MM2 Lab Manual (Final)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, New Campus KSK
BSc. Mechanical Engineering UET, Lahore
MSc. Thermal Power Engineering UET, Lahore

Submitted by:
Ulmer Farooq 2020-ME-311

Zain-ul Abideen 2020-ME-313
Asim Mustafa 2020-ME-323
M. Moawiz 2020-ME-329
Ahmad Sarfraz 2020-ME-347
Submitted to:
Engr. Sheeraz
Preface
The Mechanics of materials Laboratory Manual is written to describe the experiments in
Mechanics of Material Lab course. Each experiment procedure is explained thoroughly
along with related background. The experiments are selected to apply some concepts from
mechanics of materials such as analysis of materials properties based on tension, bending,
and torsion. Some complementary topics are also presented such as using of some measuring
tools. The use of these tools will help students to understand how to measure objects
precisely, which is a crucial skill in lab. Experimental data analysis techniques, such linear
regression, are also presented to help student to determine mathematical models based on
data obtained.
Data Sheet is developed for each experiment to help student learn how to manage
experimental data obtained and make it handy during calculations. The data sheet provides
tables listing parameters and variable needed to be measured or obtained through
experimental work. In addition, Post-Lab Assignments are given to enhance student
understanding of concepts being applied practically.
Part of this manual is developed based on information obtained from books referenced at
the last section of the manual. A sincere appreciation and credit should be given to authors
of these books. Students are encouraged to check these resources for more information or
interest in any topic.
General Instructions to Students

• The purpose of this laboratory is to reinforce and enhance your understanding to the
strength of materials. The experiments here are designed to demonstrate the
applications of the basic mechanics of materials principles and to provide a more
intuitive and physical understanding of the theory. The main objective is to introduce
a variety of classical experimental and diagnostic techniques, and the principles behind
these techniques. This laboratory exercise also provides practice in making
engineering judgments, estimates and assessing the reliability of your measurements,
skills which are very important in all engineering disciplines.
• Read the lab manual and any background material needed before you come to the lab.
You must be prepared for your experiments before coming to the lab. In many cases
you may have to go back to your fluid mechanics textbooks to review the principles
dealt with in the experiment.
• Actively participate in class and don’t hesitate to ask questions. Utilize the teaching
assistants. You should be well prepared before coming to the laboratory, unannounced
questions may be asked at any time during the lab.
• Carelessness in personal conduct or in handling equipment may result in serious injury
to the individual or the equipment. Do not run near moving machinery. Always be on
the alert for strange sounds. Guard against entangling clothes in moving parts of
machinery.
• Students must follow the proper dress code inside the laboratory. To protect clothing
from dirt, wear a lab apron. Long hair should be tied back.
• Calculator, graph sheets and drawing accessories are mandatory.
• In performing the experiments, proceed carefully to minimize any water spills,
especially on the electric circuits and wire.
• Make your workplace clean before leaving the laboratory. Maintain silence, order and
discipline inside the lab.
• Cell phones are not allowed inside the laboratory.
• Any injury no matter how small must be reported to the instructor immediately.
Wish you a nice experience in this lab
Contents
1. Lab Session 1 ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Apparatus: ................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Summary of Theory: ................................................................................................... 1
1.3.1 Spring: .................................................................................................................. 1
1.3.2 Deformation in springs ........................................................................................ 1
1.3.3 Hooke’s Law ........................................................................................................ 2
1.3.4 Stiffness in Hooke’s Law: .................................................................................... 2
1.3.5 Material of spring ................................................................................................. 3
1.3.6 Types of spring according to loading conditions: ................................................ 3
1.4 Derivation of stiffness formula: .................................................................................. 3
1.5 Observation and Calculation ....................................................................................... 5
1.6 Specimen calculation................................................................................................... 7
1.7 Graph ........................................................................................................................... 8
1.8 Slope from Graph: ..................................................................................................... 10
2. Lab Session 2 ................................................................................................................... 13
2.1 Objective ................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Apparatus .................................................................................................................. 13
2.3 Summary of Theory: ................................................................................................. 13
2.3.1 Spring ................................................................................................................. 13
2.3.2 Deformations in springs ..................................................................................... 13
2.4 Hooke’s law: ............................................................................................................. 13
2.4.1 Material of spring ............................................................................................... 14
2.4.2 Types of springs according to loading conditions: ............................................ 14
2.5 Procedure:.................................................................................................................. 16
2.6 Observations and Calculations .................................................................................. 17
2.7 Specimen calculation................................................................................................. 19
2.8 Graph ......................................................................................................................... 20
2.9 Slope from Graph ...................................................................................................... 22
2.10 Applications .............................................................................................................. 23
2.11 Statistical Analysis: ................................................................................................... 23
2.11.1 Standard Deviation............................................................................................. 23
2.12 Conclusion................................................................................................................. 24
3. Lab Session #03 ............................................................................................................... 25
3.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................. 25
3.2 Apparatus: ................................................................................................................. 25
3.3.1 Spiral Spring ...................................................................................................... 25
3.3.2 Spiral spring configuration ................................................................................ 26
3.3.3 Torsion Spring ................................................................................................... 26
3.3.4 Characteristics: ................................................................................................... 27
3.4 Procedure:.................................................................................................................. 27
3.5 Observations & Calculations..................................................................................... 27
3.5.1 Standard deviation ............................................................................................. 29
3.6 Graph ......................................................................................................................... 29
3.7 Industrial Applications .............................................................................................. 32
3.8 Conclusion................................................................................................................. 33
3.8.1 Comments .......................................................................................................... 33
4. Lab Session 4 ................................................................................................................... 34
4.1 Objective ................................................................................................................... 34
4.2 Apparatus .................................................................................................................. 34
4.3 Summary of Theory .................................................................................................. 34
4.3.1 Purpose of beams ............................................................................................... 34
4.3.2 Types of beams .................................................................................................. 34
4.3.3 Cantilever Beam................................................................................................. 35
4.3.4 Overhanging Beam ............................................................................................ 35
4.3.5 Fixed Beams....................................................................................................... 35
4.3.6 Continuous Beam ............................................................................................... 36
4.3.7 Simply Supported Beam .................................................................................... 36
4.4 Procedure ................................................................................................................... 36
4.5.1 Macaulay’s method ............................................................................................ 37
4.6 Graph ......................................................................................................................... 40
4.6.1 Experimental ...................................................................................................... 40
4.6.2 Theoretical ......................................................................................................... 41

4.8 Statistical Analysis .................................................................................................... 42
4.9 Comments.................................................................................................................. 42
5. Lab session 5 .................................................................................................................... 44
5.1 Objective ................................................................................................................... 44
5.2 Apparatus .................................................................................................................. 44
5.3 Theory ....................................................................................................................... 44
5.3.1 Elastic Failure .................................................................................................... 44
5.3.2 Torque ................................................................................................................ 45
5.3.3 Bending Moment ............................................................................................... 45
5.3.4 Effect of Combined Bending and torsion .......................................................... 46
5.3.5 Theories of elastic Failure .................................................................................. 46
5.3.6 Von Mises (Distortion Energy Theory) ............................................................. 46
5.3.7 Maximum Shear Stress Theory .......................................................................... 46
5.3.8 Maximum Principal Strain Theory .................................................................... 46
5.4 Procedure ................................................................................................................... 47
5.6 Graph ......................................................................................................................... 48
5.9 Conclusion................................................................................................................. 49
5.10 Comments.................................................................................................................. 49
6. Lab Session 6 ................................................................................................................... 50
6.1 Objective ................................................................................................................... 50
6.2 Apparatus .................................................................................................................. 50
6.3 Summary of theory .................................................................................................... 50
6.3.1 Curved bar apparatus ......................................................................................... 50
6.3.2 Industrial application ......................................................................................... 51
6.3.3 Circular beam ..................................................................................................... 51
6.3.4 Quarter circular beam ........................................................................................ 51
6.3.5 Castiglian’s theorem .......................................................................................... 52
6.3.6 Castigliano's Theorem Applications .................................................................. 52
6.5 Statistical analysis ..................................................................................................... 53

6.5.1 For horizontal ..................................................................................................... 53
6.5.2 For vertical ......................................................................................................... 54
6.7 Comments.................................................................................................................. 54
7. Lab session 7 .................................................................................................................... 55
7.1 Objective ................................................................................................................... 55
7.2 Apparatus .................................................................................................................. 55
7.3 Summary of theory .................................................................................................... 55
7.3.1 Curved bar apparatus ......................................................................................... 55
7.4 Procedure ................................................................................................................... 56
7.6 Statistical analysis ..................................................................................................... 57
7.6.1 For horizontal ..................................................................................................... 57
7.6.2 For vertical ......................................................................................................... 57
7.7 Graph ......................................................................................................................... 57
7.9 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 59
8. Lab session 8 .................................................................................................................... 60
8.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................. 60
8.2 Apparatus .................................................................................................................. 60
8.4 Procedure:.................................................................................................................. 62
8.4.1 Procedure (Experimental) .................................................................................. 62
8.4.2 Procedure (Calculations) .................................................................................... 62
8.5 Observation & Calculations: ..................................................................................... 63
8.5.1 Specimen calculations:....................................................................................... 63
8.6 Graph ......................................................................................................................... 64
8.7 Statistical Analysis: ................................................................................................... 64
8.8 Comments.................................................................................................................. 64
9. Lab session 9 .................................................................................................................... 66
9.1 Objective ................................................................................................................... 66
9.2 Apparatus .................................................................................................................. 66
9.3 Theory ....................................................................................................................... 66

