters a diamond, it is very likely from this point in
diamond
to
undergo total internal
shines brilliantly critical angle for diamond air
Reflection inside it. Due to this
or rays directed
convex lens
to this point totheprincipalaxisconverge
enough it
interface is E24040
in concave lens become parallel appear to diverge (concave lens) at
principal axis refraction from
thispoint after
to thea

time
3) Optical fibres: These fibres are fabricated with high quality
T

trai
S

composite glass/quartz fibres.

-polothese
each fibre consist a core and of
Low i
↳ a
cladding
cladding such that refractive index

=
⑧ E,
&cores higher than that of the S

cladding
9
9 S
when a
signal in the form of light
High U

is directed suitable it
at end of the fibre
one at a
angle,
undergoes repeated total internal reflection along the length second principal focuse
of the fibre and
these
finally, comes out fromother end
Thus · are
extensively used for
transmitting Lens Maker's formula

Sunil J
audio and video signals through long distances

vii--
Raver
densel

a
4). It is the phenomena,
Mirage:
in which an invested
image of

EtisfifEoFor r
distance tall objects cause an
optical illusion of water. This ·

m I
·

ng
type of mirage is especially
common in hot deserts Airwormer near grouna
-

asitan It

it
ra P ysics
·
On hot summer days, the air Y
near the ground becomes hotter Refraction at Interface XP,4 Now Refraction at interface XPY.
then the air at higher levels. parer to denser, CDense to Raver]
· Hotter air is less dense, and
we
get i.e CU, acts as object)
has smaller retractive index than
A+ He=421
h
-

hz
The optical density at different layers of air increases with RI -Le +H O
=
·

height, Re
·
Thus light tall
object, passes through a medium
from a
whose refractive index decreases toward
ground. Thus light adding equation O& we get.
rays bends away from the Normal and undergoes total Chee
is
internal Reflection.
A he He +E (oh
-
+ =
-
-

#
I
Refraction
#

at spherical surfaces [convex Rarer to denser Gu

Object is placed in itus ref
(kit) (is)
T.TINT-rise
rarer
-+
·
*
enser. =

is formed ruji
medium and image Raver f
in denser medium. M. He So

(Fitz)
shell's law.
= (Mail) (E-2) (h-1
ACC to

Ie
1
or
1 =

He since a I

i. F

oo;i e
Is Thin lens formula >I
V

Esinizi sinvers n V S

I f f
=
+
From figure
-

↳
S

i V-B
4 + 0 0
magnification
= =
Refraction at a spherical
Image
surface separating two media.

the
cr =H,(+W) 42 (FB m= size of the
H2
image
(a)
so = -

·is
"
object
T size of the
object.
from B: V
figure <= N
AH KI
=
a

using are value of 90 we

get m=h=o im-the for convex
m ve for concave
= -

using sign convenien

niehtif1) =ne/lN-E]
one
4
On MCE+R
=
HI = +R power of lens: it is the ability of the lens to deviate the path
a
ofrays through it. If the lens converges the ways
passing
parallel to principal axis, its power is said positive and
1 H 4t
=
+
he no
-

H
=

the rays, its power is

+ if Iit
diverges negative.
-

for denser to Raver.

For Raver to densel Note - The reciprocal of the focal
length of a lens, when it
is measured In metre is called power of a lens

prett
NOTE: A diver in
reda
water at a or
its unit is diopter (P).
depth d sees the world
Power of a Lens P=
lemetre) I

outside
circle of radius
through a
horizontal ~

combination of thin lenses in contact.

VEdtanic
The first lens produces an
I is real, it serves
image
LENS: A lens is a uniform transparent medium bounded
at 7. Since
as virtual for the second
between two spherical or one spherical and one plane
a
object
surface
Lens By producing final image at
S For &
Convex
converging
concave or
diverging Lens the
image formed by the first
#

or Lens
Lens A, we
get.
-8 for the image formed by second lens B
A-t=1,
R R ⑧ R RRa
R R 0 R
R, R2
I-to12-8
Convexo
ouble
planre
*
ouble
D
plano concavo-concave concave
Convex convex convex
Lens Lens Lens Lens lens
Lens
 SimpleMicroscope itis usedforobserving magnified imagesarethe
1).

lens

⑬
convex

n
Angle subtented by object
Bl in o
Magnifying power
M= visual angle formed by image
Visual
angle formed by object kept at D.
&
M
OE fane t
=
* = H=
n

Magnification
Maximum magnification Minimum
magnification.
when image0 formed at D when image formed at a
4= -
4 = =
D f=+f u= -
10 =
&\
0 f =
f
using thin formula.
so-t =1 =h 1
lens =

->

to - I
#= f+t
s0 H=
1+ Mo=I
Compound Microscope: It consists of two convex lenses coaxially
separated by distance. The lens nearer to the object is
some
called the objective. The lens through which the final image is

Su
tnn
E il Ja
viewed is called the eye piece.

aim
to

to

their
B
M:

M= ABB

ng
made

ra P ysics
from thin lens
formulde

AB' fo
h
B

40 (e)
A
so M =

visual Angle formed by

objects

Gu
ruji
 for Minimum
Magnification 4 = He 0 = 0 f =
fe iv. Initially, the light waves were assumed to be longitudi-
so hal. But later on while explaining the phenomena of
the be thebe M
so
fo polarisation the light waves were considered to be trans-
⑭
verse.
-
ength of Telescope
image is formedat
v).Huygen's theory could not explain reflection, refraction,
totewhenimage
↳= Not he when L
Interference, diffraction, poldisation but could
=

No-
at Do
explain photoelectric effect a Compton's effects
vi). Wave theory introduced the concept of wavefront.
D) is
advantages of Refracting Telescope
Note: The whole universe with all matter and space is
Aberrations: Actual image system is usually
formed
by an opticalaberration. filled with a luminiferous medium called other of
imperfect. The defect of
images are called low
density and very high elasticity,
chromatic aberration. The
coloured and
image of an object by a lens is usually
blurred. This defect of image is called Wavefront: -> A wave front is defined
chromatic aberration. This detect arises due to the fact that as the continuous locks of all the particles
focal length of a lens is different for different colours.
which are vibratinga
Monochromatic aberrations: This is the defect in image due to
Onamediumas
optical system. Types of wavefront
He: To remove these defects we use
Reflecting Telescope 1)
spherical wavefront
2). Cylindrical &I

