BASIC READING SKILLS

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Becoming a proficient reader requires mastery of several skills that need to be applied
simultaneously. Obviously, this doesn't happen overnight. These basic skills should be
learned first in isolation, then as readers becomes more adept at each one, they can progress
and combine until they can read independently with full comprehension of what they read.
Basic reading skills encompass a range from phonics to comprehension.

Decoding

Decoding or sounding out words is the first step in reading. Children can
decode when they understand that each letter of the alphabet has a
corresponding sound. Children then learn how to look at words in print,
isolate each separate sound, then blend them to read the word as a
whole. The goal of phonics instruction is to enable readers to become
proficient at decoding so they are able to read words on their own and
with little effort.

Vocabulary

Good readers increase their vocabulary every time they read and are able
to recall these words when they see them again. They begin by
developing a sight word vocabulary. Sight words are words that are
frequently found often in common speech and books, such as "the," "is,"
"were," "was" and "said." Generally, these words cannot be sounded out,
so readers have to memorize them. Knowledge of these words is
essential because they can be found in any book.

Fluency

Fluency is the ability to read accurately with expression and at a speed

that lends itself to comprehension. Fluent readers will be able to read
smoothly without having to take a lot of time to sound out words. They are
also able to use context clues to figure out unknown words. Fluency is
most evident when a person reads aloud, but it can also be seen by the
reader's ability to understand what they read. Fluent readers are able to
pay attention to the details in a book because they don't have to spend a
lot of time sounding out words.

Comprehension

Comprehension is a basic reading skill that develops as children learn to

sound out words and recognize sight words. The more they read, the
easier it is for them to remember specific things like the main characters,
setting and plot. As reading skills progress, children will develop advanced
comprehension skills like inferring, evaluating and retelling.

THINGS THAT AFFECT READING FLUENCY

Concepts of Print
The reading process actually begins with pre-reading skills such as alphabet
recognition, which is one component of print awareness. Children learn concepts of
print as others read to them and as they look at books before they actually can read.
Identifying the front and back cover, using pictures to understand the story and
learning that words are read from left to right and top to bottom are examples of print
concepts. These are essential for establishing a strong reading foundation. Fluent
readers have an inherent knowledge of print concepts.

Exposure to Books
Frequent reading opportunities are crucial for developing fluency. It is only through
looking at books, reading them and listening to others read that children will increase
their fluency. When parents and teachers read aloud, they model fluency techniques
their children can emulate, such as pausing at punctuation and reading expressively.
Children should be encouraged to read often from a variety of texts.

Phonics
Phonics is a method of reading that emphasizes the relationship between sounds and
letters. It involves phonemic and phonological awareness skills. These include hearing
a word and breaking it down to its individual parts and phoneme segmentation.
Segmenting a word requires that the reader be able to look at a word, say each sound
in it, then blend the sounds to pronounce the word. Mastery of these skills directly
affects fluency. If children have to spend more time decoding or sounding out words,
they can't read smoothly and quickly enough to help them comprehend.

Sight Word Vocabulary

Sight words are frequently used and seen in books. They usually cannot be sounded
out phonetically and must be memorized. A few examples are "were," "about" and
"come." Children begin learning simple sight words in kindergarten and increase their
vocabulary every year in school. Knowledge of these words is essential for increasing
fluency rates. Children have to know these words automatically, without having to
think about them.

DAR: DIAGNOSTIC ASSESSMENT OF READING

The Diagnostic Assessment of Reading is used by classroom teachers and reading

specialists to assess student reading ability in five areas: phonemic awareness,
phonics, vocabulary development, reading fluency and reading comprehension. The
DAR is most often used to test elementary-aged children; however, some teachers
use it to test older students who struggle with reading. Teachers need no special
training to administer the test, which is un-timed and administered verbally on a one-
to-one basis.

Phonemic Awareness
Instead of focusing on the letters of words, phonemic awareness concentrates on the
sounds those letters create. These sounds are called phonemes. For instance, the
word cat contains three phonemes: /k/, /ae/ and /t/. Phonemic awareness allows
readers to manipulate sounds of speech. DAT administrators ask students to read a
variety of words to test their phonemic awareness.
Phonics
The greater a student's phonemic awareness, the better his or her ability to segment
small sounds -- phonemes -- into word patterns. For instance, a student who
understands the phonemes of the letters D and G can usually piece these sounds
together to read the word "dog." The DAR tests student ability to read words by
sounding them out.

Vocabulary Development
Vocabulary is a key factor in reading ability and, during the DAR, students are asked
to define key vocabulary words from passages. Students with weak vocabularies
easily grow frustrated and bored when they read because they miss important details.
As David Driscoll, chair of the National Assessment Governing Board, said, "Helping
students improve their vocabulary and use words in the proper context is essential to
improving overall reading ability -- especially for students who most need to improve."

Reading Fluency
Reading fluency allows children to read quickly, accurately and with appropriate
expression. Students struggling with fluency may sound choppy when they read aloud,
because they are unfamiliar with certain words or they struggle to string words
together. This can lead to frustration and embarrassment. Fluency affects silent
reading, too, and struggling readers often read slowly and with no facial expression.
When reading fluency suffers, students often dislike reading.

Reading Comprehension
The DAR includes reading comprehension questions, which test students' ability to
fully understand writing samples. The ability to comprehend writing requires phonics,
vocabulary, fluency and an ability to connect reading material with the bigger picture
and real-life events.

