Tornado - Britannica Online Encyclopedia

7/9/22, 2:08 PM tornado -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia
tornado
tornado, a small-diameter column of
violently rotating air developed within a TABLE OF CONTENTS
convective cloud and in contact with the
Introduction
ground. Tornadoes occur most often in
Tornado occurrence and distribution
association with thunderstorms during the
Prediction and detection of tornadoes Death
spring and summer in the mid-latitudes of
and damage
both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
Tornado safety Tornado
These whirling atmospheric vortices can
intensity
generate the strongest winds known on Earth:
Physical characteristics of tornadoes
wind speeds in the range of 500 km (300
miles) per hour have been measured in Tornado formation
extreme events. When winds of this
magnitude strike a populated area, they can cause fantastic destruction and great loss of
life, mainly through injuries from flying debris and collapsing structures. Most tornadoes,
however, are comparatively weak events that occur in sparsely populated areas and cause
minor damage.
This article describes tornado occurrence and formation as products of instability within the
Earth’s air masses and wind systems. Wind speeds and destructiveness are discussed with
special reference to the Enhanced Fujita Scale of tornado intensity. For short, descriptive
entries on closely related phenomena not covered in this article, see waterspout, whirlwind,
and fire storm.
The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale of tornado intensity*

wind speed range**
EF number metres per second kilometres per hour feet per second miles per hour
0 29–38 105–137 95–125 65–85
1 38–49 138–177 126–161 86–110
2 50–60 179–217 163–198 111–135
3 61–74 219–266 199–242 136–165
4 74–89 267–322 243–293 166–200
5 89+ 322+ 293+ over 200
*This scale was implemented as the standard scale of tornado intensity for the United States on February 1,
2007.
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wind speed range**

EF number metres per second kilometres per hour feet per second miles per hour
**Like the Fujita Scale, the Enhanced Fujita Scale is a set of wind estimates (not measurements of wind at
the surface). Each level in the Enhanced Fujita Scale is derived from three-second wind gusts estimated at
the point of damage to 28 indicators (such as trees, buildings, and various types of infrastructure) and the
degree of damage to each indicator. Wind estimates vary with height and exposure. Each value is converted
from miles per hour and rounded to the nearest whole number.
Source: Modified from the Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage web page
(http://www.spc.noaa.gov/efscale/ef-scale.html), produced by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Association (NOAA).
Tornado occurrence and distribution

Global occurrence
Tornadoes have been reported on all continents except Antarctica. They are most common
on continents in the mid-latitudes (between 20° and 60° N and S), where they are
frequently associated with thunderstorms that develop in regions where cold polar air meets
warm tropical air.
Calculating which country has the most tornadoes per year depends on how this
measurement is defined. The United Kingdom has the most tornadoes per land size, most
of them weak. On average, about 33 tornadoes are reported annually there. In absolute
numbers, the United States has the most tornadoes by far (more than 1,000 per year have
been reported every year since 1990). It also has the most violent tornadoes (about 10 to 20
per year). Tornadoes of this intensity are very infrequent outside of the United States.
Canada reports the second largest number of tornadoes (about 80 to 100 annually). Russia
may have many tornadoes, but reports are not available to quantify their occurrence. About
20 tornadoes are reported in Australia each year, though the actual number is likely much
higher. Many storms occur in uninhabited areas, and so any tornadoes that they produce are
undocumented.
Records of tornado occurrences are fragmentary for many areas, making estimates of
global tornado frequency difficult. Insurance records show that tornadoes have caused
significant losses in Europe, India, Japan, South Africa, and Australia. Rare but deadly
tornadoes have occurred in many other countries, including Bangladesh, China, and
Argentina. There are few tornado reports from either the Arctic or the equatorial tropics.
In the United Kingdom almost all reported tornadoes are associated with vigorous
convection occurring in advance of and along a cold frontal boundary. Large temperature
differences are associated with early winter cold fronts that move rapidly across the country
from the north and west, at times spawning widespread outbreaks of small tornadoes. For
example, the passage of a very strong frontal boundary across the United Kingdom on
November 23, 1981, produced 105 documented tornadoes. Similar phenomena occur in
other European countries such as France and Belgium.
Most Southern Hemisphere tornadoes occur in Australia. Many reports come from New
South Wales, where there were 173 reported tornadoes from 1901 to 1966. In addition,
South Africa and Argentina both reported 191 tornadoes from 1930 to 1979. Because
tornado formation is closely tied to the speed and directional shear of the wind with height,
tornadoes in the Southern Hemisphere almost exclusively rotate clockwise, opposite to the
rotation of their Northern Hemisphere counterparts.
Occurrence in the United States