9.3.1 Why hardness testing ......................................................................................... 66
9.3.2 Hardness testing diamond indenter: ................................................................... 67
9.4 Rockwell Hardness Test: ........................................................................................... 67
9.5 Indentron Rockwell Hardness Testing System ......................................................... 68
9.5.1 Common problems in rockwell hardness testing: .............................................. 68
9.6 Bad indenter .............................................................................................................. 69
9.7 Deflections ................................................................................................................ 69
9.8 Anvils ........................................................................................................................ 69
9.9 Surface preparation-related causes ............................................................................ 69
9.10 Test Specifications: ................................................................................................... 69
9.11 Brinell hardness Test: ................................................................................................ 71
9.12 Scratch Test ............................................................................................................... 71
10. Lab Session 10 .............................................................................................................. 74
10.1 Objective ................................................................................................................... 74
10.2 Apparatus .................................................................................................................. 74
10.3 Summary of Theory .................................................................................................. 74
10.3.1 Purpose of beams ............................................................................................... 74
10.4 Procedure ................................................................................................................... 74
10.5.1 Macaulay’s method ............................................................................................ 75
10.6 Graph ......................................................................................................................... 78
10.9 Comments.................................................................................................................. 79
List of tables
Table 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Table 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Table 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Table 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Table 5 ..................................................................................................................................... 17
Table 6 ..................................................................................................................................... 17
Table 7 ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Table 8 ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Table 9 ..................................................................................................................................... 28
Table 10 ................................................................................................................................... 39
Table 11 ................................................................................................................................... 47
Table 12 ................................................................................................................................... 53
Table 13 ................................................................................................................................... 56
Table 14 ................................................................................................................................... 63
Table 15 ................................................................................................................................... 63
Table 16 ................................................................................................................................... 69
Table 17 ................................................................................................................................... 77
List of figures
Figure 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Figure 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 4 .................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 5 .................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 6 .................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 7 .................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 8 .................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 9 .................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 10 .................................................................................................................................. 25
Figure 11 .................................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 12 .................................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 13 .................................................................................................................................. 34
Figure 14 .................................................................................................................................. 35
Figure 15 .................................................................................................................................. 35
Figure 16 .................................................................................................................................. 35
Figure 17 .................................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 18 .................................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 19 .................................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 20 .................................................................................................................................. 44
Figure 21 .................................................................................................................................. 45
Figure 22 .................................................................................................................................. 45
Figure 23 .................................................................................................................................. 45
Figure 24 .................................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 25 .................................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 26 .................................................................................................................................. 47
Figure 27 .................................................................................................................................. 50
Figure 28 .................................................................................................................................. 51
Figure 29 .................................................................................................................................. 55
Figure 30 .................................................................................................................................. 67
Figure 31 .................................................................................................................................. 68
Figure 32 .................................................................................................................................. 68
Figure 33 .................................................................................................................................. 71
1. Lab Session 1
1.1 Objective:
To determine how the stiffness of a compression spring is affected by the physical
dimensions of the springs.
1.2 Apparatus:
• Compression of Spring Apparatus
• Springs of different dimensions
• Hangers
• Weights
Figure 1
1.3 Summary of Theory:

1.3.1 Spring:
A spring is an object that can be deformed by a force and then return to its original shape
after the force is removed. Its sole purpose is to store and utilize the energy.
1.3.2 Deformation in springs

There are broadly two types of deformation:
1|Page
1.3.2.1 Elastic Deformation

When the stress is removed the material returns to the dimension it had before the load was
applied. The deformation is reversible, non-permanent.
1.3.2.2 Plastic Deformation

This occurs when a large stress is applied to a material. The stress is so large that when
removed, the material does not spring back to its previous dimension. There is a permanent,
irreversible deformation. The minimum value of the stress which produces plastic
deformation is known as the elastic limit for the material.
Any spring should be designed so that it only experiences up to elastic deformation mostly
for efficient working.
1.3.3 Hooke’s Law

Hooke's law states that the force (F) needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance
x is proportional to that distance. That is,
𝑭 = 𝒌𝒙
Where F is the force, x is the length of extension/compression and k is a constant of

proportionality known as the spring constant which is usually given in N/m.
1.3.4 Stiffness in Hooke’s Law:

The 'stiffness' concept originates from Hooke's law which states that the force required to
deform an object is related to a spring constant and the distance that object is deformed.
Figure 2
2|Page
1.3.5 Material of spring

Steel alloys are the most commonly used spring materials. The most popular alloys include
high-carbon (such as the music wire used for guitar strings), oil-tempered low-carbon,
chrome silicon, chrome vanadium, and stainless steel.
Other metals that are sometimes used to make springs are beryllium copper alloy, phosphor
bronze, and titanium. Rubber or urethane may be used for cylindrical, non-coil springs.
Ceramic material has been developed for coiled springs in very high-temperature
environments. One-directional glass fibre composite materials are being tested for possible
use in springs.
1.3.6 Types of spring according to loading conditions:

Springs can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them:
• Tension/extension spring
• Compression spring
• Torsion spring
• Constant spring
1.3.6.1 Compression Spring

Compression Springs are open-coil helical springs wound or constructed to oppose
compression along the axis of wind. Helical Compression is the most common metal spring
configuration.
Figure 3
1.4 Derivation of stiffness formula:

A spring may be defined as an elastic member whose primary function is to deflect or distort
under the action of applied load; it recovers its original shape when load is released. Springs
are energy absorbing units whose function is to store energy and to restore it slowly or rapidly
depending on the application. To derive a necessary formula which governs the behaviour of
springs, consider a closed coiled spring subjected to an axial load W.
Let,
W = axial load
3|Page
D = mean coil diameter
d = diameter of spring wire
N = number of active coils
G = modulus of rigidity
∆ = deflection of spring
Φ = Angle of twist
l = length of spring wire = πDN
In 1879, Alberto Castiglione’ an Italian railroad engineer, published a book in which

he outlined a method for determining the displacement / deflection & slope at a point in a
body. This method which referred to Castiglione’s Theorem is applied to the bodies, having
constant temperature & material (homogeneous) with linear elastic behaviour.
It states that “The derivative of the strain energy with respect to the applied load gives
the deformation corresponding to that load”.
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾 = 𝑑4𝐺 / 8 𝐷3𝑁
1.5 Experimental Procedure:

• A compression spring is already fitted to the apparatus on arrival.
• To fit a new compression spring, remove the load hanger base by unscrewing the
grip knob and base from the rod thread.
• Loosen or remove the grip knob on the marker and pull the load hanger down until
the top can be swung out from the slot by the 50 mm scale.
• Withdraw the rod upward.
• The rod can now be threaded through the central hole in a compression spring and
reverse the above procedure to return the apparatus to full working condition.
• Clamp the marker so that the horizontal line is in line with the zero reading of the
displacement scale.
• Measure the diameter of wire and outer diameter of each spring with the help of
Vernier calliper.
• Load the spring by 5N increments recording the change in length of the spring up
to the greatest readable deflection or the max load of25N.
4|Page
• Record the spring dimensions of other springs
• Repeat the same process for other springs and record the readings.
1.5 Observation and Calculation
Table 1
No. Deflection
Load
of (∆) mm
(W) N
Obs. Spring A
1. 5 1.25
2. 10 2.45
3. 15 3.7
4. 20 4.9
Table 2
No. Deflection
Load
of (∆) mm
(W) N
Obs. Spring B
1. 10 0.6
2. 20 1.1
3. 30 1.7
4. 40 2.2
5 50 2.9
5|Page
Table 3
No. Deflection
Load
of (∆) mm
(W) N
Obs. Spring C
1. 1 0.7
2. 2 1.3
3. 3 1.9
4. 4 2.55
5. 5 3.25
Table 4
Spring data
A B C
Wire diameter (d)
0.2 0.2 1.5 mm
Spring O/D mm
1.3 20.2 1.07
Spring Nominal (D)

30.7 20 28 mm
Number of active turns (N) 9

9 10
Modulus of rigidity (G) 2

41 78.5 41 KN/ mm
From graph gradient 0.24 0.06 0.6
Spring stiffness 40816 16666 142857 N/mm2
Theoretical stiffness 31488 21944 118191 N/mm2
6|Page
% Age Error {(Th.-Pr.)/Th}

29.62 24.05 20.8
*100
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾 = 𝑑4𝐺 / 8 𝐷3𝑁
Where d = Wire diameter

N = Number of turns
D = mean diameter of spring coil (O/D – d)
2
G = Modulus of rigidity (77 KN/ mm for spring steels)
1.6 Specimen calculation
For Spring A
0.24 41
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑘 =
8(9)30.73
31488𝑁
𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑚𝑚2
K = F/x
K = 5/1.25 = 4.081632 N/mm
For Spring B
0.24 79
8(9)203
𝑁
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 21944
𝑚𝑚2
K = F/x
K = 10/0.6 = 16.66 N/mm
For Spring C
1.54 41
8(10)283
N
𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 118191
mm2
7|Page
K = F/x
K = 1/0.7 = 1.4285 N/mm
1.7 Graph
Spring A
Ex#1 Deflection (A)
5.0
4.5
4.0
Deflection (mm)
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Load (N)
Spring B
8|Page
Ex#1 Deflection (B)
3.0
2.5
Deflection (mm)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
10 20 30 40 50
Load (N)
Spring C
Ex#1 Deflection (c)

3.5
3.0
2.5
Deflection (mm)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
1 2 3 4 5
Load (N)
9|Page
1.8 Slope from Graph:

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
For spring A
2.45 − 1.25
10 − 5
Slope = 0.24
For spring B
1.7 − 1.1
30 − 20
Slope = 0.06
10 | P a g e
For spring C
1.3 − 0.7
2−1
Slope = 0.6
1.7 Industrial Applications:
• Defence Industry (for vehicles, weapons, and electrical products).

• Automotive Industry (springs in the suspension to absorb the rough shocks of the
road).
• Agriculture Industry (Tillers have compression springs at their base these springs
absorb shock and keep the tiller balanced).
• Manufacturing Industry (Electronics. Precision instruments and tools. Industrial
equipment).
1.8 Statistical Analysis:
(𝑥1 − 𝑥)2 + (𝑥1 − 𝑥)2 + ⋯ + (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥)2

𝑆 = √
𝑛−1
For spring A
(1.25 − 3.075)2 + (2.45 − 3.075)2 + (3.7 − 3.075)2 + (4.9 − 3.075)2

𝑆= √
4−1
S = 1.51
For spring B
(0.6 − 1.4)2 + (1.1 − 1.4)2 + (1.7 − 1.4)2 + (2.2 − 1.4)2

𝑆= √
4−1
𝑆 = 0.69
For spring C
(0.7 − 1.6)2 + (1.3 − 1.6)2 + (1.9 − 1.6)2 + (2.55 − 1.6)2

𝑆= √
4−1
S = 0.77
11 | P a g e
1.9 Conclusion:
• A higher spring constant means a stiffer spring, and vice-versa.
• Shorter members are stiffer than longer members.
• Members with large cross-sectional areas are stiffer than those with smaller cross-
sectional areas.
• "Stiffer springs" are more "responsive" compared to stock springs, in the sense that
they can handle the momentum of the vehicle in a turn with “better" than the stock
spongy spring set up. You are driving in the same turn with the same speed, same
tires, same weight and same momentum.
• A stiffer spring with a constant mass decreases the period of oscillation. Increasing
the mass increases the period of oscillation. For example, a heavy car with springs
in its suspension bounces more slowly when it hits a bump than a light car with
identical springs.
12 | P a g e
2. Lab Session 2
2.1 Objective
To determine how the stiffness of an extension spring is affected by the physical
dimensions and material of the springs.
2.2 Apparatus
• Extension of spring apparatus
• Extension springs of different materials and dimensions
• Hangers
• Weight