THE ADVANTAGES OF SUSTAINED SILENT READING

Sustained silent reading, also known as SSR, is independent, quiet reading. A block of
time -- typically 10 to 30 minutes -- is regularly devoted to recreational reading. Many
teachers incorporate this approach in classrooms, and some administrators have
instituted schoolwide SSR programs. Since reading is an individual act for the most
part, it is natural to read silently. When teachers or parents offer sustained silent
reading time, children reap the benefits.

Enhances Reading Enjoyment

Readers choose their own materials for sustained silent reading, so children can pick
books of interest. Adults must ensure that children are given many options. Parents
and teachers can take kids to the library and let them pick books using the five finger
test. The child reads a random page in a book. He extends one finger for each word
he doesn't know. If he puts out four or five fingers, the book is probably too difficult.
When they are given the freedom to choose, kids discover stories that appeal to them,
and they develop a positive attitude toward reading. There are no tests or questions to
answer, so the pressure is off. They are reading for the pure joy of reading.
Increases Comprehension
Readers don't have to pay as much attention to the pronunciation of every single word
when they read silently, so they can concentrate on reading for understanding. As
vocabulary, fluency and motivation increase, so does comprehension. Children read
books at their own level and their own pace. They can visualize and interpret the
words in their own way. Some teachers provide time after SSR for students to share
their thoughts on the books they're reading. This helps them recall, and it reinforces
comprehension. Students are required to read silently for standardized tests, and
sustained silent reading provides effective practice.

Builds Vocabulary
Silent reading provides the opportunity to learn the meanings of many new words in
context. Kids are able to discover word definitions in an interesting way without any
direct instruction. They tend to be more open to this method of learning new words
than they would be if they were involved in intensive, forced vocabulary instruction.
Children will apply the word attack skills they've learned to figure out new words on
their own.

Improves Writing Skills

There is a well-established link between reading and writing. When children are
engrossed in silent reading, they observe a variety of writing styles and sentence
structures that influence their own writing styles. Since they are able to concentrate on
the words they're reading, grammar and spelling typically improve. Consistent,
independent reading inspires a creative thought process that transfers to the written
word. Some teachers combine sustained silent writing with SSR. After the students
read silently, they write in dialogue journals to reflect on what they've just read. The
teacher doesn't correct the writing, she simply responds, using corrected spelling
words and grammar structures in her response.

FIVE COMPONENSTS TO A COMPREHENSIVE READING PROGRAM

Reading is more than just recognizing written words on a page. It is a process that involves
several skills that are utilized at one time. These skills are classified under five main
categories: phonics, phonemic awareness, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. Effective
reading programs will address each of these components and will determine the method for
classroom instruction.

Phonemic Awareness
Phonemic awareness refers to the recognition that words are made of separate
sounds (phonemes) combined together. Phonemic skills are entirely based in the
sound of a word. When children can hear a word and produce the sounds in isolation,
they are mastering phonemic skills. Reading programs address phonemic awareness
with rhyming activities and deleting or substituting phonemes to make new words.

Phonics
Phonics is the integration of phonemic awareness with the printed word. It is a method
of teaching reading built on a letter to sound correspondence. Instruction in phonics
begins with letter naming and recognition and progresses to learning the sounds that
letters make. Eventually children will learn to look at a word, say the sound for each
letter and then blend them to make the word. Phonics is essential for decoding
(sounding out) words and spelling. If readers do not have phonological awareness,
they may spend an inordinate amount of time on pronunciation instead of
remembering what they are reading.

Vocabulary
Vocabulary development is another important component of a reading program.
Sounding out words is not enough. Students must understand the meaning of the
words in order to comprehend what they are reading. Vocabulary is taught in two
ways: explicitly and implicitly. Teachers use vocabulary lists and give direct instruction
on the meaning and usage of each word in explicit instruction. Implicit instruction
occurs during reading when children are able to figure out the meanings of words by
looking at context clues from pictures or other words in the same sentence or
paragraph.

Fluency
Fluency is the ability to read accurately and smoothly with expression and at a rate
that enables readers to comprehend what they are reading. Fluency should become
stronger as a student is exposed to more books and has frequent opportunities to
read. Reading programs stress fluency through the use of activities like echo and
choral reading, which give students an opportunity to practice good reading skills and
emulate the teacher who acts as a fluency model.

Comprehension
Comprehension is the culmination of reading skills learned in the other four
components of mastering reading. Simply stated, comprehension is the ability to
understand what's being read. A student who can decode words, understand their
meanings and read fluently will be able to comprehend a story. Comprehension can
be assessed with questions that ask readers to identify basic story components like
characters, setting and plot. Advanced comprehension, including predicting,
summarizing and critical thinking, are introduced in more advanced grade levels after
students have a firm grasp of the basics.

FIVE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF READING IN A FIRST-GRADE CLASSROOM

First-grade children develop the skills necessary for a solid foundation in reading. As a
child’s proficiency increases, so does his enjoyment of reading printed material.
Children enter first grade at various stages -- some are emergent readers while others
already read complete books. Although teachers conduct whole-class instruction, they
also work with small groups to address individual needs. Well-rounded first-grade
reading programs include a variety of critical elements.