Reflecting Type Telescope " 3) . plane wave H

&

1). Spherical wavefront O

when source of light is a

Su nil JAmplitude
point source, the wavefront is

a
spherical (A) <
I
·
-

Necotonian Telescope Intensity IX Al

ng
Note: for three reason, modern Telescopes use a concave mirror 2)
Cylindrical wavefront:When source
rather than a lens olight is linear, the wavefront

ra P ysics
·
There is no aberration in mirror. is
cylindrical
· due to parabolic reflecting surface, spherical aberration is
removed o
Amplitude (A) CI Intensity 1x Al
·
Mechanical support is much less needed ·

Magnifying Power
foe 3)Plane wavefront when source of

h
=
m

light is far off (point or linear),

very
wavefront is plane.
the
WAVE OPTICS
Class 12 Physics New Notes Amplitude (A) <go
Wave Optics; -Wave Optics describes the connection between waves Intensity (I) x vo
and
ray of light. is a form of
Gu Principle
ACC to wave
theory of light, the
which travels through a medium
energy
in the form of trans-
light Huygens"
ruji
verse wave motion.
- i).
Every point on given wavefront
· The speed of
nature ofmedium.
light in a medium depends upon the I called
primary wavefront) acts as
disturbance
a fresh source ofnew
called wavelets.
secondary
Newton's Corpuscular theory of light ii). The secondary wavelets travels in all
In 1675 AD Newton proposed this Are to
theory. him, direction with the
in the medium.
speed of light
7) light consist of tiny particles called corpuscles which are
emitted by a luminous object. ii). surface touching these
A

with speed of secondary wavelets tangentially

ii). These corpuscles travels light in all direction. in the forward direction at
front of that instant
any instant gives the new (secondary)
wave
it.
·
The corpuscles carry energy and momentum with them.
when they strike retina of the eye, they produce
sensation of vision. Retraction of a plane wave front.
let I be the time taken
iv. The corpuscles of different colours are of different sizes. by the wave
Red coloured the blue coloured front to travel the distance BC, Thus
Corpuscles are
larger BC EV, T
corpuscles a

determine the shape of the refracted

v) . This
theory explains the reflection, refraction
could & To

wavefrontefrarauthespherearein
rectilinear propagation of light.
vi). The corpuscular theory could not explain interference, obtain
diffraction a polarisation of Light. we

vai), speed of light in denser medium is more than spec of light Sini: PT a since RT
in a raver medium, to this theory. Which is AC #a
according
incorrect, therefore the newton's corpuscular theory is wrong
dividing we
get song-Ue
Huygens' wave
theory of light
if a represent the speed of light in vacuum then
In 1878, a Dutch Scientist, Christian
are Huygen's gives wave

theory of light to him;

Light
1) travels in the form of waves.
n
font dividing we
get
hafol-he is
Sine=Ar NEFSEN
i.
ii). These waves travels in all the direction with the velocity of or

light.
iii) The waves of light of different colours have different.
wavelengths.
Reflection of a plate wave
by a plane surface.
if a
represents the speed of the wave in the medium and
if I represents the time taken by the wavefront in
from point B to c, then distance
 BC RT Note
Emax=TTTTaz ⑤
=

In DEAC @ BAG

Ac =
Common · for Interference phenomena to take place, sources must be
coherent.
BC Ac PT The sources of light emitting
coherent sources of
light.
= =
·
8 LE <B 906 of same wavelength, same frequency having a
light
= =

ie both
Trianglestherefore are zero or constant phase difference are called coherent
congruent and angle? Or will be
equal sources of light.
2 =
22
Young's Double slit experiment
Principle of superposition: S one of the first to demonstrate the Interference of light was

meettant Thomas young in 1801

·
screen
when two waves froms,
P

reser
Let P is the point of bright fringe
atsome, PointposasyPp The double

referr
& Constructive Interference 7 slit
position net displacement at
P (from its mean shows the light waves froms,
o

position at Fig.
time is a point
pontheps
any given by 2
semeeting
Screen
at y
3 3, the
Since Dxd *
Mono
Interference of lighta wave: when two light waves of similar (4=ScP-S,P chromatic
frequency having zero or constant phase different

say------
Source.
dSino
propagate in
c=
simultaneously
a medium in the same *

direction then due to their

~ superposition maximum intensity
is obtained at few points and minimum at few points for maximum
intensity Intensity (4= 4X

Sunil J
This phenomenomena of redistribution of energy due so D
to dsino-nA
abright fringe
superposition of wave called Interference of light. h=0,11, 12,13 R I

Interference 4 = nth order

Constructive Interference Here Dad so & is small
very

ng
1)estructive Interference
When two wave meets in
when two waves meet in opposite sino-tanp= i.e
dy
= Mx = y =

nRD
intensify

ra P ysics
samephaseoie
the
Phaseitintensity oflightnative a

7th Bright
Fringer
is
called constructive the For Dack
Interference o

Interference
Fringe
Du =
(24-1) C4-E= bd
wave =>
-Resultant a Firstwave Resultant wave

:Firsture ·of
-
h
->

this
ha
y
t
In =

(21-11E HF+1,12,..

second ve
a
graph of the intensity distribution in
young's double slit Expo

3
xpression for resultant Intensity in Interference of two waves.
Gu
3. asinct y2=bsinCut+P) ·
S ruji
a ob are the respective amplitude tant
of the two waves a
phase differences
Acc to
p is the
superposition principle
constant ⑤b
A
a ⑭

y 3,+4= F
= asinct+bsin(wt +P)
=

Fringe width Distance between two

adjacent bright Condack
Resultant Amplitude.A
a+b+ zaboos
& O
fringes is called the fringe width. It is denoted by Wo
=.
UAD -(4-1D
W= =
AW
*

Direction of Resultant tano-ind

a +6c0s4
piffraction. The bending light into the region

phenomena
at of of
s Intensity(ICAmplitudeRp2 = RA geometrical
oflight
shadow of the obstacle is also called diffraction

Incident
so Im =
1,+12+21F7zc050-8 *

ifa b Ao then Az 2AOCS

& O S
=
=

↑
if IF1I then
1=41020sd ->
A

I
Fresnel Class Fraunhofer class
Condition for Constructive Interference 1) The source is at a finite 1). The source is at infinite distance.
distance.
3 =
maximum so cost +/ =

i.e P 0,217,417
=
or 0= 271 where 4= 0, 1,2,3---.
2) No opticals are required
2)Opticalsinthe form ofcollimatingthe
An =
path difference D2 = 1&ie
2) T
DU = nA Eningesarenot sharp
3) and 3).
Fringesdefined
are
sharp and we are

so Imax: FF2+24Eze Path difference asino

established the condition for
Imax=(Et 1I2)" or Amax-A, tAe
To
slit is
secondary minima, the
divided into 2,416 equal
Condition for destructive Interference
pacts such that correspon ↑

minimum socostip[ (2n-1) where ding

I wavelets from G
ie h= 1,2,3, successive regions interface d
with path difference of
. . . .

path diffo DU=

(dDU=RA"
"
↑2
orotor wisecondred
divided into
be
2
an equal parts
o

Amin= Al-Ac [min= (E-1Ez)

 secondary minima
⑱
Hence, for nth
path difference =

asinp=1
=

Sino-4x where 7-k 2.

for secondary maxima, the slit can be divided into (2n+1) equal
parts.