2.3.1 Spring
A spring is an object that can be deformed by a force and then return to its original shape
after the force is removed. Its sole purpose is to store and utilize the energy.
2.3.2 Deformations in springs

There are broadly two types of deformation:
2.3.2.1 Elastic deformation

When the stress is removed the material returns to the dimension it had before the load was
applied. The deformation is reversible, non-permanent.
2.3.2.2 Plastic deformation

This occurs when a large stress is applied to a material. The stress is so large that when
removed, the material does not spring back to its previous dimension. There is a permanent,
irreversible deformation. The minimum value of the stress which produces plastic
deformation is known as the elastic limit for the material.
Any spring should be designed so that it only experience upto elastic deformation mostly
for efficient working.
2.4 Hooke’s law:

Hooke's law states that the force (F) needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance
x is proportional to that distance. That is,
F = kx
Where F is the force, x is the length of extension/compression and k is a constant of

proportionality known as the spring constant which is usually given in N/m.
13 | P a g e
Figure Figure
2. 1: Hooks
4 law
2.4.1 Material of spring

Steel alloys are the most commonly used spring materials. The most popular alloys include
high- carbon (such as the music wire used for guitar strings), oil-tempered low-carbon,
chrome silicon, chrome vanadium, and stainless steel.
Other metals that are sometimes used to make springs are beryllium copper
alloy, phosphor bronze, and titanium. Rubber or urethane may be used for cylindrical, non-
coil springs. Ceramic material has been developed for coiled springs in very high-
temperature environments. One-directional glass fibre composite materials are being tested
for possible use in springs.
2.4.2 Types of springs according to loading conditions:

Springs can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them:
2.4.2.1 Tension/extension spring

The spring is designed to operate with a tension load, so the spring stretches as the load is
applied to it.
Figure 2. Figure
2: Tension
5 Spring
2.4.2.2 Compression spring

It is designed to operate with a compression load, so the spring gets shorter as the load is
applied to it.
14 | P a g e
Figure 6
2.4.2.3 Torsion spring

The load applied to a torsion spring is a torque or twisting force, and the end of the spring
rotates through an angle as the load is applied.
Figure 2.Figure
3: Torsion
7 spring
2.4.2.4 Constant spring

In this the supported load will remain constant throughout the deflection of spring.
Figure 8
15 | P a g e
2.4.2.5 Variable spring:

In this, the resistance of the coil to load varies during compression.
Figure 2. 4:
Figure
Variable
9 Spring
2.5 Procedure:
• An extension spring is already fitted to the apparatus on arrival.
• To fit a new extension spring, hang the end of the spring onto the spring support
at the top of the channel.
• Loosen the fluted grip knob, which clamps the fiducial marker on the loading rod,
and hook the load hanger flat eye onto the bottom loop of the spring.
• Slide the fiducial marker into the slot by the 50 mm scale, zero the marker and
clamp it in that position.
• Measure the diameter of wire and outer diameter of each spring with the help of
Vernier calliper.
• Load the spring by 5N increments recording the change in length of the spring up
to the greatest readable deflection or the max load of 25N.
• Record the spring dimensions of other springs.
• Repeat the same process for other springs and record the readings.
16 | P a g e
2.6 Observations and Calculations
Table 5
Deflection
Load (W)
No. of observation (∆) mm
N
Spring A
1 1 0.75
2 2 1.8
3 3 2.85
4 4 4
Table 6
Deflection
Load (W)
N
Spring B
1 10 0.1
2 20 0.3
3 30 0.85
4 40 2.1
5 50 3.4
17 | P a g e
Table 7
Deflection
Load (W)
N
Spring C
1 1 33
2 2 53
3 3 73
4 4 92
Table 8
Spring
data
A (Iron) B (Iron) C (Steel)
Wire diameter (d) 0.2 0.2 1 mm
Spring O/D 30.9 20 30 mm
Spring Nominal (D) 30.7 19.8 29 mm
Number of active turns (N) 36 35 30
Modulus of rigidity (G Pa) 41 41 79 G Pa
From graph gradient 1.15 1.25 22

N/mm
Spring stiffness 1333 6666 3030 2
N/mm
Theoretical stiffness 7872.2 9606.2 1300 2
% Age Error {(Th.-

Pr.)/Th} 83.06 30.06 13.30
*100
18 | P a g e
𝑑4𝐺
8𝑁𝐷3
Where:
d = wire diameter
N = no. of turns
D = mean diameter
G = Modulus of rigidity
2.7 Specimen calculation
For spring A
0.24 41
8(36)30.73
𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 7872.2 N/mm2
K = F/x
K = 1/0.75 = 1.333 N/mm
For spring B
0.24 41
8(35)19.83
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 9606.2 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
K = F/x
K = 20/0.3 = 66.66 N/mm
For spring C
14 79
8(30)293
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 0.000013𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
19 | P a g e
K = F/x
K = 1/33 = 0.303030 N/mm
2.8 Graph
For Spring A
Ex#2 Deflection (A)

4.5
4.0
3.5
Deflection (mm)
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Load (N)
For Spring B
20 | P a g e
Ex#2 Deflection (B)
3.5
3.0
2.5
Deflection (mm)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
10 20 30 40 50
Load (N)
For Spring C
Ex#2 Deflection (c)

100
90
80
Deflection (mm)
70
60
50
40
30
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Load (N)
21 | P a g e
2.9 Slope from Graph

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
For spring A
4 − 2.85
4−3
Slope = 1.15
For spring B
2.1 − 0.85
4−3
Slope = 1.25
22 | P a g e
For spring C
53 − 33
2−1
Slope = 22
2.10 Applications
Following is the application of extension springs:
• The vise-grip type of pliers that not only grip but can be locked into position to keep
the grip tight use extension springs, which are employed to hold the grip in place.
• These springs are used in fence to shut the door.
• Trampolines is also equipped with extension springs to store and release energy.
2.11.1 Standard Deviation

(𝑥1 − 𝑥)2 + (𝑥1 − 𝑥)2 + ⋯ + (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥)2
𝑆= √
𝑛−1
For spring A
(0.75 − 2.35)2 + (1.8 − 2.35)2 + (2.85 − 2.35)2 + (4 − 2.35)2

𝑆= √
4−1
S = 1.39
For spring B
(0.75 − 2.35)2 + (1.8 − 2.35)2 + (2.85 − 2.35)2 + (4 − 2.35)2

𝑆= √
4−1
𝑆 = 0.899
For spring C
(33 − 62.75)2 + (53 − 62.75)2 + (73 − 62.75)2 + (92 − 62.75)2

𝑆= √
4−1
23 | P a g e
S = 25.46
2.12 Conclusion
• Deflection in the spring A and B are different. Both Material made from the same
material but both varies in no. of turns and diameter. Therefore, stiffness of both
materials also varies.
• Using more no. of turns in a spring lead to less deflection in the spring.
• From graph of spring C, it is quite significant that trend is not same. We can see
different trends when we apply more load to the spring.
• Stiffness of spring C is very low as compared to other springs.
• Form the statical analysis it is significant that there is problem with spring C.
24 | P a g e
3. Lab Session #03

3.1 Objective:
To investigate the characteristics of spiral spring by varying the load and number of
turns of the spiral spring.
3.2 Apparatus:
• Coil Spring Apparatus
• Hanger
• Weights
• Two masses on the arm unit
Figure 10

3.3.1 Spiral Spring
“A spring consisting of a wire coiled usually in a flat spiral or in a helix.”
The spiral spring is made from flat strip or wire coiled up in the manner of the groove on a
phonograph record. As a mainspring or hairspring, it provides a compact source of energy
in clocks and watches; it is also used on typewriters and parking…
Torsion springs are a type of flat spiral coil or helical shaped spring used in applying a torque
or store rotational energy. Unlike other springs such as compression or extension springs
that require a linear force to push or a pull, torsion springs store and release rotational energy
via torque as a measure of force.
To make a spring, a coil of carbon spring or stainless steel is placed onto a former, which
curves the wire into the correct shape. After that, the top and bottom of the spring is ground
flat, so it can sit square on a flat surface. "They've got to be sitting straight so the force
generated is linear,"
25 | P a g e
Figure 11
3.3.2 Spiral spring configuration

It is made of a band of steel wrapped around itself a number of times to
create a geometric shape as shown in figure.
3.3.2.1 Application:
• Alarm Time-Piece
• Watch
• Automotive Seat Recliners
3.3.3 Torsion Spring

As the name suggests, in the helical torsion spring the force is applied tangentially to the
axis and the spring is subjected to twisting by the forces acting on it. When the spring is
subjected to twisting, it exerts torque in the opposite direction and is proportional to the
amount of angle it is being twisted
Figure 12
26 | P a g e
3.3.3.1 Applications
• Spring in hair clips.
• Mousetraps.
• Hand gripper in gyms.
• Robotics.
3.3.4 Characteristics:
• It is also a form of helical spring, but it rotates about an axis to create load.
• It releases the load in an arc around the axis as shown in figure.
• Mainly used for torque transmission
• The ends of the spring are attached to other application objects, so that if
the object rotates around the centre of the spring, it tends to push the spring
to retrieve its normal position.
3.4 Procedure:
• Clamp the spring to give a number of active turns from 3 to 8 inclusive.
• Note the initial scale reading with the load hanger on the cord.
• Then add a weight and note the scale reading.
• Tabulate your results.
3.5 Observations & Calculations
Wire diameter = 0.1 mm
Spring O/D= mm
Modulus of rigidity=11.2 N/ mm2
Radius of the pulley=50 mm
Width of the spring=18.5mm
Spring Thickness=1mm
27 | P a g e
Table 9
NO. OF
LOAD DE FLECTION
ACTIVE
Sr. COILS (P) (Өº)
No (N) (N) Loading Unloading Mean
1 1 8 9 8.5
2 2 17 17 17
3 3 3 24 26 25
4 4 34 35 34.5
5 5 43 43 43
1 1 10 11 10.5
2 2 22 21 21.5
3 4 3 33 33 33
4 4 45 45 45
5 5 58 58 58
1 1 13 14 13.5
2 2 27 26 27.5
3 5 3 42 42 42
4 4 59 59 59
5 5 76 76 76
1 1 18 13 15.5
2 2 36 36 36
3 6 3 55 56 55.5
4 4 77 83 80
5 5 105 105 105
1 1 277 278 277.5
2 2 304 305.5
7 304.75
3 3 342 346 344
4 4 388 443 415.5
5 5 474 474 474
28 | P a g e
1 1 21 24 22.5
2 2 41 45 43
3 8 3 62 67 64.5
4 4 85 87 86
5 5 104 104 104
3.5.1 Standard deviation
1
𝑆𝑥 = √ ((𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔. )2 + (𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔. )2 + (𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔. )2 + ⋯ )
𝑛−1
𝑆𝑥
1
= √ ((8.5 − 25.6)2 + (17 − 25.6)2 + (25 − 25.6)2 + (34.5 − 25.6)2 + (43 − 25.6)2
5−1
1
𝑆𝑥 = √ (292.41 + 73.96 + 0.36 + 79.21 + 302.76)
4
𝑆𝑥 = (187.175)1/2
𝑆𝑥 =13.68
3.6 Graph
No of turns 3
29 | P a g e
Exp No 3 (Load&Deflection)
45
Deflection (Degree) 40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
1 2 3 4 5
Load (N)
No of turns 4
60
50
Deflection (Degree)
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 4 5
Load (N)
No of turns 5
30 | P a g e
80
70
Deflection (Degree)
60
50
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 4 5
Load (N)
No of turns 6
120
100
Deflection (Degree)
80
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5
Load (N)
No of turns 7
31 | P a g e
500
450
Deflection (Degree)
400
350
300
250
1 2 3 4 5
Load (N)
No of turns 8
120
100
Deflection (Degree)
80
60
40
20
1 2 3 4 5
Load (N)
3.7 Industrial Applications