Phonemic Awareness
First graders build on the auditory skills they acquired in kindergarten. They hear,
identify and work with individual sounds or phonemes. They learn to say isolated
sounds and then blend them together. They might learn the /m/ sound at the beginning
of the word “man.” As an extension, the teacher could provide several other examples
of words, such as “map” or “mud,” that begin with that same /m/ sound. Children
advance to blending beginning, middle and ending sounds of words together. For
example, they recognize three distinct sounds in the word “nap.” They also take words
apart or segment them, breaking them into their individual sounds.

Phonics and Word Study

Children in first grade learn to decode unfamiliar words. Teachers generally progress
through a sequential set of phonics lessons. They might teach first graders to identify
the /k/ sound at the beginning of “car” and “cane.” They help them recognize patterns
and word families. For example, when students can read the word “an,” they learn to
extend the pattern to other words in that same family, such as “can,” “ran” and “fan.”
They learn to sound out words, matching sounds to letters and blending them
together.

Fluency
As students acquire skills, they are able to increase their fluency. They move quickly
from word to word, using the right feeling, emotion and expression as they read orally.
The teacher or another adult can listen and give feedback as a child reads a passage
aloud. Fluency depends on familiar vocabulary and a grasp of irregular sight words,
such as “was” and “the.” Teachers often play games in class to improve sight word
mastery. The goal at the first-grade level could be that a student makes no more than
one error in 20 words as he reads with comprehension. Fluency requires sufficient
guided practice.

Vocabulary
Children need plenty of exposure to vocabulary. This comes through reading
experience. Teachers and parents should encourage children to read a variety of book
types. When they have repeated experiences with vocabulary words, children begin to
make better sense of print. They learn strategies such as using context clues that help
them discover the meanings of words. Teachers typically incorporate themes that
focus on a select group of vocabulary words. For example, they might teach words
related to a farm or a zoo. A child’s vocabulary also increases when he learns to add
suffixes to words. If he can read the word “walk,” he can add the ending and read
“walked.”

Comprehension
Children in first grade understand that there is meaning in printed words. They
develop strategies to help them remember what they’ve read. They make predictions
about books and summarize what they’ve just read. Teachers encourage lots of class
discussions so students can communicate with one another about the books they’re
reading. They learn to describe a story in terms of “who," "what," "where" and how.”
First graders start with smaller passages and then build with time and practice.

READING RATE VS. FLUENCY

Reading fluency is a reader's ability to read quickly and with appropriate expression. Reading
rate is part of the broader umbrella of fluency and is measured in words read per minute, while
fluency is a bit more subjective. Rate is a key factor in fluency as a whole.

What is Fluency?
Fluency is the ability of the reader to read with accuracy, automaticity, appropriate
phrasing and intonation. Accuracy is the ability to decode words correctly. Automaticity
is the ability to read words automatically without having to stretch them out or break
them apart. High automaticity equals a high rate. Appropriate phrasing is the ability to
pay attention to punctuation in order to phrase sentences correctly. Intonation is the
ability to use voice to create meaningful phrases. Lifting the tone of voice at the end of
a question is an example of this. All of these components work together to create a
fluent reader.

What is Rate?
Rate is quite simply words read per minute. It involves the automaticity of reading. The
more automatic reading is, the higher the rate will be. Rate is measured by counting
the number of words in a specific passage and timing the reader. The mathematical
equation for rate equals (words divided by seconds) multiplied by 60. For example, if
there are 256 words in a passage, and it takes 225 seconds to read the passage, the
rate will be 68.3 WPM.

Appropriate Words Per Minute

The most widely accepted scale in terms of oral reading rate was published by Jan
Hasbrouck and Gerald Tindal, acclaimed researchers in the field of oral reading
fluency. They created a grade-level scale that is helpful in comparing a student with
average readers at his grade level. For example, in second grade it is expected that
average students will achieve 89 WPM by the spring of that year. The fourth-grade
average for spring benchmarks is 123 WPM. Students who consistently read
significantly below that benchmark may benefit from reading intervention.

Achieving Overall Fluency

Rate is not the most important aspect of fluency. Fluency is made up of several
components, and each must be addressed in order to create an overall fluent reader.
Activities that promote fluency are repeated readings, where students read passages
several times in an attempt to increase fluency. Readers theater allows them to
practice fluent reading while participating in a classroom play. Dialogue often is a
wonderful way to encourage fluent reading, and it also is important that students have
the opportunity to hear fluent reading modeled for them. Read-alouds are a very
effective way to show emergent readers what fluent reading sounds like. Finally,
students can practice phrased reading. For this activity, poems work well. Having
students repeat certain phrases within poetry helps them practice the rhythm and
fluency needed for such texts.

WHAT IS EVIDENCE-BASED READING?

When teaching reading, there is no single approach that works for every child. Evidence-
based reading provides teachers with an arsenal of strategies that have a proven record of
objective, valid, reliable, systematic, and refereed success in the classroom. After examining
over 100,000 studies, the National Panel on Reading prepared information for teachers and
parents regarding how to help emerging and struggling readers.

Defining Reading
Reading is a complex task composed of four basic parts: alphabetics, fluency,
vocabulary, and comprehension. Alphabetics includes understanding the letters and
their sounds (phonics) as recognizing letters (decoding). Fluency involves the ability to
read the words correctly and at an appropriate pace. Vocabulary has to do with word
knowledge, and comprehension involves the understanding of what is being read.
Mastery of these four elements creates a well-rounded reader.