Hence, for you

secondary maxima
asinon=(2n+11 (7-1,2,3---7
or sinon=(2n+1) 1
Ea

width of Central Maxima: It is the distance between first secondary

either side of
minimum on
bright tringe
the Central C.

width ofcentral maximum

=2X
2

Angular width of Central maxima,

E
20-

Sunil J
a

ng
ra P ysics
h
Gu
ruji
*
nal Nature of Radiation and Matter
experiment on Photoelectric effect
Quantum Theory: Acc to Plank's quantum Theory of 1) Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent
37
Radiation,
the form of discrete
an
electromagnetic
packets of energy called
waves travels in
Intensity
of
a photo currentas f
radiation is called
ip

i
Quanta. One quantum of
light hotoelectric effect is
↑
one to one
a photono
processo
characteristics of photon
photon: one photoef
(3x188m/s) ie one

11. A photon travels with speed of

light. ·

ising intensity of photon Intensity of light.

2) The frequency of a photon does not
change as
Res number of emitted electron (photoelection).
it travels from one medium to another.
2)Effect of Potential on photoelectric Current
3). The speed of photons changes as
it travels
through 1)At emitted electron

o
its
zero potential the *

different media due to change in wavelength are in random motion, Due to random

. The Rest Mass of

4) a
photon is zero. i.e. a photon motion of photoelection a small
ty(EzLF1
cannot exist at resto Current Constitute i.e. At zero potential
Evee
#
-

3. Energy of a photon E=
ho-heh-planksconstantas photo Current is not zero.
ii). When Potential applied to
6. Momentum of photon collector plate is + ve·<
p=mc=he= E
a

Sun
= >

il Jaof photoelectrons
O Collector plate potential
Retanding Potential
most
the the moves towards it
7. From Einstein Mass-energy relationship, the in the Circuitis
photocurrent
and constitute photoelectric
equivalent mass me of a photon is given by Current increases with increase in accelerating voltage.

ng
E=mc=h0 02 m=G0=E EE At some stage, positive potential of plate A
for a certain

ra P ysics
↑hotoelectric Effect all the emitted electrons are collected by the
9
metal
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a plate A and the photo electric Current becomes maximum
surface, when electromagnetic radiation of sufficiently or saturates.If we increase the
accelerating potential of
are incident on it, is called photo-

h
high frequency plate A further, the photo-current does not increase
electrons
electric effect. The photo (light) generated This maximum value of photocurrent is called Saturation
Current
arecalled photoelectrons o

Note: Alkali metals Like Li, Ma, K, Cs shows photo saturation Current means when all the photoelectron
electric effect with visible A.
light. Metals like 24 reach the collector plate to collector
Gu
(iii). When Potential applied plate is Negative.
Cd,Mg respond to UV
light ruji
the electrons are repelled and only the most
Experimental study of photoelectric effect.
energetic electrons are able to reach the plate A
To study photoelectric effect, an emitting -E S
At Certain value of Negative voltage No on the

↓Wi n dow
hotosensitive ↑
·
a
electrode C of a photo plate Evacuated
B itartz ↳.

plate A; photocurrent becomes zero, This Minimum

glass tube
sensitive material is kept at Vi is called the "Cut-off
negative potential
↓

Negative potential and

C. Electrons C
a as
w

or
"Sing Amtial"
Collecting electrode a
A is kept
at positive potential evacuated
in Tube
5)effect of
frequency of incident radiation on

When light
a of sufficiently high
· .
-
commutator
stopping potential ↑
·
MA hotoelectric
↑

Frequency falls on emitting electrode, z

#stration
photoelectron are emitted Which travels 8302> P
electrode and mmm current

directly to collecting
hence an electric Current Called "Photoelectric Current" starts ④ M ⑭

in the Circuit, which is directly proportional to the og ol 0 collector

toe plate potential -
owing
t

ReAudin Gotential
#

Number of photoelectrons emitted by emitting electrode E. -> if radiation of same Intensity I but different
When collecting electrode "A" is made negative wort emitting frequencies 0, 02e bs are incident on

electrode C, an electric Field is set up in the direction of metallic surface, then it is found that
Motion of photoelectrons, which apply retarding force on
photo electric current produced is same but

electrons. So now lesser electrons reach the collecting electrode the different at
stopping potentials are
and photoelectric current in the Circuit decreases
different frequencies
Potential: is that potential at which no
Retarding
photoelectron reaches the collecting
electrode A
is
the photocurrent in the circuit becomes zero
called et
Potential".
 variation of
4) Potential I with Frequency by valence electron of atoms of metal
stopping on Its
~ of incident radiation for a
given photo- surface. Energy he of each photon is partially
sensitive Material. A
⑧
3 electron to become free to
~

utilised by an or

⑪off Frequency Metal overcome its "WORK FUNCTION"No) and

avois
A Metal B
The minimum rest of the absorbed energy provides
frequency to below 800 the Maximum Kinetic energy of photo
which emission
0x8,
no
I electron
during the emission.
take place is
called as cut-off 5. No Frequency of 20-Energy of photon
Frequency or Threshold
Incident Radiation.
h=1mxnax + No
How work function.
Frequency. KE to the
&my
=

photo photoelectron.
Failure of wave
theory of light to explain
electric effecto Work function: to) The
energy required minimum
of
1) ACC to wave theory, greater the intensity of radiation, by the valence electron an atom on the

surface of metal to become free or to become a

greater are the amplitudes of electric and magnetic
Fields and Hence greater is the energy density of photo electron-
Sunil J
At threshold frequency Do, the energy of photon
energy of photo
a
wave. So the maximum kinetic

electron emitted must depend on

intensity of hi of incident radiation is just sufficient enough
incidentlight, however practically it does not

ng
to Liberate the electron -
it just equal to work.
happens. So Independence of Maximumkinetic function No

ra P ysics
Wothio-he frequency"
-

x= "Threshold
energy of photoelectron emitted on
intensity of
incident
light cannot be explained using h1
MX-+hDo I max =h12-)
h
so My
theory of Light.
=
wave