• Spiral torsion springs are commonly used in applications that require a “return to
centre” function, as a medical instrument joystick.
• They’re also ideal for electric motors and automotive applications.
32 | P a g e
3.8 Conclusion
We have analysed the whole procedure and found some useful results regarding the spiral
springs by changing the number of coils and loading and unloading the weights i.e., the trend
in all of the number of turns was the same as all the graphs were more or less increasing
linearly.
3.8.1 Comments
• We have seen by increasing number of turns deflection also increase
• By increasing number of turns chances of failure on each active turns of spring
decrease.
33 | P a g e
4. Lab Session 4
4.1 Objective
To determine the deflection at three different points of a propped cantilever
beam using a brass beam and compare with the theoretical values.
4.2 Apparatus
• Propped cantilever beam apparatus
• Weights
• Dial gauge
• Vernier Calliper
• Specimen
• Hangers
• Spanner
4.3 Summary of Theory

A beam is a horizontal structural member in a building to resist
the lateral loads applied to the beam’s axis. The structural member which resists the forces
laterally or transversely applied to the (beam) axis is called a beam
4.3.1 Purpose of beams

It is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load
primarily by resisting its bending forces. They are made of steel or reinforced concrete
(RCC) or steel. We use it in structure to
• Resist loads
• Counter bending moment and shear forces.
• Connect the frame.
• Provide a uniform distribution of loads
4.3.2 Types of beams
Figure 13
34 | P a g e
4.3.3 Cantilever Beam

A cantilever beam is a beam that is fixed from one end and free at the other
end
Figure 14
4.3.4 Overhanging Beam

In a beam, if one of its ends is extended beyond the support, it is known as
overhanging beam
Figure 15
4.3.5 Fixed Beams

A beam which has both of its ends fixed or built-in walls is called fixed beam
Figure 16
35 | P a g e
4.3.6 Continuous Beam

It is a beam which is provided with more than two supports as shown
in figure:
Figure 17
4.3.7 Simply Supported Beam

A beam which is supported or resting on the supports at its both the ends, is
called simply supported beam
Figure 18
4.4 Procedure
• Measure the width and depth of the beam with the help of scale to find the
moment of inertia of the beam.
• Set the apparatus and put the required hangers at different points.
• Measure the distances of each hanger from the reference end.
• Set the deflection dial gauge at zero after putting the hangers.
• Take the reading of deflection after putting the loads in the hangers.
• Repeat the process for different loads.
• Find the theoretical deflection and compare with the experimental values by
showing on a graph.
36 | P a g e

Width of Beam = b = 19 mm
Depth of beam = d = 6.7 mm
Effective length of beam = 600mm
Moment of Inertia for rectangular metal bar = I = bd3 /12= 476.46 𝑚𝑚4
Modulus of Elasticity = E = 97 GPa
Least count of dial gauge = 0.01mm
4.5.1 Macaulay’s method

Macaulay’s method
Differential equation for elastic curve of a beam
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑀 = 𝐸𝐼 2
𝑑𝑥
Figure 19
We have following information from above figure,

W1, W2 and W3 = Loads acting on beam AB
a1, a2 and a3 = Distance of point load W1, W2 and W3 respectively from support A
AB = Position of the beam before loading
AFB = Position of the beam after loading
θA = Slope at support A
θB = Slope at support B
yC, yD and yE = Deflection at point C, D and E respectively
𝑑𝑦 𝑅𝐴 𝑥 2 𝑊1 (𝑥 − 𝑎1 )2 𝑊2 (𝑥 − 𝑎2 )2 𝑊3 (𝑥 − 𝑎3 )2
𝐸𝐼 = − − − + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2 2
𝑅𝐴 𝑥 3 𝑊1 (𝑥 − 𝑎1 )3 𝑊2 (𝑥 − 𝑎2 )3 𝑊3 (𝑥 − 𝑎3 )3
𝐸𝐼(𝑦) = − − − + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
6 6 6 6
37 | P a g e
1N 2N 3N
R
x R R
a 0.36 0.3 0.3 b
x
𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥 = 0
𝛴𝑀𝐴 = 0
−𝑅𝐵 (0.6) + 1(0.36) + 2(0.44) + 3(0.52) = 0
𝑅𝐵 = 4.66𝑁
𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 1 + 2 + 3
𝑅𝐵 = 6 − 4.66 = 1.33𝑁
𝑑2𝑦
𝑀𝑥 = 1.33𝑥 − 1(𝑥 − 0.36) − 2(𝑥 − 0.44) − 3(𝑥 − 0.52) = 𝐸𝐼 2
𝑑𝑥
Integrating above eq. we get:
𝑑𝑦 1.33𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 0.36)2 (𝑥 − 0.44)2 (𝑥 − 0.52)2

𝐸𝐼 = + 𝐶1 − −2 −3
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2 2
Integrating above eq. we get:
0.665𝑥 3 (𝑥 − 0.36)3 (𝑥 − 0.44)3 (𝑥 − 0.52)3

𝐸𝐼(𝑦) = + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 − − − 1.5
3 3 3 3
𝐸𝐼(𝑦) = 0.22𝑥 3 +𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 − 0.34(𝑥 − 0.36)3 − 0.34(𝑥 − 0.44)3 − 0.5(𝑥 − 0.52)3
As given beam is supported so,
𝑥 = 0, 𝑦=0
Hence:
38 | P a g e
𝐶2 = 0
𝑥 = 𝐿 ,𝑦 = 0
0 = 0.22(0.6)3 + 𝐶1 (6) − 0.34(0.24)3 − 0.34(0.16)3 − 0.5(0.08)3
0 = 0.047 + 6𝐶1 − 0.0047 − 0.00139 − 0.000256
0.04 + 6𝐶1 = 0
𝐶1 = 0.073
Put 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 in integrated eq.
𝐸𝐼(𝑦) = 0.22𝑥 3 + 0.073𝑥 + 0 − 0.34(𝑥 − 0.36)3 − 0.34(𝑥 − 0.44)3 − 0.5(𝑥 − 0.52)3
We are measuring deflection at 0.3m, so deflection will be
𝑦 = 0.22(0.3)3 − 0.073(0.3) − 0.34(0.3 − 0.36)3 − 0.34(−0.3 − 0.44)3

− 0.5(−0.3 − 0.52)3
𝑦 = 23.121
Table 10
Sr Loads Total Deflection

load % Error
No. (N) (mm)
W1 W2 W3 δexp δth
1 1 2 3 6 20 23.12 13.14
2 2 2 2.5 6.5 25 30.2 13.14
3 2 2 3 7 30 39 13.14
4 4 3 3 10 40 49.1 13.14
5 4.5 5 3.5 12 51 58 13.14
6 4.5 5.5 4 14 59 67 13.14
7 5.5 5 6 16.5 74 83 13.14
39 | P a g e
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

× 100
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
23 − 20
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑋100
23
4.6 Graph
4.6.1 Experimental
80
70
Deflection EXP (mm)
60
50
40
30
20
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
LOAD (N)
40 | P a g e
4.6.2 Theoretical
90
80
70
Deflection TH (mm)
60
50
40
30
20
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
LOAD (N)
Exp No 4 Experimental
90 Theoretical
80
70
% (Deflection (mm))
60
50
40
30
20
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
LOAD (N)

The are some industrial applications of loading beams
41 | P a g e
• Cantilever propped beam is structural element is widely used in the construction of

bridges, towers, and buildings
• Residential construction
• Supporting the heavy loads
• Heavy duty beam trolleys
4.8 Statistical Analysis
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + 𝑥5
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑛
20 + 25 + 30 + 40 + 51 + 59 + 74
𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
7
𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 235.5
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑥3 )2 + (𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑥4 )2 + (𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑥5 )2
= √
𝑛−1
𝑆. 𝐷
(235 − 20)2 + (235 − 25)2 + (235 − 30)2 + (235 − 40)2 + (235 − 51)2 + (235 − 59)2
= √
7−1
𝑆. 𝐷 = 136.7
4.9 Comments
• The deflection of a cantilevered beam depends on four factors: load, length, material of
beam, and cross-sectional shape
• If we move the load closer to support of cantilever beam if it's a point load then it reduce
the deflection
• For cantilevered beams, the maximum deflection will occur when the load is located at
the free end of the beam
• In a cantilever beam the maximum bending moment occurs at the fixed end. Moment
at the free end is 0 and maximum at the fixed end.
• In cantilever beams, the maximum shear force occurs at the fixed end. In the free end,
there is zero shear force
42 | P a g e
43 | P a g e
5. Lab session 5
5.1 Objective
To determine what levels of combined bending and torsion cause elastic failure
in different material and to compare them with various theories of failure
5.2 Apparatus
• Combined bending and torsion
• Weight
• Dial gauge
• Vernier Caliper
• Specimen
• Hanger
• Spanner
FIgure 5. 1: Bending and