Struggling Readers
The National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities indicates that
at least 20 percent of children struggle with the process of learning to read. Evidence-
based reading can make the struggle less profound for children by giving teachers a
variety of strategies to use as they teach reading. Individualizing instruction by
teaching children to decode letters and words, incorporating a whole language
technique, and utilizing phonics instruction helps bridge the gap between the
struggling and the proficient.

Teaching Reading
Quality assessment drives instruction. When teaching reading, educators must begin
with an assessment to determine a student's level of reading proficiency. From there,
instruction can be tailored based on the results of the assessment. Reading instruction
should use materials that the learner finds engaging and relevant so that learning to
read is enjoyable and not burdensome. As students continue to grow and develop as
readers, they should be reevaluated. Kit Bell and Stephen Dolainski in an article
provided by Adult Education Great Cities Summit, note that evidence-based reading
research seeks to “teach the reader, not reading” -- a key concept that means
students can transfer skills acquired once they learn them.

Fluency and Comprehension

The more you read, the more fluent you become in your reading. That is due in part to
our seeing the same words repeatedly while reading. In fact, more than50 percent of
the words we read are the same 107 “sight words” (Kent State). The National Reading
Panel determined that guided repeated oral reading has a significantly positive impact
on reading fluency. They also noted that fluency is a critical factor for reading
comprehension. Comprehension is a critical component of reading success as, if the
reader does not understand what is being read, the rate and ability to decode do not
matter. Additionally, the reader’s comprehension of the text increases his enjoyment,
which is an ultimate goal of reading.

SHARED READING ACTIVITIES FOR KINDERGARTEN

Shared reading is a group activity. Children learn to predict and make meaning out of
what is not directly expressed. Through a sense of community, children develop a
pleasure for reading while acquiring skills such as building vocabulary, learning story
elements, and tracking reading left to right and word to word. Shared reading activities
like dramatic play, echo and choral reading, narrative storyboarding and word games
engage children in reading literacy.

Dramatic Play
Acting out stories helps children relate to the characters and choices they make.
Retelling the story through dramatic play improves reading comprehension by helping
children remember what happened. Children learn narrative structure through the
characters and themes as the story unfolds, enriching play with literacy. For example,
in Aesop's Fable "The Lion and the Mouse," as children act out the story, they learn
bravery, mutual kindness and that size doesn't always equal effectiveness.
Echo Reading
In echo reading, children imitate the teacher's skilled reading. The teacher reads the
words aloud while tracking them in the children's view. This strategy allows children to
learn sight words, begin reading more advanced text, and gain confidence. Through
echoing, students learn expressive, fluent reading. Read from a variety of genres,
such as poetry, folk tales and fairy tales, to spark their interests. For example, read
Robert Louis Stevenson's poem, “Bed in Summer," one line at a time and have the
students read each line back to you.

Choral Reading
During choral reading, children read aloud together with the teacher. Children are
given a copy of the story and follow along with a marker or finger. Choral reading
models fluent reading and gives less skilled children an opportunity to practice before
reading on their own. Choose material that engages students' imagination, such as
Aesop's Fable "The Tortoise and the Hare" and encourage them to read each line with
the proper expression and emotion.

Narrative Storyboard
A storyboard is a graphic organizer with pictures of the story unfolding in sequence.
Students visualize the series of events as the story is read. For example, read
"Goldilocks and the Three Bears” and have students arrange the pictures on the
storyboard to display the events as the story is read. Storyboarding conveys a story's
theme through visualization, which can remove barriers when English is not the
primary language.

Word Games
Teaching children to recognize high frequency and sight words allows them to focus
on understanding their reading, rather than decoding unfamiliar words. Primary
Concepts suggests playing games such as Word Bingo. The teacher calls out a word.
Using a Word Bingo board, if a player has the word a counter is placed on it. The first
player to get five words marked in a row or column wins. High frequency and sight
words can also be learned through music and word walls.

READING FLUENCY ACTIVITIES FOR OLDER STUDENTS

Reading automaticity and fluency are directly related to comprehension, so teaching reading
fluency will require a multifaceted approach, especially among middle and high school
students. To adequately comprehend a passage, it is important to focus on the meaning of
words. This can be difficult for students who struggle to sound out vocabulary and read at a
slower pace than their peers. Receiving feedback from an attentive instructor is key to helping
students improve their reading skills.

Reading Out Loud

Asking a student to read out loud allows an instructor to assess individual reading
fluency and provide guidance on improving fluidity. This is a good way to determine
the initial level of reading and identify problem areas that limit progression. As they
listen, instructors should pay attention to pace and enunciation. Once a student
completes a passage, the instructor should ask him or her to explain the reading,
ensuring that both speech and comprehension are satisfactory.
Choral Reading
Choral reading is a teaching technique centered on repetition. Students who reread
passages multiple times sharpen their ability to decode words and increase sight
vocabulary. During a choral reading session, students and teachers read out loud
together, and students follow the pace of their instructor. As they read each sentence,
students trace the words with their finger. Connecting speech with phrases on paper is
particularly helpful for students who learn at a slower pace.

Partner Reading
Working with another student introduces peer feedback and individual attention, and it
allows students to share their strengths. To make the most of each partner reading
session, students have to manage their time and learn to provide helpful tips.
Teachers also maximize learning by grouping students based on their reading level.
Strong readers are paired with weaker ones, so that fluid students can demonstrate
the appropriate reading pace and lead by example.