2)
Also, Whatever the Frequency of incident radiation his
& is called "Einstein's Photoelectric Equation" so at

may be, incident light of Large intensity over a threshold

Gu frequency so, Kinetic
Energy of photoelectron
sufficient time must be able toimpact emitted is zero. ruji
enough energy to the electrons, so that they explanation to of Photoelectric Effect. (PYR)
Laws

get out of the matel surface, so

can a (i). Its soon as an electron absorbs energy of photon, it
threshold frequency must not exist. sets itself free. So emission of photoelectron starts

3). Further, number of electrons absorb

energy continuously
as
light falls on metal surface.
entire wavefront of the radiation. So (ii). Below threshold frequency of photon is less
over the Do, energy
absorbed unit time than work function of metal surface. It less than
energy per an by
electron becomes in that case
minimum amount
energy required to librate an
of
very small. So, electron, so emission of photoelectron take
take quite
electrons
long time to
I

may come
place only when the frequency of incident
Out of Metallic surface on continuous radiation is above equal to the threshold
or

exposure of on the surface. However, Do. Further the

light Frequency slope of graph between
practically found that istime stopping potential frequency
we there no to and of of

Lag between incident of light and emission Incident radiation is

tane- to firs
evi
of photoelectron. So, we conclude that
wave nature of
light cannot be used to
explain photoelectric Effect. frequency
miCax=280) e
= -

h8o
Einstein's explanation to Photoelectric effect eC8-80) -

#cc. to Einstein, When light is incident on metal However the intercept of this eve on the potential axis

surface, incident photons are absorbed completely is at

-OA-obtano-Pod or OA=-ho
a
 But if the
graph is plotted between maximum kinetic characteristics of matter waves
(1) Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves in nature.
energy of photoelectron
↳mye=eo (ii). Matter

travel in
waves are

vacuum.
non-mechanical waves. In
they can

and frequency of incident radiation, then the slope (iii). Matter waves are independent of charge. It
they
ograph is equal to h, and intercept on the are associated with every moving particle (whether
charged unchanged).
potential axis is at -h4o
or

(iv) Observation of waves is possible

Matter
only
(ii) As energy of photon depends on the frequency when the de-Broglie wavelength IS of the
·

order of size of particle (ie the waves are

of Light, so the maximum koE with which diffracted)
Photoelectron is emitted depends
only on the
1)The phase velocity of the Matter waves can be
of
energy of photon or on the frequency greater than the speed of the light.
incident radiation.
↑
vi). The Number of
with nth orbital electron is
de-Broglia waves
associated.
(iv). As photons in light depend on its 4.
the Number of
Laws of Photoelectric Effect
intensity, and one photon Liberates one photo
#

given frequency of incident

Sunil J photoelectric
For a given material and a
electron, so number of photoelectrons emitted").radiation,
a
the current or number of
depend only on the
intensity of incident Light. photoelectrons ejected per second is
directly
Wave Nature of Matter: proportional to the intensity of the incident

ng
Destrplies Hypothes is it (De-Broy) In 1924, French Light-

ra P ysics
(2) For a given of incident
physicist Lewis de-Broglia suggested like
material and frequency
radiation, saturation current is found to be
should have dual Nature.
radiation, Matter too
proportional to the intensity of incident radiation,

h
in the particle like electrons, protons, neutron whereas the stopping potential is independent
etc., can have particle as well as wave
of its intensity-
nature.
(5).For a given material, there exists a certain minimum
He reasoned that Nature was symmetrical and Gu
Matter and requency of the incident radiation below which no
physical entities
↑

that two basic -

ruji
emission of photoelectron takes place. This
character.
energy, must have symmetrical requency
↑
is called threshold frequency.
He proposed that the wavelength associated
of Momentump is frequency, the maximum Above the threshold
with a particle Kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons of
here m mass of particle
#
=

*1 =
1 v speed of particle
=
equivalent stopping potential is independent
P MU
wavelength of Matter wave of the intensity of the incident light but depends
*
For a
photon, as we haveseen
p=AD Therefore 1 f=x upon only the frequency (or wavelength) of the
is smaller for
incident light-
↑ a particle (largem)
heavier or more
energetic particle:
de-Broglie Hypothesis of a 0.2kg moving
For example, the ball of mass
with a speed of 20ms is easily calculated.
(4) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous
P=mx =

0012K8x20m5=2040kgmst between the incidence of

663x1534Ts=276x183m, wavelength is process. The time lag
h
=
x
=
This so small
2
ho kpm5" that is beyond any measurement radiation and emission of photoelectron is very
This is the why macroscopic objects life do show small, less than 10s.
reason in our
daily not even
waxe-like properties.

⑭
De-Broplie Wavelength x of the electron-
Consider an electron (Massm, chargee) accelerated from rest through
a
potential 4. The Kinetic
energy K of the electron equals the
work done (ex) on it the electric field.
by
K = eX
NowK=
mx we know p=my
SO XI
f
that Plone
is
tmp2 =K=p2
so
and K =

P =
Lmex
The de-Broplie wavelength x of the electron is then

X
-h =tT substituting the numerical valueat
 ATOMS
SyllabussetinitialKineticenergyofaparticle e
= 1 =

Class-12t NCERT CH =
12th Acc to New
Structure ATOM Nucleus at distance
of
rox=oarce
a

⑳
t
Thomson's model of an Atomi ↑ t VoUITE
+ O ⑦
theErsEoceToFtoimirasproposed by
zte
At distance Vo, KEU K
=> =

⑦ ++
5.5 Thomson in 1898.
According to this models f f t
the positive charge of the atom is uniformly Q
vo=zze
⑧

⑦
t
⑦ t f
distributedthroughout the volume of atom and ⑦
electrons are embedded in it t ⑦
egatively
& charged t
t
Electron Orbit/Using Rutherford's model of the Find total
Like seeds in watermelon. This model was called t
&
#
atom,
a
energy of electron in Hydrogen atom. CPYQ).
plum pudding model of the atom. An electron revolving in an orbit of
H-atom, has both kinetic energy and