Figure
Torsion
20 Apparatus
5.3 Theory
5.3.1 Elastic Failure

Those failures which occur as a result of a low value of Young's modulus, E.
Young’s Modulus = Stress/Strain
44 | P a g e
Figure 21
5.3.2 Torque
Torque is a measure of the force that can cause an object to rotate about an
axis. Just as force is what causes an object to accelerate in linear kinematics, torque is what
causes an object to acquire angular acceleration. Torque is a vector quantity
Figure 22
5.3.3 Bending Moment

In solid mechanics, a bending moment is the reaction induced
in a structural element when an external force or moment is applied to the element, causing the
element to bend. The most common or simplest structural element subjected to bending
moments is the beam.
Figure 23
45 | P a g e
5.3.4 Effect of Combined Bending and torsion

During combined bending and torsion, the grain
size was refined with increasing shear strain. In addition, the macrotexture exhibited a preferred
orientation with increasing shear stress. The metastable austenite underwent phase transition
when the shear stress increased
5.3.5 Theories of elastic Failure
5.3.6 Von Mises (Distortion Energy Theory)
The von Mises stress is used to predict yielding of materials
under complex loading from the results of uniaxial tensile tests. The von Mises stress
satisfies the property where two stress states with equal distortion energy have an
equal von Mises stress.
Figure 24
5.3.7 Maximum Shear Stress Theory

According to the maximum shear stress theory, a material will fail or yield
when its maximum shear stress equals or exceeds the shear stress value at the yield point in the
uniaxial tensile test.
Figure 25
5.3.8 Maximum Principal Strain Theory

According to the theory of maximum principal strain, “The
failure of a material or component will occur when the maximum value of principal strain
developed in the body exceeds the limiting value of strain i.e., value of strain corresponding to
the yield point of the material”.
46 | P a g e
Figure 26
5.4 Procedure
• Record the material and neck diameter for the test specimen being used into table 5.1.
• Place the apparatus near the corner of a worktop with the circular loading plate
overhanging the edge. The dial gauge side should face the other edge of the corner.
• Record the weight the of the load hanger. Put the first specimen in the apparatus and
clamp it as described above. Set the dial gauge diametrically opposite the zero degrees
load point and use the adjustable bezel to zero the outer ring against the large pointer.
• Put the load hanger on the zero-degree dimples and enter the dial gauge reading in the
column marked DTI rig in table 5.1. This will be the zero-load reading. Add 4Nto the
load hanger and again enter the dial reading in table 1a. In the column diff in table 1a,
fill in the difference, this should be similar to one before for linear elasticity.
• Repeat the 4n increments while carefully watching for a trend to increasing differences
as the linearity limit is reached. As the end of the linearity approaches reduce the load
increments to 2N and then 1N, reckoning the differences between successive load in
proportion. Try to stop adding more load before there is a 10% increase in the
differences.
• As soon as non-linearity is determined unload the hanger and remove it move the dial
gauge round by 15°and re-zero. Then repeat the above procedure. Carry on doing this
until the loading at 90° has been completed.
Table 11
Material Steel Tmax = 04Nmm T =4.01Wl Cos Ø

Neck diameter, mm 4.01mm Mmax= 04Nmm M=4.01Wl Sin Ø
Load
hanger 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°
wt 4.6N
Applied Rgd Diff. Rgd. Diff. Rgd. Diff. Rgd. Diff. Rg Diff. Rgd. Diff. Rgd. Diff.
load . d.
5 9 0.09 9 0.09 7 0.07 8 0.08 3 0.03 2 0.02 1 0.01
10 27 0.27 23 0.23 21 0.21 25 0.25 8 0.08 3 0.03 2 0.02
15 56 0.56 51 0.51 47 0.47 41 0.41 15 0.15 5 0.05 4 0.04
47 | P a g e
20 84 0.84 79 0.79 67 0.67 61 0.61 25 0.25 7 0.07 8 0.08

30 139 1.39 129 1.29 105 1.05 99 0.99 45 0.45 15 0.15 13 0.13
40 260 2.6 179 1.79 150 1.5 130 1.3 69 0.69 29 0.29 19 0.19
T (Nmm) 4 3.86 3.46 2.828 2 1.03 0
M 0 1.03 2 2.8 3.4 3.8 4
(Nmm)
5.6 Graph
Exp No 5 (Torque&Moment)
3
Moment (Nmm)
0 1 2 3 4
Torque (Nmm)

The mean value of torsion is given by:
4 + 3.86 + 3.46 + 2.8 + 2 + 1.03 + 0
7
=2.45 Nmm
Standard Deviation of air flow rate is that
(4 − 2.45) + (3.86 − 2.45) + (3.46 − 2.45) + (2.8 − 2.45) + (2 − 2.25) + (1.03 − 2.45) + (0 − 2.45)
√
6
=1.5

1. Circular Shafts
2. Composite Shafts
3. Shafts of Varying diameter
48 | P a g e
4. Drive Shaft
5. Plate girders
6. Beams
5.9 Conclusion
When we apply load on a particular object, there will be some combined bending
stresses. The deviation between values due to friction and vibrations in a material is 1.5%.
5.10 Comments
• It is observed that with the increment in angle from 0 to 90 degrees, the value of bending
is reducing.
• With the increase in angle, torsion is also increasing.
• We should make a statistical analysis of all the forces before making a product.
• Dimensions should be in such an accurate way that there will be minimum or no elastic
failure in a material.
• Properties of materials and elastic failure theories will be helpful in a product
manufacturing.
49 | P a g e
6. Lab Session 6
6.1 Objective
To find out the horizontal and vertical deflection of a quarter circular beam loaded by
vertical load, using the Curved Bar Apparatus.
6.2 Apparatus
• Curved Bar Apparatus
• Weight
• Quarter circular beam apparatus
• Dial gauge
Figure 27
6.3 Summary of theory

6.3.1 Curved bar apparatus
The theoretical deflections of curved shapes are most easily found by applying strain energy
ideas, such as Castiglione’s first theorem. The shapes chosen provide a relatively easy
introduction to the use of such techniques, which students often seem to find difficult to
grasp.
A bench mounted base supports a curved bar formed into a ring, semi-circle or
quadrant/davit. Loads are applied by specially designed weight hangers so that the specimen
bends. Horizontal and vertical deflections are measured by dial gauges rigidly attached to
the base. The bars can be readily changed and the position of the dial gauges relocated to
measure the deflections of the new configuration. Bars, weight hangers and a set of weights
are supplied.
50 | P a g e
This equipment is part of a range designed to both demonstrate and experimentally confirm
basic engineering principles. Great care has been given to each item so as to provide wide
experimental scope without unduly complicating or compromising the design. Each piece
of apparatus is self-contained and compact. Setting up time is minimal, and all
measurements are made with the simplest possible instrumentation, so that the student
involvement is purely with the engineering principles being taught.
The Curved Bars Apparatus can be readily changed and the position of the dial gauges
relocated to measure the deflections of the new configuration. All specimens, weight
hangers and a set of calibrated weights are supplied.
6.3.2 Industrial application

• They are most frequently used in circular reservoirs, spherical dome, curved balconies
… etc.
• Circular beams loaded and supported loads normal to their plans.
• The centre of gravity of loads does not coincide with the centerline axis of the member.
6.3.3 Circular beam

• Circular beams are subjected to torsional moments in addition to shear and bending
moment.
• The torsional moment causes overturning of the beams unless the end supported of the
beams are properly restrained.
6.3.4 Quarter circular beam

If we cut the circular beam into four equal parts then parts will serve as quarter circular
beam. The beam which gives us both horizontal and theoretical deflection when the load is
applied. In this experiment our objective is to find out the deflection in the quarter circular
beam when the load is applied on it. This beam is just the reduction of circular beam.
Figure 28
51 | P a g e
6.3.5 Castiglian’s theorem

Castigliano gives the two theorems in the year 1879, which relate the deformations of
members with the strain energy of the structure. In this article, we will understand the
concept of strain energy and its application relating to Castigliano’s theorem.
It states that if the strain energy U stored in an elastic structure is expressed as a function of
the generalized displacements, then the first partial derivative of U with respect to any one
of the generalized displacements is equal to the corresponding generalized force.
The strain energy, U, in a straight beam subjected to a bending moment M is
Castigliano’s strain energy equation can be applied to problems involving shafts of

nonconstant section to calculate deflections, and hence critical speeds.
𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
U= ∫ 2𝐸𝐼
6.3.6 Castigliano's Theorem Applications

Castigliano’s theorem has many applications in structural analysis:
• It is used to find out deflections in beams, trusses, and frames.

• Castigliano’s method is very useful for efficiently solving deflection problems in
statically indeterminate beams with many kinematical constraints
• Castigliano’s theorem has many applications in solving the problems for deflections
in the case of structures having varying cross-sectional areas.
• With the help of these theorems, deflection problems can be solved easily.
Deflection problems are very complex in the case of frames and trusses, but with the
help of Castigliano’s theorems, they can be solved easily.
Procedure:
• Adjust the quarter circular bar

• Attach two dial gauges for finding vertical as well as horizontal deflection
• Load the bar for number of times by an equal amount of 1N each time and note the
corresponding readings from dial gauges attached to the apparatus, for vertical and
horizontal deflection.
• Multiply those observations with the least count of the dial gauges and note out the
final deflections
52 | P a g e

Radius of curved bar = R = 100mm
Width of the bar = b = 3.3 x 10-11𝑚4
Thickness of the bar = d = 3.175mm
Modulus of Elasticity = E= 2076Pa
Moment of Inertia = I = 3.175mm
Table 12
Dial Gauge Experimental

Load Theoretical Deflection
Reading Deflection
Sr. (W)
no. δH= δV=
(N) H V δH δV 7𝑊𝑅 3 𝐼𝐼𝑊𝑅3
4𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
1 1 0.1 0.15 0.001 0.0015 75.85 382.34
2 2 11 10 0.11 0.1 151.71 764.69
3 3 27 25 0.27 0.25 227.55 1147.02
4 4 44 43 0.44 0.43 303.4 1529.32
5 5 59 61 0.59 0.61 379.25 1911.5
6.5 Statistical analysis

6.5.1 For horizontal
1
𝑆𝑥 = √𝑛−1 ((𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔. )2 + (𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔. )2 + (𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔. )2 + ⋯ )
1
= √ ((0.1 − 28.22)2 + (11 − 28.22)2 + (27 − 28.22)2 + (44 − 28.22)2 + (59 − 28.22)2
5−1
1
𝑆𝑥 = √ (790.7344 + 296.5284 + 1.4884 + 249.0084 + 947.4084)
4
53 | P a g e
𝑆𝑥 = (571.292)1/2
𝑆𝑥 =23.90
6.5.2 For vertical