Cloze Reading
Instructors use the cloze technique to assess reading skills and improve analytical and
critical thinking. During a cloze reading session, an instructor skips words from a
passage and asks students to read the missing word together. Alternately, a teacher
prepares assignments for students, giving them the opportunity to silently fill in the
blank with a word that makes sense. By forcing students to pay attention to each
word, the instructor helps them derive meaning from the reading. A benefit of the cloze
method is that the instructor does not need to single out struggling students.

CHECKLIST FOR READING AND COMPREHENSION OF LITERATURE

When assessing a students reading abilities, teachers focus on the factors that make up the
whole “reading student.” Some factors, such as phonemic awareness and phonics, focus on
the act of translating writing on a page into words. Students can focus on comprehending
what they read once they have mastered these fundamentals. In order to truly understand all
aspects of a text, students must use comprehension skills before, during and after reading.
Teachers must also carefully note which strategies students use and do not use in order to
facilitate growth in their reading skills.

Pre-Reading
A student must get in the right mindset to read a story for it to be meaningful and leave
a lasting impression on the student. Before reading a text, students must know why
they are reading: do they want to learn something new? Do they want to be
entertained? Are they reading to get a feel for the author’s style? Furthermore, a good
reader sets personal goals for how they wish to grow as a reader. For example, a
student might decide before beginning to read that he will stop every five pages to
summarize what he's read, or to jot down any questions he has about the text. Finally,
students should preview the text to set a focus for their reading, identify important
parts of the story, and make connections between the text being read and other texts.

Reading
A good reader's mind is constantly focused on reading and engaging with the text. A
good reader monitors his own understanding of what he is reading and makes
adjustments when facing points of struggle. By re-reading, using context clues to
understand unfamiliar words and slowing down at critical points in a text, he will
improve his reading skills. A good reader is also an active writer; thoughts,
connections, confusions and breakthroughs are kept in an on-going journal he can
revisit, edit and update while reading. By keeping an active mind, students can ensure
they get the most out of a text every time they sit down to read.

Post-Reading
Even after finishing a text, a reader’s job is not finished. There will almost certainly be
parts of a text that cause confusion upon initial reading that may be clarified after
reading ahead. A student should revisit these sections as necessary to clarify points in
the text. Any particularly engaging part of a story should be revisited as well, not only
for the pleasure of doing so, but also to pinpoint what made the section so engaging to
the reader. Lastly, a reader should spend a considerable amount of time reflecting on
what was read by writing or talking about the events of the story and the importance of
the text. The text becomes part of the student’s background knowledge for making
connections to books read in the future.

Comprehension Prompts
When assessing comprehension, teachers should focus on “diving deeper” rather than
asking questions that simply skim the surface of a text. For example, instead of asking
students to identify a character’s actions (“What did Frog do to cheer Toad up?”),
teachers should ask questions that probe a student's understanding of a text (“How
can you characterize Frog based on how he treats Toad throughout the story?”). In
this way, students begin to learn that reading is not simply identifying words on a
page. They will learn that to truly “read” a text means to take in all the information
given, reflect on it and grow with it.

COGNITIVE FACTORS THAT AFFECT READING COMPREHENSION

Reading comprehension is a cognitive process that requires myriad skills and strategies.
Numerous programs are designed to improve reading comprehension: summer reading, read
to succeed, student book clubs and battle of the books. However, according to the U.S.
Department of Education, millions of students progress each year without the necessary
reading skills. Reading comprehension involves various factors such as background
knowledge, vocabulary and fluency, active reading skills and critical thinking that must work
together.

Background Knowledge
Background knowledge plays an essential role in reading comprehension. In an effort
to comprehend a text, students rely on their background knowledge to link what they
already know to the text they are reading. Background knowledge includes both a
reader’s real-world experiences and literary knowledge. Drawing parallels between
background knowledge and texts helps students become active readers, improving
their reading comprehension.

Vocabulary
Whether or not students have mastered vocabulary skills affects their reading
comprehension. Students must be able to comprehend a familiar word and its
relationship with other words within a text. Mastering vocabulary includes recognizing
a word’s part of speech, definition, useful context clues, and how it functions in a
sentence. These vocabulary strategies can help improve comprehension.
Fluency
Reading with fluency allows students to retain information with accuracy, expression
and increased speed. The ability to read fluently develops through reading practice.
As students become fluent readers, they will spend less time trying to decipher the
meaning of words and more time considering the overall meaning of the sentences.
Over time, fluent readers will develop the ability to insightfully respond to a text.

Active Reading
Beginning readers often rely on skilled readers to guide them through a text. However,
as readers develop, they will be able to monitor their own reading comprehension.
Students can actively guide their own reading by targeting comprehension problems
as they occur. Students can troubleshoot comprehension problems by recalling what
they read, asking themselves questions or evaluating the text.

Critical Thinking
Students can actively respond to a text more efficiently when they possess critical
thinking skills. As students read, they can determine the main idea and supporting
details, the sequence of events and the overall structure of the text. Students will also
be able to identify literary devices and their effect on the text. Having critical thinking
skills help to deepen a student’s comprehension of a text, resulting in a positive
reading experience.

INTERACTIVE SKILLS FOR READING

Interactive reading skills allow readers to read and think at the same time. Readers build
meaning through the interplay of the details in the text, their own experiences and their
knowledge of how skilled readers think. In interactive reading instruction, teachers model
these comprehension skills by reading and thinking out loud for their students. Engaged
readers then use the same interactive skills their teachers have demonstrated to comprehend
their own texts.