The mutual repulsion between the electron are balanced by their attraction withlectrostatic potential energy.
The electrostatic force of attraction, Fe between the revolving electrons and
the positively charged matter. the Nucleus provides the requisite centripetal force to to keep them in orbito
Thus the atom as a whole is stable and Neutral- i.e. Fe =
Fa

tex
Failure of Thomson's Model ↳ = m V
=>
-
(I)
413,22 y
Thomson's model was failed in explaining the x-particle scattering Relation between
orbit radius and
experiment proposed by Rutherford and Later performed by Hans Geiger the the

and Ernest Marsden electron velocity

The Kinetic Energy (K) and electrostatic potential energy (v)
Alpha-Particle Scattering experiment
the of
(PYQ) the electron in hydrogen atom are
Manu

performedat
Atthesuggestionof Rutherfordin Geiger
and Marsden
1911 K=
[mx 1 xter =

and =
ew negativesignindicatesare
K=
-r
Sunil J
is in the -U direction

a
O
Thus total energy. E of the electron in a
hydrogen atom
Is

KtUEtestr
E=

ng
5
E== The total energy of the electron is negative.
8tEr This implies the fact that the electron is

ra P ysics
2) U bound to the Nucleus. If I were positive,

Theydirected a beam of 5.5 Hex-particle emitted from

a
B an
around
electron will not
the Nucleus
follow a closed orbit

radioactive source at a thin metal Foil made of Gold

chromoitationbpOoFrRoWFTGEUoEDSLOTEatOxTSopetbeangetwicearranteeoursing
The beam was allowed to fall on a thin foil of gold of thickness 201x10'm.
Ipha
* particles emitted by radioactive source were collimated into a

h
narrow beam
by passing through lead bricks.
its orbital motion.
The scattered alpha particle were received by a notable detector with zine sulphide
screen and a microscope. fall in
mately it will the Nucleus.
Distribution
-

of the Number of scattered by flashes or scintillations produced by

striking f-particles on the zinc sulphide screen.
i). Aboutthe Spectrumit Rutherford atomic model
line cannot explain atomica
line spectrum
Ipha-Particle:-> Alpha
* particle, also called alpha rays or alpha radiation
Gu
·consistof twoprotons andtwo neutronboundtogetherinto a particleserocess of OHR MODEL OF THE
* ruji HYDROGEN ATOM
alpha decay, but may also be produced in other ways. ostulates: This model, also called planetary model of the
↑
atom, is
based on the following postulates.
RutherFord's Observations
(i)Huclear conceptofAnatomconsistsofasmall andiassurecentralcorein
and Results:

1.Most of the
x-particle pass through the gold force required for their rotation is provided by the electrostatics attraction
toil without
any deflection. This shows that between the electron and the nucleus.
most of the space in an atom is empty:
(i). Quantum condition:- of all possible circular orbit are allowed by the
2). Few x-particles got scattered, deflecting at
to circulate
classical theory, the electrons are permitted only in those
various anglesfrom8to5This showsthatare of 1
orbit, in which the angular momentum of an electron is an integral multiple
·nucleus' at centre of atom, which deflects the
positively charged particles
a
ie
principal
MXV=A
Ex (= n=1,2,3,-...n= quantum
at different depending on their distance from
angles centre of nucleus.
numbers

very few x-particles (1 in 8000) suffers deflection of 180. This shows ↳

quantisation
5)
Called Bohr's condition.
that size of Nucleus is very small, nearly 18000 times the size of
atom. h= plank's constant
N

Rutherford's X-Scattering formulae

#
(iii). Stationary orbit if while resolving in the permissible orbits, an electron

Number
does not radiate energy. These non-radiating orbit are called
alpha particle
of scattered per
stationary orbit.
unit NCO] at scattering angle o
area,
varies inversely as (ix). Frequency condition:An atom can emit or absorb radiation in the
form of discrete energy photons only when an electron jumps
sitok)
NCO
from a higher to a lower orbit or from a lower to a higher
orbit, respectively
E= Ep -

Eg
Impact Parameter (b): (PYQ)
EE
# 42= E,-Eg => D =

It is defined as the perpendicular distance of initial velocity vector

the
ofthe alpha particle
from the centre of the
nucleus, when the particle is
far
away from the nucleus
of the atom. where is is
frequency of radiation emitted, E; &Ef are the
energies associated with stationary orbit of principal quantum
b:
Fot
(02) K-kineticenergyis number
4, and
no respectively (where Mp>C4f)

E: atomic no nucleus
of 8: scattering
angle
Distance of
#
closest approach (P4R) h

At a certain distance to from the Nucleus,

the x-particle stops for a moment and then
begin to retrace its path. The distance is called the distance of closest
approach.

No-zze
At the distance of closest approach whole kinetic energy of the alpha particle
is converted into
 (ii)
+8.6=-1S=-3.4eAnswer ⑭
E
BOHR'S THEORY OF HYDROGEN ATOM know that =

CPQ) we

Radius of nth Orbit it In H-atom, an electron having charge -

a revolves
around the nucleus of orbit of radius , such THE LINE SPECTRA OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM -

charge in circular
-> ..

to
..

that necessary centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic force of

*
E, and Eg are energies associated with the radius of H-atom of principal
attraction and nucleus. quantum number n; and
no respectively (up > n)), then on jumping of

electronfrom Orbithito asthe differenceof energyassociated with

the
i
my= wts et mx
ut tx-i) e--. given by

AertMeCTL
MD:
E
Eg-Eg or
COEmen3
=

From Bohr's quantization condition.

myrin or
Eth-ii). or
Omen [iuhw] gee [heo or

using equation (ii) Mar) what

in eq(i), we get.
e
ormuchasits t
or
v=nhedoc where n=1,2,3, --- is principal *Fret [it22] f-Rutg -h] RH=eY-1097XI8h
or

is called
quantum number.
ie rnz Rydberg's Constant

=
wave number.
Radius of 4th orbit of H-atom v = nx0.529 A

Radius Hydrogen Like species He, Litt, Bett Spectral series of Atom.
of
Such atoms have one electron like Hydrogen atom, but the charge of
Hydrogen
When the electron in a H-atom jumps from Higher energy level to Lower
their nucleus is the, where I is their atomic number.
energy level, the difference of energies of two
energy levels is emitted as
so that in this radius of nth orbit of such atom becomes
case, radiation of particular wavelength, called spectral line.
spectral lines of different wavelengths are obtained for transition of
v=thego or
v=2x0.529 electron between two different energy levels, which are found to fall

unil J Ry ttr]
in a number ofspectral series given by

(i)Smanseieso
3 peed of Electron in 4th orbit of Hydrogen atom

a [to
is n8=1 nizG1314
from Bohr's quantization condition.
of here,
inh using
value a
myrah get
or we