Reported events
Though tornadoes occur in every state, they are most frequent and attain the highest
intensities in the central portion of the United States. Texas has the most reported tornadoes
each year, about 125 on average for the years 1953–91; Florida, with almost 10 tornadoes
per 10,000 square miles per year, has the most per area. However, most Florida tornadoes
are very weak and affect extremely small areas.
From 1916 through 1998, about 45,000 tornadoes

were documented in the United States. From 1916 to
1953, approximately 158 tornadoes were reported per
year. After 1953, the beginning of the “modern
period” of tornado documentation, the number of
Map of the average annual frequency of reports rose to more than 800 per year. (The modern
tornadoes in the United States, showing
period is considered to have begun in 1953 because
the range of “Tornado Alley” from Texas
through Nebraska. this was the first full year in which the U.S. Weather
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Bureau issued tornado watches—that is, bulletins
reporting that a tornado might be imminent.) The
increased number of tornadoes reported was due to improvements in observing and
recording (largely because of the establishment of a network of volunteer tornado
“spotters”), which allowed a greater number of weak events to be recognized. During the
interval from 1953 to 1998, there was an average of 169 “tornado days” (days on which
one or more tornadoes were reported) per year. However, the early years of the modern
period, with their relatively fewer reports, bias these averages. If only the 15 years 1984
through 1998 were considered, the average number of tornadoes per year would be 1,025,
occurring on 173 tornado days per year. These higher numbers are credited to additional
improvements in tornado reporting.
Geographic distribution
When the number of tornado occurrences, their intensity, and the area they affect are
considered, the centre of tornado activity is unquestionably seen to exist in the western
portions of the southern Great Plains. The region of maximum tornado frequency, rightfully
called Tornado Alley, extends from west Texas northeast through the western and central
portions of Oklahoma and Kansas and across most of Nebraska.
Another area of frequent tornado occurrence is found across eastern Iowa, Illinois, Indiana,
western Ohio, the southern portions of Wisconsin and Michigan, and the northern part of
Kentucky. While this area experiences fewer tornadoes than does Tornado Alley, it has
been struck by some of the strongest known tornadoes and has been the site of several large
tornado outbreaks (that is, the occurrence of multiple tornadoes from the same weather
system). The Gulf states (from east Texas to central Florida) have many weak tornadoes
and have had outbreaks. The Gulf states also experience many tornadoes associated with
hurricanes.
Seasonal patterns
While most tornadoes develop in the spring and summer, tornadoes have occurred every
day of the year. Several days have had many occurrences, reflecting large regional and
national outbreaks. The distribution of reported tornadoes by month for the period 1916
through 1990 (see the graph) shows that about 74 percent of all tornadoes are reported from
March through July. Peak months are April (14 percent), May (22 percent), and June (20
percent). December and January are the months of lowest activity.
The main concentration of tornado activity migrates

across the central portion of the United States in a
seasonal cycle. Toward the end of winter (late
February), the centre of tornado activity lies over the
central Gulf states. At this time, southward-moving
Graph of the number and intensity of cold air reaches the southern limit of its expansion
tornadoes in the United States per
monthTornado wind speed is ranked
and encroaches on the Gulf Coast. As spring
according to the Fujita Scale of tornado