Isolated Practice Versus Interactive Reading

In the past, children learned to comprehend reading from textbook anthologies called
basal readers that used a building block approach to teaching skills. Students studied
lists of words from stories to build vocabulary. They practiced critical-thinking skills
such as analyzing cause and effect by answering comprehension questions about
passages. Interactive skill instruction focuses on modeling for students how good
readers use skills to build comprehension while they read. This focuses attention more
on what readers do while they read rather than after they read.

Interactive Skills
Interacting with a text requires readers to ask themselves questions about the text,
visualize what they read, determine importance and use background knowledge to
build comprehension. As a reader works through a story, she might ask, “What is this
character doing and why does he do it?” To clarify her questions, she finds descriptive
details and uses them to visualize the scene. Then, she asks herself, “Does this
remind me of anything I have seen before?” She uses her experience and background
knowledge to reach a conclusion that answers her original question about what is
happening in the story. The process the student uses is the same one she learned
from watching her teachers.
Teacher Modeling
To engage readers, reading consultant Cathy Puett Miller recommends teachers read
aloud from texts that will hold students’ interest while modeling how to read and think
at the same time. The teacher begins the read aloud session by introducing the text
and making predictions about what is going to be read. Then she reads aloud to
students, pausing occasionally to ask herself questions about the text before
searching the text to find answers in the details. After the teacher reads the selection,
she debriefs the class about what they learned from the modeling about how good
readers read and think. From the debriefing, students acquire guidelines for interacting
with texts.

Motivation and Collaboration

Readers must be motivated to interact meaningfully with a text. They are more likely to
be motivated to read when they have been given a choice of the material, and the text
is at an appropriate level of difficulty. Research also shows that students are more
motivated to read when they have an opportunity to collaborate with their peers.
Students want to be able to talk about what they have read and share their thinking
with other readers. Peer collaboration strategies such as literature circles and
reciprocal teaching promote both motivation to read and interaction with text. In both
these strategies, students work together with other students who have read the same
material

What Are the Advantages & Disadvantages

of the Literature-Based Approach to
Teaching Reading?
ByCarrie Perles

Reading instruction continues to be one of the most debated topics in education.

Some experts tout the importance of basal-based instructional methods, which include
learning phonetic rules methodically, reading stories written based on those phonics
rules, and answering questions about each story. Others, however, maintain that a
literature-based approach, in which students are exposed to real, authentic literature
in a natural setting, is a more effective way to teach reading in the classroom.

Advantage: Authenticity
Proponents of literature-based instruction usually focus on the importance of using
authentic literature, rather than the "canned" variety found in basal textbooks and
other programs. Books that are written to teach children to read tend to be boring,
contrived and less vibrant than authentic literature. Authentic literature can also open
doors for students by introducing them to different cultures, social structures and story
lines.

Advantage: Higher Level Thinking Skills

Many teachers choose literature-based instruction because they feel that it addresses
higher level thinking skills than basal level instruction. Rather than forcing children to
give pat answers to basic questions about a story, literature-based instruction
encourages children to think deeply and share their thoughts about a story. Reading
authentic literature can improve vocabulary, reading comprehension, reading ability
and language growth. In addition, literature-based instruction is much more child-
centered, with the teacher as the facilitator or coach, rather than "the sage on the
stage."

Disadvantage: Teacher's Perspective

From the teacher's perspective, teaching using a literature-based approach can be
more difficult than using other approaches. First-time teachers may find it especially
challenging, since literature-based approaches inherently have less structure than
many other approaches. Teachers also may struggle with effectively assessing a
child's progress. Because literature-based instruction is less widely used than other
forms of instruction, teachers often spend hours choosing literature selections, as well
as developing activities and evaluations that reflect the content.

Disadvantage: Scope and Sequence

Finding appropriate literature selections that address the skills that students need to
learn can be challenging, and finding selections that actually build from one year to the
next is virtually impossible. This means that using literature-based instruction may
prevent students from building their skills in a systematic fashion, and they may miss
out on some skills entirely. Especially as students advance to the next grade, they will
feel a lack of continuity, which can prevent them from growing as readers, writers and
thinkers.

Standard Reading Assessment Tests for the

Fourth Grade
The fourth grade year of elementary school is when children typically move from the earlier
emphasis on "learning to read" and begin tackling the academic expectations of "reading to
learn." Teachers monitoring this critical developmental phase may use assessments in order
to assemble benchmarks of growth and pinpoint areas of weakness. Being able to read and
comprehend text is critical for the upcoming years of learning.

Assessments Provide Specific Data for Teachers

When educators use systematic ways to evaluate and monitor a fourth grader's
reading progress, they are assembling non-biased data to track growth. This
information provides evidence for where teachers can focus more targeted instruction
in order to help readers improve in fluency and comprehension. Additionally, reading
assessments give insight into continued improvements made by children so higher-
level reading material can be provided to challenge strong readers. The fourth grader
is mature enough to be involved in these assessments and use the feedback to make
improvements with increased reading practice.

Reading Fluency
The rate at which a child can read orally and the smoothness of the reading is what is
referred to as fluency. Fluid readers can focus less on decoding, or sounding out
words, and give more attention to understanding the meaning of what is being read.
The Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) is one assessment
used to measure fluency. These short tests given three times a year require students
to read one-minute passages that are used as markers for early literacy and reading
skills. The results of the tests can help prevent later reading difficulties by identifying
struggling readers. By fourth grade DIBELS may be used less frequently but still
administered once a twice a year in order to maintain benchmark scores.