1
𝑆𝑥 = √𝑛−1 ((𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔. )2 + (𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔. )2 + (𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔. )2 + ⋯ )
1
=√ (0.15 − 27.83)2 + (10 − 27.83)2 + (25 − 27.83)2 + (43 − 27.83)2 + (61 − 27.83)2
5−1
1
𝑆𝑥 = √ (766.18 + 317.90 + 8.0089 + 230.12 + 1100.24)
4
𝑆𝑥 = (605.61)1/2
𝑆𝑥 =24.60

• airplane wings,
• blades
• springs
• Chains
• Link
6.7 Comments
• Vertical Deflection are very high as compared to the horizontal deflections.
• The Reason of large vertical deflections is the weight is being applied vertically.
• The gravity is also acting in this direction.
• Applying a horizontal load will cause deflections in horizontal deflections more
prominent
54 | P a g e
7. Lab session 7
7.1 Objective
To find out the horizontal and vertical deflection of a semi-circular beam loaded by vertical
load, using the Curved Bar Apparatus.
7.2 Apparatus
• Curved Bar Apparatus
• Weight
• Quarter circular beam apparatus
• Dial gauge
Figure 29
7.3 Summary of theory

7.3.1 Curved bar apparatus
The theoretical deflections of curved shapes are most easily found by applying strain energy
ideas, such as Castiglione’s first theorem. The shapes chosen provide a relatively easy
introduction to the use of such techniques, which students often seem to find difficult to
grasp.
A bench mounted base supports a curved bar formed into a ring, semi-circle or
quadrant/davit. Loads are applied by specially designed weight hangers so that the specimen
bends. Horizontal and vertical deflections are measured by dial gauges rigidly attached to
the base. The bars can be readily changed and the position of the dial gauges relocated to
measure the deflections of the new configuration. Bars, weight hangers and a set of weights
are supplied.
55 | P a g e
This equipment is part of a range designed to both demonstrate and experimentally confirm
basic engineering principles. Great care has been given to each item so as to provide wide
experimental scope without unduly complicating or compromising the design. Each piece
of apparatus is self-contained and compact. Setting up time is minimal, and all
measurements are made with the simplest possible instrumentation, so that the student
involvement is purely with the engineering principles being taught.
The Curved Bars Apparatus can be readily changed and the position of the dial gauges
relocated to measure the deflections of the new configuration. All specimens, weight
hangers and a set of calibrated weights are supplied.
7.4 Procedure
• Adjust the semi-circular bar.
• Attach two dial gauges for finding vertical as well as horizontal deflection.
• Load the bar for number of times by an equal amount of 1N each time and note the
corresponding readings from dial gauges attached to the apparatus, for vertical and
horizontal deflection.
• Multiply those observations with the least count of the dial gauges and note out the
final deflections.

Radius of curved bar = R = 100mm
Width of the bar = b = 3.3 x 10-11𝑚4
Thickness of the bar = d = 3.175mm
Modulus of Elasticity = E= 2076Pa
Moment of Inertia= I = 3.175mm
Table 13
Dial Gauge Experimental

Load Theoretical Deflection
Reading Deflection
Sr. (W)
no. δH= δV=
(N) H V δH δV 7𝑊𝑅 3 𝐼𝐼𝑊𝑅3
4𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
1 1 0 6 0 0.06 265.5 764.6
2 2 4.5 16 0.045 0.16 531.0 1529.2
56 | P a g e
3 3 38 29 0.38 0.29 796.5 2293.8
4 4 48 44 0.48 0.44 1062 3058.4
5 5 111 77 1.11 0.77 1327.5 3823
7.6 Statistical analysis

7.6.1 For horizontal
1
𝑛−1
1
= √ ((0 − 40.3)2 + (4.5 − 40.3)2 + (38 − 40.3)2 + (48 − 40.3)2 + (111 − 40.3)2
5−1
1
𝑆𝑥 = √ (1624.09 + 1281.64 + 5.29 + 59.29 + 4998.49)
4
𝑆𝑥 = (1992.2)1/2
𝑆𝑥 =44.6
7.6.2 For vertical

1
𝑛−1
1
= √ (6 − 34.4)2 + (16 − 34.4)2 + (29 − 34.4)2 + (44 − 34.4)2 + (77 − 34.4)2
5−1
1
𝑆𝑥 = √ (806.56 + 338.56 + 29.16 + 92.16 + 1814.76)
4
𝑆𝑥 = (770.31)1/2
𝑆𝑥 =27.75
7.7 Graph
Horizontal Deflection (Experimental & Theoretical)
57 | P a g e
Experimental horizontal deflection (δH)

Ex#7
Theoretical horizontal deflection (δH)
1400
Horizontal Deflection (δH) (mm)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0 2 4 6
Load (W) (N)
Vertical Deflection (Experimental & Theoretical)
Experimental vertical deflection (δH)

Ex#7
Theoretical vertical deflection (δH)
4000
Horizontal Deflection (δH) (mm)
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 2 4 6
Load (W) (N)

• Chains.
• Links.
58 | P a g e
7.9 Conclusions
• From analytical values it was observed that, as the load increases horizontal and
vertical deflections both increase significantly.
• The horizontal deflection is more compared to vertical deflection.
• With using the Castigliano no’s Theorem Method in calculate the bar deflection, it
easier if compared with other method.
• The result of deflection value is not far between experimental and theoretical.
59 | P a g e
8. Lab session 8
8.1 Objective:
To determine experimentally the deflection at two points on a simply-supported beam
carrying point loads and to check the results by Macaulay’s method.
8.2 Apparatus
• Beam deflection apparatus
• steel beam
• two dial test-indicators and stands
• micrometre
• rule
• two hangers
• Weights.
Consider the simply-supported beam loaded as shown in fig.8.1.
W1 W2
A α C D B
RA b RB
x l
For values of x between b and l
M XX = RA x − Wl (x − a ) − W2 (x − b) (I)
For values of x between a and b
M XX = R A x − Wl (x − a ) (ii)
For values of x between o and a
M XX = R A x (iii)
Eqn. (i) gives the bending moment at any section of the beam provided bracketed terms are
discarded when they become negative. For this reason, the bracketed terms are known as
the “Macaulay Ghost Terms”.
60 | P a g e
d2y
Since EI =M
dx 2
d2y
EI = R A x − W1 ( x − a ) − W2 ( x − b) (iv)
dx 2
In Macaulay’s method, the bracketed terms are intergraded as a whole. This is justified
since
x1 x1
 ( x − a)dx =
xx x2
 ( x − a)d ( x − a)
dy x2 W W2
EI = R A − ( x − a) 2 − ( x − b) 2 + A (v)
dx 2 2 2
x 3 W1 W2
EIy = R A − ( x − a) 3 − ( x − b) 3 + AX + B (vi)
6 6 6
By integrating the bracketed quantities as a whole, the constants A and B have the same
values for all values of x.
This may be shown to be the case as follows:
Put x = a in eqn. (v) and omit the term in (x-b) since it is then negative.
dy a 2 WI
Then, EI = RA − (a − a) 2 + A
dx 2 2
a2
= RA +A
2
For values of x between o and a

d2y
EI 2 = R A x
dx
Integrating
dy x2
EI = RA + A1
dx 2
Putting x = a
dy a2
EI = RA + A1
dx 2
61 | P a g e
Since the two equations concern the slope dy/dx at the same point that the constants A and
A1 must be equal. Similarly, by putting x = b it may be shown that the constant is again A.
The actual values of the constants A and B are obtained from the boundary conditions, that
is, in eqn. (vi):
y = o when x = o and
y = o when x = 1
In the particular case considered, B = o.

8.4 Procedure:
8.4.1 Procedure (Experimental)
Assemble the apparatus as shown in fig. 8.2 with the beam simply supported at its ends A
and B. Place load hangers at point C and D distant a and b
W1 W2
Y1 Y2
A α C D B
R1 b R2
l
Respectively from end A. Select two points Y1 and Y2 approximately in positions shown in
the figure and set up the dial gauges to bear at these points on the upper surface of the beam.
Zero the dial gauges with the hangers in position.
Apply suitable loads W1 and W2 at C and D respectively and note the deflections at Y1 and
Y2 as indicated by the dial gauges. Record the values of W1 and W2 and the corresponding
deflections at Y1 and Y2. Sketch the arrangement and indicate on the sketch the distances
a, b, and l. Also, the distances of points X and Y from end A.
Measure the cross-sectional dimensions of the beam, using a micrometer.
Calculate the deflections at Y1 and Y2, using Macaulay’s method and compare the values
with the observed results.
8.4.2 Procedure (Calculations)

• Set up an expression for the bending moment for any section in the extreme right-hand
panel of the beam, measuring x from the left-hand end. Put in square brackets, the
‘ghost’
62 | P a g e
• Integrate to obtain the slope equation and again to obtain the deflection equation and
again to obtain the deflection equation, adding the constants A and B respectively at
each stage. Integrate the ‘ghost’ terms as a whole.
• Calculate the constants A and B from the condition that the deflection y is zero at the
two values of x corresponding with the supports. Omit negative ‘ghost’ terms.
• To determine slope or deflection at a particular point on the beam substitute the
corresponding value of x in the appropriate expression and omit any ‘ghost’ term which
may become negative.
8.5 Observation & Calculations:
Table 14
Width of beam, b (m) 25.4

Thickness of beam, d (m) 6.3
Span, l (m) 0.8
Load W1 (N) 1
Load W2 (N) 1
Distance a (m) 0.2
Distance b (m) 0.6
Deflection at Y1 (mm) 0.23
Deflection at Y2 (mm) 0.50
Young’s Modulus, E = GPa (assumed) 70
8.5.1 Specimen calculations:

bd 3
Second moment of area of beam cross-section I= = m4
12
Reaction RA = 1.2 Reaction RB =0.8
Flexural rigidity EI =
By means of Macaulay’s method calculate the deflection at the points X and Y using the
appropriate values of x and tabulate the results, as follows:
Table 15
Observed Calculated
Point Load (N) Deflection Deflection
(mm) (mm)
1 0.23 0.65
63 | P a g e
2 0.50 0.95
8.6 Graph
Ex#8 Deflection (observed)

1.0 Deflection (calculated)
0.9
0.8
Deflection (mm)
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
1.0 1.5 2.0
Load (N)