intensity. The occurrence of high- progresses, the days grow longer and more solar
intensity tornadoes, though rare, is most energy is intercepted. Land temperatures rise, and
common from March through June.
Tornadoes are less common during the
warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico
winter because air-mass boundaries are progressively drives back the cold air. The centre
not as likely to be characterized by the
of activity then moves eastward to the southeastern
strong temperature and moisture
contrasts required to fuel powerful Atlantic states, with tornado frequency peaking there
thunderstorms.Data source: National
in April.
Oceanic and Atmospheric
Admininstration.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. As spring advances and gives way to summer, the
centre of tornado activity gradually shifts westward
and then northward. It moves across the southern
Plains in May and June and then into the northern Plains and the Great Lakes states by
early summer. Late summer through early fall is usually a relatively quiet time because the
temperature and moisture contrasts across the boundary between the two air masses are
weak. An extension of the Bermuda high (a centre of high atmospheric pressure that
develops over the Atlantic Ocean) dominates the southeastern third of the United States,
and, while thunderstorms occur frequently in the warm, moist air, they seldom become
severe. In late fall the days grow shorter, the temperature and moisture contrast intensifies
again, and the centre of tornado activity retreats south toward the Gulf, completing the
annual cycle.
Superimposed on this general pattern are large year-to-year variations. These arise because
almost all tornado-producing storms are embedded within episodic northward surges of
warm, moist air. The distribution of tornadoes in any one year thus reflects the weather
patterns—especially the tracks followed by the synoptic-scale low-pressure centres—
prevailing in that year.
Regional factors must also be taken into account. Along the Gulf Coast, tornadoes can be
produced by thunderstorms that come ashore as a hurricane makes landfall. In a few cases,
many tornadoes will be produced. For example, on September 20, 1967, thunderstorms in
Hurricane Beulah produced 115 tornadoes in south Texas.
Diurnal patterns
Although tornadoes can occur at all times of the day, they are most frequent from mid-
afternoon to early evening. In the central United States, where most tornadoes occur,
tornado frequency is highest between 5:00 and 6:00 PM. Weak and strong tornadoes occur
most frequently in this same hour. Violent tornado occurrences peak an hour later,
between
6:00 and 7:00 PM. Tornado occurrences peak in the late afternoon to early evening because
there must be sufficient time for the Sun strongly to heat the ground and the surface layer
of the atmosphere, thus inducing and sustaining severe thunderstorms. Few reports
(roughly 1 percent) are from between 5:00 and 6:00 AM, the period just around sunrise
when the atmosphere is often very stable.
Tornado outbreaks
A tornado outbreak is the occurrence of several tornadoes over a region, usually due to
thunderstorms embedded in the same synoptic-scale weather system. Outbreaks are
classified according to the number of tornadoes reported: small (6 to 9 tornadoes), medium
(10 to 19), and large (more than 20 tornadoes). Outbreaks are also classified according to
the area affected: in local outbreaks, one or only a portion of one state is affected; in
regional outbreaks, two or three states contain all or almost all the tornadoes; in national
outbreaks, tornadoes are reported in many states.
On most tornado days, only a relatively small region has the essential conditions
juxtaposed in just the right way to foster tornado development. This alignment usually lasts
for only a small portion of an afternoon. As a consequence, only the two or three storms
that form in this region are likely to produce tornadoes. Most of these vortices are weak,
but one or more may be strong. Most occur in the space of one to two hours in the middle
to late afternoon. Situations like this give rise to small local outbreaks several times per
year.
Most dangerous are national outbreaks. Perhaps once every 10 to 15 years, the synoptic-
scale weather pattern produces conditions favourable to the production of strong storms
over a large portion of the central United States. The number of conditions required to align
over this large an area usually limits the occurrence of such widespread outbreaks to March
and April. Many of the tornadoes are likely to be strong or violent. The largest national
tornado outbreak was the Super Outbreak of April 26–28, 2011, which spawned more than
300 tornadoes across the eastern United States. The second largest was the Super Outbreak
of April 3–4, 1974, which was credited with producing 148 tornadoes in the central and
southern United States (though 4 of these were later reclassified as downbursts by the
meteorologist T. Theodore Fujita). The third largest was the April 11–12, 1965, Palm
Sunday Outbreak.
Prediction and detection of tornadoes
The first step in predicting the likely occurrence of tornadoes involves identifying regions
where conditions are favourable to the development of strong thunderstorms. Essential
ingredients for the occurrence of such storms are cool, dry air at middle levels in the
troposphere superimposed over a layer of moist, conditionally unstable air near the surface.
Conditions commonly leading to thunderstorm