Deep Comprehension
When a fourth grade student can give less focus to the phonemic decoding needed for
reading, she is able to turn attention to reading more for pleasure and meaning.
Understanding the content is referred to as comprehension. This is the skill that the
confident fourth grader reader needs to have to move forward in learning new
material. Teachers assess comprehension by asking probing questions that reveal
how thoroughly a child has understood what he or she just decoded. Computer tests
such as the Scholastic Reading Inventory (SRI) are programmed to present
continually adjusted reading passages based on correct or incorrect responses. The
score produces a measure called "Lexile Level" which can assist teachers in grouping
for targeting reading skill instruction. The Lexile Level number is used by a number of
institutions and libraries as well to help families select books on an appropriate
reading level.

Running Records
Another commonly used assessment tool in fourth grade is a running record. The
student reads aloud and the educator scores each word for accuracy. Additionally, the
teacher notes attitude and behaviors shown when reading, such as fingers following
under text or eyes moving to gain understanding from the pictures rather than the
words. Running records require teachers to use specific notations in order to capture
the reading session and plan appropriate interventions to assist a struggling reader, if
necessary.

Picture Book Activities for Middle School

Students
ByChristi O'Donnell

As they go through the early elementary grades, children develop a love and reverence for
picture books. Once children have learned to read, however, these books do not have to be
relegated to the sidelines. By reevaluating what children need to get from these texts -- and by
being careful to select well-written, well-illustrated, well-researched picture books -- middle
school and even high school teachers can continue to integrate them into a well-rounded
curriculum.

A Picture's Worth a Thousand Words

Some of the best picture books available are completely, or nearly completely,
wordless. These books, like "Tuesday," "Free Fall" and "Flotsam" by David Wiesner,
rely entirely on beautiful illustrations and the imagination of the reader to tell stories
that may vary from person to person. Wordless picture books are a gold mine for
middle school English language arts assignments. Students can be tasked with writing
text for these books, creating poetry from the illustrations, putting together plays with
the illustrations as scenery or writing reviews based on what they can infer about the
characters, mood, tone, theme, plot and meaning of the story.

Sneak a Peek
Before beginning a lesson on a new subject, it can be difficult to know how much
background information students bring to the table. Because they're often rich in visual
images but light on text, picture books are an excellent way to give students a brief
glance at an upcoming topic or provide a quick refresher on information they may
have forgotten. To conduct a "sneak peek" with middle school students, gather
enough picture books on the topic so every two students in the class can share one.
Arrange students in a circle and pair them up. Give a picture book to each pair of
students and set a timer for three to five minutes. When the timer sounds, have
students pass the book to the pair on their left, whether they have finished reading or
not. Repeat this process until all students have had a chance to look at each book. At
this point their interest in the topic should be piqued and they should be ready to move
on to more rigorous activities.

Learning a Language
In many school districts, students begin learning a second language at some point
during their middle school years. Using picture books as a departure from grammar
and memorization allows students to experience the language in a comfortable and
authentic way. Many familiar English-language children's books have been translated
into other languages -- Maurice Sendak's "Where the Wild Things Are," for example,
has been translated into at least 13 languages. By teaching foreign-language students
to read well-known picture books in new languages, teachers expose students to
vocabulary and grammar while encouraging them to draw on established content
knowledge.

Turn It Around
Another way to use picture books in the middle school classroom is to turn the
authorship around and encourage middle school students to create picture books for
younger students. This is an especially useful tool in subject areas like science, social
studies and the arts because it allows students to process nonfiction learning and re-
teach it in a way that demonstrates their understanding. Working with pictures also
allows students who are unable to express themselves clearly in writing to express
themselves through illustrations.

What Is the Basal Reading Approach?

ByShayla Braunshausen

The Basal Reading Approach is a technique used to teach children reading skills.
Basal stems from the word "base" or "basic." Commonly called "reading books" or
"readers," basal readers are short stories, including individual books for learners, a
teacher's edition, workbooks, assessments and activities for a specific reading level.

History
The first series of basal readers was created by William McGuffey and emerged into
the school setting in the 19th century. The primary books followed an approach to
teaching reading that relied on phonemic awareness and decoding. Over time, a new
series of readers were developed for older students, which focused more on oral
reading and presentation along with reading for understanding. The Dick and Jane
series created in the 1930s, written by William S. Gray, focused more on reading the
whole word using repetition instead of phonics.

The Modern Day Basal Reader

When working with basal readers, students are divided into groups according to their
reading abilities. The books are taught in order of sequence with the teacher providing
post-reading comprehension activities. The intent of the basal reader is to teach
children to read at or above grade-level expectations and give students all the skills
they need to make reading progress.

A typical lesson would start with building students' background to activate their prior
knowledge. Then students are introduced to vocabulary words. Next, the class makes
predictions about the story, and guided reading begins with the teacher. Once the
reading is complete, students refer back to their previous predictions and complete a
comprehensive discussion, followed by extension projects and activities.

Advantages
With an increasing emphasis on academic standards, basal readers give teachers a
curriculum that is organized. Teachers have the tools they need to assess student
learning and guidance to expand each lesson. The freedom to adjust lessons to meet
students' abilities and individual needs is an advantage of the basal reading program.
Books are arranged in ascending difficulty and reading skills are gradually introduced.
Students are introduced to a plethora of literary genres, and the structure of basal
reading programs is reassuring to administrators who know that important reading
skills are being taught.