Mean deflection=0.776
Standard deviation of deflection = 0.3806
Uncertainty in values of deflection= 0.2690
8.8 Comments
For better readings and instrumentation,
• More accurate gauges and deflection sensors should be installed so that proper
reading can be observed
• Zero-error of the gauges should be considered while taking readings, the observers
should stay away from the table on which beam system is resting because by
disturbing the table, the absolute readings change so it should be controlled.
• As the loads cause the beam top edge to be compressed, while the lower edge is
being stretched and is under tension which leads to the perfect deflection readings,
64 | P a g e
The material properties should be considered as well because certain materials

possess certain loading sensitivities and shock sensitivities.
65 | P a g e
9. Lab session 9
9.1 Objective
To examine the Rockwell Hardness testing machine and perform the Rockwell hardness test.
9.2 Apparatus
• Rockwell hardness testing machine.
• Specimen of mild steel/ cast iron etc.
9.3 Theory
A large number of different definitions exist for the term “hardness”. Wear resistance,
deformation behaviour, tensile strength, as well as modulus of elasticity are, among
others, associated with the term “hardness”. Hardness testing is almost non-destructive
and serves in many cases for the determination of characteristic quantities or parameters
which can be used for distinguishing and describing materials. Hardness values give e.g.,
information about the mechanical properties (i.e., strength) of the material at low cost.
In general, the technical hardness is to be understood as the resistance of a material to the

penetration of an indenter made of a harder material.
Hardness is consequently no fundamental quantity of a material but the
material’s response to a certain load or test method. A hardness value is then calculated
from this response of the material to the specific test. This means that, depending on the
test method, other numerical values are determined which are defined or characterized
by the shape and material of the indenter, as well as by the type and size of test load.
9.3.1 Why hardness testing

Within the production and assembly, hardness of materials or components is mainly
tested for two reasons: Firstly, in order to define characteristic features of new materials
and, secondly, for reasons of quality assurance by conforming to the required
specifications.
The most common uses for hardness tests are to verify the heat treatment of a part and
to determine if a material has the properties necessary for its intended use. Establishing
a correlation between the hardness result and the desired material property allows this,
making hardness tests very useful in industrial and R&D applications
Five Determining Factors
The following five factors can be used to determine the correct hardness test for application.
• Material - grain size, metal, rubber, etc.

• Approximate Hardness - hardened steel, rubber, etc.
• Shape - thickness, size, etc.
• Heat Treatment – through or casehardened, annealed, etc.
• Production Requirements - sample or 100%
66 | P a g e
9.3.2 Hardness testing diamond indenter:
An indenter used in hardness testing apparatus to penetrate hard metals and other
materials consists of a shank body having at its end a conical frustum with a cylindrical
recess extending axially from that end, and a cone of polycrystalline diamond bonded to
a hard metal rod which, in turn is bonded in the cylindrical recess concentrically with the
axis of the body.
The various Test Methods Classification may be subdivided into two classes:
9.3.2.1 Static test methods

In these methods, the load is applied statically or quasi-statically. The
hardness value is defined by means of the permanent test indentation after
removing the test load as the quotient of test load and the surface or
Projection surface of the permanent indentation. It involves
• Rockwell Hardness Test

• Brinell Hardness Test
• Vickers Hardness Test
• Knoop Hardness Test
• Meyers Hardness Test Figure 30
9.4 Rockwell Hardness Test:
The Rockwell method measures the permanent depth of indentation produced by a

force on an indenter. First, a preliminary test force (pre-load or minor load) is applied to
a sample using a diamond indenter. This is the zero or reference position that breaks
through the surface to reduce the effects of surface finish. Then, an additional test force
(or major load) is applied to reach the total required test force. This force is held for a
predetermined amount of time to allow for elastic recovery. The additional test force is
then released and the final position is measured against the preliminary position and
converted to a hardness number. Preliminary test forces range from 3 kg (used in
"Superficial" Rockwell scale) to 10 kilograms (used in "Regular" Rockwell scale) to 200
kilograms (macro scale - not part of ASTM E-18; see ASTM E-1842). Total test forces
range from 15 through 150 kilograms (superficial & regular) to 500 through 3000
kilograms (macro). A variety of indenters may be used: a conical diamond with a round
tip for harder metals, and ball indenters ranging from 1/16" to 1/2" for softer and softer
materials
67 | P a g e
A. Depth reached by indenter after application of preliminary

test force (minor load).
B. Position of indenter under total test force.
C. Final position reached by indenter after elastic recovery of
the material.
D. Position at which measurement is taken.
FigureFigure
9. 1: Indenter
31
In bench Rockwell hardness testing systems, all can handle large parts, however the
Versitron can usually test large parts more quickly and accurately, when compared to
other bench testers which require external support stands or fixtures. The Indentron, on
the other hand, is much easier to use on small, awkward parts.
Selecting a Rockwell scale, the operator should select the scale that specifies the largest
load and smallest indenter possible to do the job without exceeding defined operating
conditions and accounting for conditions that influence the test result. These influencing
conditions include test specimens which are below the minimum thickness for the depth
of indentation
9.5 Indentron Rockwell Hardness Testing System

The Indentron uses a cantilevered indenter and a unique, low friction,
semi-automatic loading system.
• Provides the highest level of repeatability due to a technology

that has virtually frictionless operation.
• Cantilevered indenter can test inside diameters and other
difficult configurations without special setup.
• Many electronic capabilities for data storage, printing reports
and SPC.
• Semi-automatic or automatic operation.
• Six models from which to choose.
9.5.1 Common problems in rockwell hardness testing:
Figure 9. 2:
Figure
Indenter
32 machine
Problems related to accuracy, repeatability, and/or correlation
usually can be traced to one or more of five causes:
• Machine
• Operator
• Environment
• Sample prep.
• Calibration.
68 | P a g e
9.6 Bad indenter

The most common problem we hear is, “machine is reading high.” This always raises the
“bad indenter” flag. In the case of testing hardened steels, diamond indenters are required
to penetrate the material. Diamonds are used because of their hardness and ability to
maintain their geometrical form. However, the very trait that enables diamonds to
penetrate steel — high hardness — is also their Achilles’ heel. A diamond’s hardness
renders it brittle, and an impact or shock can cause it to break, changing its dimensional
form from a radiuses tip to a flat or other non-spheroconical shape.
9.7 Deflections
Machine deflection caused by dirt, grease, burrs, and other sources is also a significant
contributor to machine errors. Most Rockwell-scale testers are unable to compensate for
deflection (or movement) under load. (The Newage Versitron is an exception.)
9.8 Anvils
An often overlooked source of error is the anvil. Rough gouged anvil surfaces, anvil
surfaces that have been inadvertently hardness tested, and anvil surfaces that are worn or
ground to a taper can all spell disaster. In conventional Rockwell testers. These surfaces
should be slapped together every few service visits to ensure that they are flat.
9.9 Surface preparation-related causes

Though the Rockwell method begins its hardness measurement beneath the surface of
the part, the inherent variability of a rough surface can and will cause inconsistent results.
Surface coatings or hardened layers also can provide deceptive results. If you want to test
the hardness of a coating or surface layer, use a load/indenter combination that will ensure
that the measurement is taken in the coating or layer.
9.10 Test Specifications:
Table 16
Major Minor
Scale Name Indenter Load Load Applications
Regular Rockwell
Scales
Cemented carbides, thin

steel and shallow case
A Diamond 60 kg 10 kg hardened steel
69 | P a g e
1/16" ball Copper alloys, soft steels,

100 aluminium alloys,
B kg 10 kg malleable iron
Steel, hard cast irons,
pearlitic malleable iron,
titanium, deep case-
hardened steel and the
150 materials harder than
C Diamond kg 10 kg HRB100
Thin steel and medium
casehardened steel and
D Diamond 60 kg 10 kg pearlitic malleable iron
Cast iron, aluminium and
100 magnesium alloys, bearing
E 1/8" ball kg 10 kg metals
1/16" ball Annealed copper alloys,
F 60 kg 10 kg thin soft wheat metals.
Phosphor bronze, beryllium
copper, malleable irons.
Upper limit is HRG 92 to
150 avoid possible flattening of
G 1/16" ball kg 10 kg the ball.
H 1/8" ball 100 10 kg Aluminium, Zinc, Lead
kg
Bearing metals and other
very soft or thin
materials. Use
smallest ball and heaviest
150 load that do not give an
K 1/8" ball kg 10 kg anvil effect
L 1/4" ball 60 kg 10 kg [Same as K]
M 1/4" ball 100 10 kg [Same as K]
kg
P 1/4" ball 150 10 kg [Same as K]
kg
R 1/2" ball 60 kg 10 kg [Same as K]
S 1/2" ball 100 10 kg [Same as K]
kg
V 1/2" ball 150 10 kg [Same as K]
kg
70 | P a g e
9.11 Brinell hardness Test:

Widely used on castings and forgings, the Brinell method applies a
predetermined test force (F) to a hard steel or carbide ball of fixed diameter
(D) which is held for a predetermined time and then removed. The resulting
indentation is measured across at least two diameters - usually at right angles
to each other and averaged (d). A chart is then used to convert the averaged
diameter measurements to a Brinell hardness number. Test forces range from
500 to 3000 kilograms
Also available in optical, digital as well as computerized models. In Figure 33

computerized Model, Brinell indentation can be automatically measured and
hardness value is displayed on the screen .Strictly confirms IS 2281 & BS 240
Brinell Measurement Calculation
D = ball diameter
d = impression diameter
F = load
HB = Brinell Result
2𝐹
𝐻𝑏 =
𝝅𝑫(√𝑫 − 𝒅)
9.12 Scratch Test