Gi)Bamerseriesofis tR+t#2]UF

ng
=this try terxe X-2 iexist
=2 3,4, e
ni
=
or or

ra P ysics
feet, called
(ii)eschenstriesof is-t-RHst-ton]
where Fine structure constantin
U8
= 3
7p=45e

for the radius of th

PYQ ↳sing Bohn's atomic model, derive the expression

h
-
-
Orbit of the revolving electron in a hydrogen atom. (AIG020).
sation - answer in notes.
it). Bett series it
T=t=R4[[2 Te] "f=4 Mp=5,6,-.a
Brackett series lies in IR
region of em waves.
Energy of Electron in nth Orbit Hydrogen atom.
An electron revolving in an orbit of H-atom, has both kinetic energy
and electrostatic potential energy.
circular orbit of radius
G.Pfand Series it T==RAT -t2] (/=5 np=6,7,--.0
Kinetic energy of the electron revolving in a Gu
↑Fund series also lies in IR of
v is region em waves.

* =
IMX2
using equation (i) in it.
Kyteet ruji
Electrostaticpotentialenergy ofelectronor charge a revolving around the
-

=fet of electron in orbit of radius isa

v so, total energy

tEntr
E= K+W = EF

jeer
E:

using
witnes
value of EI
we
get

En
elen En=-ligeX (IeXzIOXIoY
notes - (i).-ye
sign of energy of electron indicates that the electron and nucleus
together form a bound system. It electron is bound to the nucleus.

(ii)energy its orbit varies inversely ofthe

ofelectronon with
negative Energy level
of
diagram for spectral
series
Hydrogen.
transition of Electron
(i). Emission
----------
spectrum it when an electron jumps from higher energy state to lower

energy state, it emits

energy in theform of radiation
which produce spectrum called emission of spectrum.
energyleveldocugnan
a
also

(ii). Absorption spectrum: -> when an electron jumps from lower

energy state to higher energy state, it absorbs
energies of the photons of certain frequencies,
hydrogen gas. of the white light passed through the
The resulting spectrum then produced consist of

↑VQ: - In the proud state of its Bohr radius is given as bright background with some dark lines corresponding
Hydrogen atom,
3x18m. The atom is excited such that the radius becomes 21.2x18'm. to the frequencies absorbed by the electron. This pattern
5.

Find the value of the principal quantum number and (ii) the total energyof dark lines is called absorption spectrum.
of the atom in this excited state. (Delhi2012)
Solutions ->
(i) since ran"

So

In = 2 GEXIOT && nEDW2l

=
= = =
n= =

-
 NUCLEI Important properties of neutron 42
class- 12th
m a nw
NCERT
M a
CH =
1554 A
c c New
⑳
Syllabus (i). Neutron is an elementary particle present in the nuclei of all elements
except hydrogen.
is
Composition of Nucleus (ii). Neutron has no
charge and its mass
slightly more than that of a

The radius of nucleus is smaller than the radius of an atom by a factor proton. Mn=1.00866 amL =
1.6749x10-Kg
of104. More than 99.9% Mass of the atom is concentrated in the
(ii) A free neutron is unstable. It spontaneously decays into a proton,
Nuclenso with half life
antineutrino of about 1000s.
electron, and an a

Nucleons of Proton and neutrons which are

present O
n ->

1H +
3e + + Q
in the nuclei of atoms are collectively (iv). Neutrons being neutral, have low Yonising power.
known as nucleons o
⑪. Being neutral, neutrons are not repelled or attracted by the
nucleus and the electrons of an atom. They can easily penetrate
Atomic Number: -
The number of protons in the nucleus is called the through heavy nuclei and induce nuclear reactions
atomic number of the element. It is denoted by
Evi they induce radioactivity in many elements.
Mass Number:The total number of protons and neutrons present in
Size of Nucleus (44)
a nucleus is called the mass number of the element.
It is denoted by A.
deflection
(i). An alpha particle which suffers head on collision, suffering a
->
number of protons in an atom: I of 180 helps us to find the radius of nucleus by
- number of electrons in an atom: I distance of closest approach ·
As the alpha particle
-> number of nucleons in an atom: A comes to rest at almost surface of nucleus,
on the -

I
- number of neutrons in an atom= N=A-1 so at distance of closest approach v, its kinetic
energy converts into electric potential energy. !

Nuclear mass: The total mass of the protons and neutrons present in a

↳my fkee-this givesanapproximatea

1 zexce
nucleus is called the nuclear Masso
= or v=

VITE0
A nuclide is and is found to be order of 1844m.
Nuclide a specific nucleus of an atom characterised by

Sunil JIRECA
its atomic number 1 and Mass number A.It is (ii) volume of the nucleus is directly proportional to the number of nucleons
symbolically represented EX.

a
as
in it; it on the mass number A of the nucleus so
where
=> RCAY is R = *o*Y
x= chemical symbol of the element.
Where Ro 101x1015m is
=
called nucleus unit radius.
Atomic Mass Unit the of atom is very small, compared to

ng
if Mass an a
Density of the nucleus
O

Kilogram. Therefore, a different mass unit is (pya)

used for expressing atomic masses. Te atomic mass unite.

ra P ysics
e
semnucleus
lame toxIe
One atomic mass unit 4 is defined as of the or =
=
actual Mass of carbon-12 atom. fan volume of nucleus

It is denoted by amy or only 4.

Note:->
(i). Density of all the nuclei of all the atoms is same as it is independent
Mass of C atom

h
I am!= one
of mass number.
12 (ii). Matter is not distributed uniformly inside the nucleus and
density
IamU= 1.992678x1026 Kp is maximum at centre of nucleus which reduces towards it
edge
12 So, nucleus does not have sharp boundaries.
I am i 951H eX
(iii) The high density of the nucleus (=10kgnis) suggest that nucleus is

a
TYPES
X
OF ATOMS highly compact.
Gu
Nuclear Force ruji
Isotopes Isobar Isotones Isomers
The Force acting inside the nucleus or
acting between nucleous is
called nuclear force.
(i) Isotopes: are those atoms which have same atomic number but
Nuclear Forces forces in nature.
different atomic masses.
-> are the
strongest
-> It is very short range attractive force.
eppH'c, HY,H" CLi,ELi
s -> It is non-central and non-conservative force.
-> It is indep endent of charge
(ii) Isobars of those atoms which have
are same atomic mass but 1038 times
-> It is 100 times that of electrostatic force and that of gravitational
↳ different
atomic numbers
Force
e.
PgAr, 19K", c.Ca" etc.
between the nucleons dueto
according tousethenuclearForceacts
->

(ii) Isotones: f are those atoms which have same number of neutrons in
(ie same number of neutrons are
CC,theirnuclei
#
Features or Nuclear Binding force (PR)
eg N= A-2
N = 14-6 =

8, 15-728, 188-8.
11). The nuclear Force is much stronger than the
concombs force acting between charges or
(iv). Isomersare the nuclei with same atomic no, and same mass no
in different energy
the gravitational forces between masses.
but existing states
The nuclear binding
force has to dominate
over the concombs repulsive force between

proton inside the nucleus. This happens

only because the nuclear force is much

stronger than the concombs force. The

9 ravitational Force is much weaker

than even coulomb force.