Disadvantages
The basal reading method is intended for groups of readers. A structure like this does
not provide a variety of teaching methods for different types of learners. The approach
can make it difficult to teach gifted, talented, advanced students and students with
learning disabilities. Because the program is progressive, students who have less
language understanding at the beginning of the program could start at a disadvantage.
Basal readers may be too rigid and not engaging enough for students because they do
not match children's interests.

The Importance of Extensive Reading

ByRachel Adame Anderson

Extensive reading is an approach to second-language acquisition. English language

learners read high-interest, accessible texts that enable them to gain fluency, improve
comprehension, build vocabulary and read independently. The benefits of extensive
reading are far-reaching: independent readers become more avid readers, better
writers and, ultimately, lifelong readers. Extensive reading is beneficial to all students,
not just those who are learning a second language. In finding success in reading, they
develop a love of reading.

The Principles of Extensive Reading

In an article published for the October 2002 issue of "Reading in a Foreign Language,"
English instructor Julian Bamford, of Bunkyo University in Japan, and Richard R. Day
of the University of Hawaii at Manoa, outlined their approach to providing opportunities
for extensive reading. In their article, entitled "Top Ten Principles for Teaching
Extensive Reading," the authors stressed that students should read as much as
possible and that they should read a wide variety of texts. Students need to read for
different purposes, such as pleasure, information and understanding. Students should
read texts that are easy for them to comprehend, and they should read silently and
independently. In extensive reading, reading is its own reward. Instructors should not
quiz or test students about the material that they have read.

Reading Fluency and Comprehension

Reading fluency refers to the rate at which you read. It is an essential component of
reading comprehension; the easier it is for you to decode words and form meanings
from them, the easier it is to understand what you have read. According to a study
published in the April 2001 issue of "The Reading Matrix," entitled "Extensive Reading:
Speed and Comprehension," Timothy Bell, a language specialist and instructor at the
University of Kuwait, concluded that, when learners are motivated to read, reading
speed "will develop naturally." Bell's study found that along with increasing their
reading speed the students achieved a greater understanding of the material.

Building Vocabulary

Extensive reading helps to fill in the word gaps for students, so long as the text is
engaging and easy. Alan Maley, former senior fellow in the Department of English
Language and Literature of the National University of Singapore, says the only way for
learners to gain repeated exposure to language is through extensive reading. When
learners are engaged in reading high-interest texts at a level at which they read
comfortably, they see words in context and are able to build on their own contextual
knowledge. Maley notes that extensive reading consolidates and sustains vocabulary
growth by providing students with many meaningful encounters with new words.

Becoming a Reader

The idea of reading for pleasure, at an easy pace, is central to the strategy of
extensive reading. Maley describes this process as a "virtuous circle" that leads
students from one success on to another. As readers, students seek to repeat the
rush of achievement that comes with finishing a book, learning about new and
unfamiliar words and increasing language skills. An added benefit is that better
readers become better writers. Extensive reading provides opportunities for learners
to build their background knowledge, experience new words in context and master the
tools of language.

Activities That Teach Kindergarten Students

Vocabulary Skills
BySara Ipatenco

Vocabulary is an essential part of kindergarten literacy instruction. When children are

exposed to a range of words and their meanings, they often become better readers
who understand and can comprehend a variety of different texts and genres. To meet
that goal, numerous activities are used to introduce new vocabulary words into the
classroom so kindergartners will become more literate and well-spoken.

Word of the Week

Introduce kindergartners to many new words throughout the school year by having a
word of the week activity. Choose a word that most kindergartners wouldn't know,
such as atrocious or glorious. Write the word on a large index card so the
kindergartners are also exposed to how the word looks. Read the word to the children
and tell them what it means. Challenge the kindergartners to use the word as many
times as they can during the week. Model how the word would be used in a sentence
throughout the week, as well. Perhaps you could say, "How glorious that it's almost
recess time," or "Being mean to our friends is atrocious behavior." The more the
kindergartners hear the word, the better they will understand it.

Use Big Words

Children at the kindergarten level still tend to

imitate what they hear adults say. Use that to your advantage by using big words in your daily
interaction with the children. For example, instead of saying, "Let's stop doing that," say "I
need to you to cease that behavior." Used in the right context, big words will expand a
kindergartner's vocabulary and prepare them to become better readers because they've been
exposed to the sounds in a variety of different words. You can certainly define each word you
use, but when used correctly, most kindergartners are savvy enough to figure out what it
means on their own.

Read, Read, Read

Read out loud to kindergartners every single day. Choose a variety of fiction and
nonfiction books because this means the children will hear many new words. Each
time you come to a new word, stop and reread it. Ask the children to say it with you
and then define it for them. This explicit instruction, coupled with an entertaining story,
will help the children remember the word, as well as what it means. Encourage the
kindergartners to each use the word in a sentence to further ensure that they will
remember the new word in the future.

Vocabulary Notebooks
Notebooks give kindergartners a place to record their new words so they can refer
back to them in the future. When you introduce a new word into the classroom,
thoroughly define it for the students and then have them write the word in a notebook
specifically reserved to record vocabulary words. Once the children have written the
word, ask them to draw a picture of the definition to further cement the word in their
brains. These notebooks can be used as an assessment tool to be sure that the
children understand the words they are learning.