In this form of test a stylus is traversed across the surface of a flat specimen with either
constant or increasing load. The experimental set-up for in-plan scratch testing is shown
in Figure. Specimen preparation is minimal and the only limitation is that the specimen
should be large enough to clamp without interfering with the movement of the stylus
parallel to the plane of the traverse table.
The test parameters that must be monitored are the normal (applied) load and horizontal
displacement. It is also desirable to monitor cracking events using acoustic emission (AE)
and/or the horizontal (frictional) load to aid in the correlation of forces with inspection
of the scratch path.
71 | P a g e
The significant result derived from the scratch test is the critical load for scale failure.
This parameter is derived from visual inspection of the scratch track in conjunction with
the vertical and horizontal load traces
Failure of the oxide/coating during scratch testing may occur by one of a number of
mechanisms. The most important of these in terms of their relevance to spallation are
buckling and wedge failures and quantitative interpretation of scratch testing is limited
to the latter. The analysis, which applies to failure by initial wedge cracking in the surface
layer, requires that the critical load for failure is measured as a function of oxide/coating
thickness and residual stress. A straight line fit is used and the fracture stress is defined
as the intercept i.e. failure when the imposed stress is zero; the gradient of the line, a,
defines the relationship between the critical load in the scratch test and the imposed stress.
This can be represented analytically by the expression:-
Lc is the critical load measured in the scratch
test aLc is equivalent to sS.
Advantages
• The highest precision and accuracy are guaranteed by the digital measuring system.
• Automatic test, for hardness measurements on moulded parts, with complicated and
uneven shapes, and plate materials in all durometer and IRHD ranges.
• Operating mode Hysteresis (data logging in connection with PC), for observation of
the flow and recovery characteristics of a test object under load and after removing the
load.
• Plug-in system: The measuring devices will only be plugged into the pick-up bracket,
the measuring devices are identified automatically, and therefore there is no need to
adjust the measuring distance.
• Through a short recess time and easy operation and handling of this intelligent system,
results can be obtained quickly and reliably. There is no need to do any preselection.
• Temperature does not have any influences on the measuring devices, and therefore
there is no need to adjust the measuring distance.
• Measuring devices can be integrated into production lines, or automatic manufacturing
processes.
Hardness represents the resistance of material surface to abrasion, scratching and

cutting, hardness after gives clear indication of strength. In all hardness tests, a define
force is mechanically applied on the piece, varies in size and shape for different tests.
Common indenters are made of hardened steel or diamond. Rockwell hardness tester
presents direct reading of hardness number on a dial provided with the m/c. principally
this testing is similar to Brinell hardness testing. It differs only in diameter and material
of the indenter and the applied force. Although there are many scales having different
72 | P a g e
combinations of load and size of indenter but commonly ‘C’ scale is used and hardness
is presented as HRC. Here the indenter has a diamond cone at the tip and applied force
is of 150 kgf. Soft materials are often tested in ‘B’ scale with a 1.6mm dia. Steel
indenter at 60kgf.
73 | P a g e
10. Lab Session 10

10.1 Objective
To determine the deflection at three different points of a propped cantilever
beam using a steel beam and compare with the theoretical values
10.2 Apparatus
• Propped cantilever beam apparatus
• Weights
• Dial gauge
• Specimen
• Hangers
• Spanner
10.3 Summary of Theory

A beam is a horizontal structural member in a building to resist
the lateral loads applied to the beam’s axis. The structural member which resists the forces
laterally or transversely applied to the (beam) axis is called a beam
10.3.1 Purpose of beams

It is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load
primarily by resisting its bending forces. They are made of steel or reinforced concrete
(RCC) or steel. We use it in structure to
• Resist loads
• Counter bending moment and shear forces.
• Connect the frame.
• Provide a uniform distribution of loads
10.4 Procedure
• Measure the width and depth of the beam with the help of scale to find the moment of
inertia of the beam.
• Set the apparatus and put the required hangers at different points.
• Measure the distances of each hanger from the reference end.
• Set the deflection dial gauge at zero after putting the hangers.
• Take the reading of deflection after putting the loads in the hangers.
• Repeat the process for different loads.
• Find the theoretical deflection and compare with the experimental values by showing
on a graph.
74 | P a g e

Width of Beam = b = 25 mm
Depth of beam = d = 10 mm
Effective length of beam = 630mm
Moment of Inertia for rectangular metal bar = I = bd3 /12= 2083.3 𝑚𝑚4
Modulus of Elasticity = E = 210 GPa
Least count of dial gauge = 0.01mm
10.5.1 Macaulay’s method

Macaulay’s method
Differential equation for elastic curve of a beam
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑀 = 𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑥 2
We have following information from above figure,

W1, W2 and W3 = Loads acting on beam AB
a1, a2 and a3 = Distance of point load W1, W2 and W3 respectively from support A
AB = Position of the beam before loading
AFB = Position of the beam after loading
θA = Slope at support A
θB = Slope at support B
yC, yD and yE = Deflection at point C, D and E respectively
𝑑𝑦 𝑅𝐴 𝑥 2 𝑊1 (𝑥 − 𝑎1 )2 𝑊2 (𝑥 − 𝑎2 )2
𝐸𝐼 = − − + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2
𝑅𝐴 𝑥 3 𝑊1 (𝑥 − 𝑎1 )3 𝑊2 (𝑥 − 𝑎2 )3
𝐸𝐼(𝑦) = − − + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
6 6 6
75 | P a g e
M
x Ra Rb
16.26
50.05
63cm
𝑅𝐴 = 1.21𝑁
𝑀𝐴 = 2.15𝑁𝑚
𝑅𝐵 = 0.78𝑁
Macaulay’s Method:
𝑀 = −2.15(𝑥 − 0)0 + 1.21(𝑥 − 0) − 1(𝑥 − 16.26)1 − 1(𝑥 − 50.05)1 + 0.78(𝑥 − 63)
𝑑𝑦 𝑥2 (𝑥 − 16.26)2 (𝑥 − 50.05)2 (𝑥 − 63)2

𝐸𝐼 = 1.21 − 1 −1 + 0.78 + 𝑐1
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2 2
𝑥3 (𝑥 − 16.26)3 (𝑥 − 50.05)3 (𝑥 − 63)3

𝐸𝐼(𝑦) = 1.21 −1 −1 + 0.78 + 𝑐1𝑥 + 𝑐2
2 6 6 6
𝑑𝑦
At x = 0, 𝑑𝑥 = 0
so C1= 0
y = 0 so c2 = 0
𝑥3 (𝑥 − 16.26)3 (𝑥 − 50.05)3 (𝑥 − 63)3

𝐸𝐼(𝑦) = 1.21 − 1 −1 + 0.78
6 6 6 6
For deflection at x = 31.5cm
y = 4.7mm
76 | P a g e
Table 17
Sr Loads Total Deflection

load % Error
No. (N) (mm)
W1 W2 δexp δth
1 1 1 2 4 4.7 14
2 2 2 4 5.3 5.55 4.5
3 2 3 5 7 7.3 4.2
4 4 3 7 5 5.3 5.6
5 6 3 9 3 3.25 7.6
6 6 5 11 6 6.9 13.04
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

× 100
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
23 − 20
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑋100
23
77 | P a g e
10.6 Graph
Deflection Experimental (δexp)
Ex#10
Deflection Theoretical (δth)
8
6
Deflection (mm)
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Load (N)

The are some industrial applications of loading beams
• Cantilever propped beam is structural element is widely used in the construction of

bridges, towers, and buildings
• Residential construction
• Supporting the heavy loads
• Heavy duty beam trolleys
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + 𝑥5
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑛
4.7 + 5.55 + 7.3 + 5.3 + 3.25 + 6.9
𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
5
𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 6.6
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑥3 )2 + (𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑥4 )2 + (𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑥5 )2
= √
𝑛−1
78 | P a g e
𝑆. 𝐷
(4.7 − 6.6)2 + (5.55 − 6.6)2 + (7.3 − 6.6)2 + (5.3 − 6.6)2 + (3.25 − 6.6)2 + (6.0 − 6.6)2
= √
6−1
𝑆. 𝐷 = 2.14
10.9 Comments
• The deflection of a cantilevered beam depends on four factors: load, length, material of
beam, and cross-sectional shape.
• If we move the load closer to support of cantilever beam if it's a point load then it reduce
the deflection.
• For cantilevered beams, the maximum deflection will occur when the load is located at
the free end of the beam.
• In a cantilever beam the maximum bending moment occurs at the fixed end. Moment
at the free end is 0 and maximum at the fixed end.
In cantilever beams, the maximum shear force occurs at the fixed end. In the free end,
there is zero shear force.
79 | P a g e

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, New Campus KSK

BSc. Mechanical Engineering UET, Lahore

MSc. Thermal Power Engineering UET, Lahore

Ulmer Farooq 2020-ME-311

General Instructions to Students

4.7 Industrial Applications .............................................................................................. 41

6.5 Statistical analysis ..................................................................................................... 53

9.3 Theory ....................................................................................................................... 66

1.3 Summary of Theory:

1.3.2 Deformation in springs

1.3.2.1 Elastic Deformation

1.3.2.2 Plastic Deformation

1.3.3 Hooke’s Law

Where F is the force, x is the length of extension/compression and k is a constant of

1.3.4 Stiffness in Hooke’s Law:

1.3.5 Material of spring

1.3.6 Types of spring according to loading conditions:

1.3.6.1 Compression Spring

1.4 Derivation of stiffness formula:

D = mean coil diameter

d = diameter of spring wire

N = number of active coils

l = length of spring wire = πDN

In 1879, Alberto Castiglione’ an Italian railroad engineer, published a book in which

𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾 = 𝑑4𝐺 / 8 𝐷3𝑁

1.5 Experimental Procedure:

• Withdraw the rod upward.

• Record the spring dimensions of other springs

1.5 Observation and Calculation

Spring Nominal (D)

Number of active turns (N) 9

Modulus of rigidity (G) 2

From graph gradient 0.24 0.06 0.6

Spring stiffness 40816 16666 142857 N/mm2

Theoretical stiffness 31488 21944 118191 N/mm2

% Age Error {(Th.-Pr.)/Th}

𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾 = 𝑑4𝐺 / 8 𝐷3𝑁

Where d = Wire diameter

1.6 Specimen calculation

K = 5/1.25 = 4.081632 N/mm

K = 10/0.6 = 16.66 N/mm

K = 1/0.7 = 1.4285 N/mm

Ex#1 Deflection (A)

Ex#1 Deflection (B)

Ex#1 Deflection (c)

1.8 Slope from Graph:

1.7 Industrial Applications:

• Defence Industry (for vehicles, weapons, and electrical products).

1.8 Statistical Analysis:

(𝑥1 − 𝑥)2 + (𝑥1 − 𝑥)2 + ⋯ + (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥)2

(1.25 − 3.075)2 + (2.45 − 3.075)2 + (3.7 − 3.075)2 + (4.9 − 3.075)2

(0.6 − 1.4)2 + (1.1 − 1.4)2 + (1.7 − 1.4)2 + (2.2 − 1.4)2

(0.7 − 1.6)2 + (1.3 − 1.6)2 + (1.9 − 1.6)2 + (2.55 − 1.6)2

2.3 Summary of Theory:

2.3.2 Deformations in springs

2.3.2.1 Elastic deformation

2.3.2.2 Plastic deformation

2.4 Hooke’s law:

Where F is the force, x is the length of extension/compression and k is a constant of