(2). The nuclear force between the nucleons falls rapidly to zero as their distance
D)
iscovery of Neutron Is
O
more than a tentometres. This heads to saturation of forces in a
few
medium or a
large-sized nucleus, which is the reason for the constancy of
In 1932 James Chadwick observed that when
the binding energy per nucleon
alpha particles are bombarded on berylium
nuclei emission ofneutral radiation take place. rough plot of the potential
↳ energy between two hucleous as a
↑unction of distance is shown in Fig. The potential energy is a minimum
this neutral radiation could knock
at a distance to of about 0.8fm. This means that the force is attractive
out protons from light nuclei such as those
for distances larger than 0.8 fm and repulsive it they are separated by
of helium, carbon and nitrogen. Chadwick
distance less than 008fm.
assumed that the neutral radiation consists of
new type of neutral particles called neutrons.
3). The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and proton-proton

Be is depend on the electric

4

<He
->
C + in charge
approximately the same. The nuclear force does not

Cneutron Contomb's Law

Unlike or Newton's Law of gravitation there is no simple
mathematical form of the nuclear force.
The neutrons is not a stable particle. It spontaneously
decays as follow:

in ->
iHie +O +
Q
Draw a plot of potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of 43
their separation, write
the nature of nuclear
two important conclusion which you can draw
forces (11-2015).
regarding Semi Conductor Electronics
Solution -> Answer in above topico Class-12th NCERT CH -
14 C C to New
A Syllabus

Classification of solids on the Basis of Energy Bands

ass-energy:
# Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy,
say Kinetic energy and vice-versa. Insulators: in insulators, the
i.e E mC2
=
c= velocity of
light in vacuum. valence band is completely filled
3x108mIS =
whereas the conduction band is

Numerical (NCERT Solved):-> Calculate

completely emptyselectron in conduction
the energy equivalent of
19 of substance.
band so no electrical conduction is
Solution:
E = MC2
2
m =
19=183kg possible. The energy gap
conduction band and valence bandh
between

E =
153x (3x108) is so large (Ep>3ex) that no electron
E =
= 9x105 Answer. in valence band can be provided so
much energy from any external
source that it can jump this energy gap.
Mass Detect: The of nucleus is the sum of masses of its nucleons
expected mass
ie proton and neutrons, within it. But, it is found that the rest mass of semiconductors: the energy band structure of a semiconductor is shown in
nucleus is always less than the sum of masses of its nucleons. Figure (b). It is similar to that of an insulator but
The difference between the sum of the masses of the nucleous constituting a with a comparatively small energy gap (Ep (3eX)
·

At absolute temperature, the conduction band of semiconductor is

nucleus and the rest mass of nucleus is known as mass-defect. It is denoted
totally empty and valence band is filled
completely
by Amo
of proton Therefore, they are insulators at how tempertures
of neutron
=<<mpt (A-1)m))-my Mp mass
=
mn- mass
Am However, at room temperture, some electrons in the valence band acquire
my- rest mass of nucleus. thermal energy greater than energy band gap and jump over to the conduction
band where they are free to move under the influence of even a small electric
Nuclear Fission
The Process of splitting heavy nucleus into two nuclei of smaller masses with
Fieldand acquiresmallconductivity: ductor is not high that of insulators

Sunil J
of a as as

Liberation of energy is called nuclear fission.

(Metal) of In case of metals either the conduction band is

a
Conductors
The nuclear fission reaction is represented
vr5 as
artially filled and valence band is partially
↑

or conduction band and valence

empty, band overlapo
·in tissues -
aBakr +34 In case of overlaping electrons from valence band can easily
move into the conduction band, thus large number of electrons available

ng
for conduction
n
o

=
neutron.
In case valence band is empty, electrons from its lower level can
move to higher level
making conduction possible

ra P ysics
-

This is the reason why resistance of metal is low or the conductivity

is high o

Nuclear Fusion if When two or more than two Energy Bands of solids

Light nuclei fuse to pether to form heavy 2:. Valence Band - This energy band contains valence electrons. This band may be
nucleus with liberation of energy, the process

h
partially or completely filled with electrons but never be empty-
is called Nuclear Fusiono The electron in this band are not capable of gaining energy from
external electric field to take part in conduction of Current

:H iH + ->
3H + e++0 + 0.42 4eX
(ii) Conduction Band: This band contains conduction electrons. This band is either
empty or partially filled with electrons.
-> Electrons present in this band take part in the conduction of current.
Gu
(iii) Forbidden Band: This band is completely empty its temperature increases,
Forbidden energy gap decreases.
ruji
Hate the minimum energy required to shift an electron from valence band to
conduction band is called Bandp. (Eg)

Types of SERICONDUCTOR
(i) intrinsic semi conductor (ii) extrinsic Semiconductor.
semiconductor in its pure state
A A semiconductor doped with a
is called intrinsic semiconductor. suitable impurity to increase its
Of conductivity is called extrusic

ofpureseeaconductorwhich weare
is semiconductor.
Types
intrinsic semiconductor.
e.p Germanium (Gel and silicon (si)
in intrinsic semiconductors, the
->
Femi
Enter gate
enem
number of free electron he is
equal
to the number of holes Um. That is
He =
hn =
4, n-type semiconductors when
E small
a
amount of pentavalent
= intrinsic carrier concentrations
u

&
impurityisadded toapurean as

~ type semi conductor

EEDSiEtioTE
-

Bond,
covalent
-> ie intrinsict Pentavalent=n-type
Semiconductor Semiconductor

↑type semiconductor: when a

small amount of trivalent

note: t. Temperature a 10K are required for =>
impurity is added to a pure
fusion to take place. semiconductor, it is known as
-> all the valence electrons of semiconduce P-type semiconductor.
Nuclear Fusion is basic of bomb.
a
Hydrogen
·

-for atoms are occupied in covalent

· Stellar Energy it is the energy obtained from it Intrinsic trivalent=p-type
bonding temper
if +

is raised some of
ature semiconductor impurity
the sun and stars. The the covalent bonds in semiconductor
break due to thermal energy supplied. ·
Pentavalent-> As, sb, petco
source of stellar energy is nuclear fusion. thus the electron which set free,
trivalente In, B,
smallelectricalconductivity
to Ateat
Provide
a

-> conductivity of extrusic semi-

-> when electron breaks its covalent
an conductor is high.
bond and becomes free, a vacancy is
created in the valence band.
 I
> this missing electron in a covalent bond &)
ue to layer of positive charge is built on p-side and a layer of
this a
is called hole which acts is built on p-side of pnjunction. This layer sufficiently
a as the
negative charge
charge grows up within a very short time of the junction being formed, preventing any
-> conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor further movement of the pn junction
charge carriers across -

is Low. Thus a potential difference to of the order of 0.1 to 0.3X is setup across the
↑
in junction called "potential barrier" or junction barrier.
N-Type Semiconductor if =
A pentavalent impurity atom has The thin region around the junction containing immobile positive and negative
five valence electron. On adding
⑭
changes is known as "depletion layer".
four of its electron form
it to a
semiconductor,
covalent bond with semiconductor atoms, leaving Biasing
the Fifth valence electron unoccupied
amount of pentavalent
c ->
Thus on
adding small
11. EmmBiasing 14 AmBasing
impurity Like its sb, large number of Free
or

electron are produced in a semiconductor Crystal. (1) Forward Blasing -> when the the terminal of battery is connected to poside and
negative to n-side of phjunction, then pnjunction is said to be forward
-The Fifth valence electron of impurity atom, called bias eco
as Donavo
-> so in n-type semiconductor majority carriers are free electron and
carriesa re holes.
-

depletion layer
the width of reduces
minority and applied field
external is able to
overcome the
strong electric field of
->
it Menn=4", h, is the number density of electron in a conduction
depletion layer.
↓ anch
so
-> in n-type semiconductor, current is mainly conducted by ->
movement of the majority charge carriers
Free electrono
across the junction gets established

o-type semiconductor:
Initially increases almost
-> the current
negligibly, till the
voltage across

when a small amount of trivalent the diode crosses threshold

voltage or knee
voltage.
is added to a pure sem cutoff diode current increases exponentially
impurity
After the
voltage the

voltage voltage for Gediode is 0.3X and for Sidiode is about

conductor, it is called p-type, see
knee

Sunil J
O of No
-
conductoro
In Forward biasing resistance of

a
S
trivalent
A impurity atom has three
diode is very low, which can
valence electrons. On adding it to a
be obtained by the slope of EV
semiconductor, its electron three of
characteristics
From three covalent bonds with semiconductor atoms, leaving
the Fourth covalent bond incomplete, with a vacancy of one electron-

ng
(a) Reverse Blasing: when the tre
This missing electron in the fourth covalent bond, behaves as a hole.
terminal of battery is connected to
The trivalent impurity atom are known as Acceptor atom.
n-side and negative terminal top-side

ra P ysics
In p-type semiconductor, majority carriers are holes and minority carriers are
of a p-njunction, then the p-njunction
free electrons.
is said to be Reverse Basedo
-> ie Hunn-4 or "phe, so imp-type, current is mainly conducted by holes
in p-type semiconductor, from positive to negative terminal of Semiconductor Crystal
->
The width of depletion layer increases
Electrical Conductivity electric Field of

h
of a Semi Conductor and the depletion layer
Let us semiconductor crystal of length
consider a
becomes more
stronger.
I and cross-section area A across which a potential depletion layer does not at all allow the transfer of
majority charge
->
The now

X is applied, then magnitude of

electric field are set up carriers while support the crossing of minority charge carrier.Thus the

insideittothethisistheI
reverses current flow only due to
minority change carriers.

->
Gu
For the diode in reverse
bias, the current is very small (muA) and almost
remain ruji
constant. However, for special cases, at very high reverse
conductor both due to free electros bias (breakdown
suddenly increases
voltage), the current .
The
general

givenbyheave feet fromdriftlelocityacurrent

and holes and is diode are not used saturation
purpose beyond the reverse current region.
relationone

RECTIFIER
Rectifier is a circuit which converts alternating current (902) into direct
he = no density of free electron h4=no density of Free Holes.
current (doc) ·

so mobility of free electron is

He =

Le => Ye= UE
-
(iii)
on junction
PrincipleOfRectificterectional device. It it allows
mobility of holes is Yn=MuE-lif the current to flow through it only in one direction, when
1
=
M2=
it is in forward bias.

using equation (ii) a (iv) in eg (ii)

TYPES
I eDECneMetUnUn) or
EzCAL CheMetUnde)
OrREL=eNetUnMn)
=

#alt Wave Rectifier Full Rectifier

I
wave

0=RE=tletununsF
so
half wave
A rectifier converts Full wave rectifier converts the
A
or P =
1 the half cycle of applied Ac whole cycle of applied A.C signal
eCheUet Un Mn) signal to D.C signal. Ordinary Into DC signal: Centre tap-
transformer may be used here. transformer is used here
the electrical conductivity of semiconductor is then given by
So,
Circuit Circuit
diagram diagram
rf or v =
echemethneen
-> In Intrinsic semiconductor v =
ehellletUn) : he Un =1
-

-> In extrinsic n-type v=chelle: nek un

-> In extrinsic p-type v=enpun: unphe

D, D2D, D2D, D2

Note't as Me> Mn, so electrical conductivity of n-type is more that that

of p-type semiconductor.

↑ N function Diode An arrangement consisting a p-type semiconductor

: =

brought into a close contact with h-type semiconductor, is called p-n working working
> potential barrier
juncle-On
+f
o

How ever if this junction is provided with P U For the S

->
half Cycle, Diode is - For the half cycle, diode D, is

ooootootfriNEENETA.
metallic contacts at the ends for the Forward bias i.e conduct forward biased, i.e conduct and we

application of external it is
get output Ro
voltage, then &
and we across et output
9 across RL Resistor

called on junction Diode.

⑧ ⑧
For-we half cycle, diode is For-he half
F

↓ Cycle
->
->
Diode D2 is forward
d reversed bias. I do not biased i.e D2 Conduct and we
get
conduct, no output across output across R2.
Ro
P N

P N