development occur along the warm side of the
boundary line, or front, that separates cold, dry air
from warm, moist air. The degree of instability
present in the atmosphere is approximated by the
thunderstorm: structure contrasts in temperature and moisture across the
When the atmosphere becomes
frontal boundary that divides the two air masses. For
unstable enough to form large
powerful updrafts and downdrafts (as a storm to generate tornadoes, other factors must be
indicated by the red and blue arrows), a
present. The most important of these is a veering
towering thundercloud is built up. At
times the updrafts are strong enough to wind profile (that is, a progressive shifting of the
extend the top of the cloud into the
wind, clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere,
tropopause, the boundary between the
troposphere (or lowest layer of the counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, with
atmosphere) and the stratosphere. increasing height) at low and middle levels, along
Click on the icons along the left-hand
side of the figure to view illustrations of with strong winds at high levels. Both of these wind
other phenomena associated with actions are necessary to provide the required spin in
thunderstorms.
the air that may eventually culminate in a tornado. A
veering wind profile can be provided by the same
strong temperature contrasts powering the thunderstorm, and high-altitude winds can be
provided by the jet stream, the thin ribbon of high-speed air found in the upper half of the
troposphere.
For the generation of a tornado, the diffuse spin must be concentrated into a small area as
an evolving storm goes through several distinct stages of development. The first
appearance of rotation in a storm is caused by the interaction of a strong, persistent updraft
with the winds that blow through and around the storm. Rotation intensifies as the speed of
the wind increases and as its direction veers from southeast to south and then around to
west (in the Northern Hemisphere) with increasing height through the lower half of the
troposphere.
Forecasters in the United States have learned to carefully monitor the wind profile in
regions of instability and to estimate how temperatures and winds will evolve through the
course of a day, while at the same time tracking the movement and intensity of the jet
stream. With the aid of modern observing systems, such as vertically pointing radars
(called wind profilers) and imaging systems on satellites that can measure the flow of water
vapour through the Earth’s atmosphere, forecasters can usually identify where conditions
will be favourable for tornado formation one to seven hours in advance. This information is
transmitted to the public as a tornado watch. A tornado warning is issued when a tornado
has been spotted either visually or on a weather radar.
Once strong thunderstorms begin to form, local offices of the National Weather Service
monitor their development using imagery from satellite sensors and, most important, from
radars. These allow forecasters to follow the evolution of the storms and to estimate their
intensity. In the past, weather surveillance radars provided information only on the intensity
of rainfall within the storms. Weather forecasters then had to infer the onset of rotation
within a storm’s updraft from circumstantial evidence, such as when the precipitation
began to curve around the updraft to produce a “hook echo,” a hook-shaped region of
precipitation that flows out of the main storm and wraps around the updraft. Such
inferences were highly subjective and prone to false alarms or very short-notice warnings.
Today, modern weather surveillance radars not only provide information on the intensity
of a storm’s rainfall but also utilize the Doppler principle to sense winds within
thunderstorms. Wind speeds are determined from radio waves reflected by raindrops and
other particles carried along by the wind.
Doppler radars can measure rotation in the updraft

and allow forecasters to watch the formation of a
mesocyclone (that is, a region of rotating air within a
thunderstorm). On Doppler radar, the presence of a
well-organized mesocyclone is indicated by a small
Hook echo of a tornado in Champaign, region of concentrated shear in the wind. On one side
Ill., photographed on a radar scope on
April 9, 1953. This was the first occasion
of the mesocyclone the rotating winds flow toward
on which the hook echo, an the radar; and on the other, they move away. In some
important clue in the tornado warning
cases, the formation of the tornado core can be
system, was recorded.
Courtesy of the Illinois State Water detected. The tornado core is a roughly cylindrical
Survey, Champaign, Illinois; photograph,
region of lower atmospheric pressure that is bounded
Donald W. Staggs
by the maximum tangential winds (the fastest winds
circulating around the centre of the tornado). The radar indication of intense concentrated
rotation is called the tornado vortex signature, although this area does not always evolve
into a tornado core. These improvements have allowed forecasters to increase warning
times while reducing false alarms.
Death and damage
In the period 1916 through 1998, tornadoes claimed

12,282 lives in the United States, an average of 150
deaths per year. For the period 1953 through 1998,
tornadoes claimed 4,032 lives, an average of 88
Tornado-tracking activities under way
with a field command vehicle from the deaths per year. The decrease in fatalities is due to
National Severe Storms Laboratory improvements in safety awareness and severe-
(NSSL) in Goshen county, Wyo., as part
of the Verification of the Origins of weather warnings. There have been wide variations in
Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment 2 the number of deaths from one year to the next, the
(VORTEX2), June 5, 2009.
Mike Coniglio—National Severe Storms minimum being 15 deaths in 1986 and the maximum
Laboratory/NOAA being 805 in 1925 (due largely to the Great Tri-State
Tornado of March 18, 1925). Since the advent of
improved warning systems, three years contributed disproportionately to the total number
of deaths: 1953, 1965, and 1974. Of the 519 deaths in 1953, 323 were due to strong
tornadoes striking three urban areas (Waco, Texas; Flint, Michigan; and Worcester,
Massachusetts). The high death counts in 1965 and 1974 (301 and 366, respectively) were
the result of large national tornado outbreaks—the April 11–12, 1965, Palm Sunday
Outbreak and the April 3–4, 1974, Super Outbreak.
Most deaths and injuries in tornadoes result from individuals being struck by flying debris.
People are sometimes injured or killed by being rolled across the ground by the high winds.
Also, a few people appear to have been killed by being carried aloft and then dropped from
a great height.
Almost all of the damage caused by tornadoes can be attributed to wind-induced forces
tearing structures apart. High-speed air flowing over a building’s roof and around its
corners produces forces that pull upward and outward, respectively. Once windows or
doors on the windward side of a building break, air rushes in; this pushes outward on the
remaining walls and upward on the roof from the inside, adding to the forces induced by
the outside airflow. Often a building is torn apart so quickly and dramatically by these
forces that it appears to explode.
It used to be thought that many buildings “exploded” owing to the development of an

extreme difference in pressure between their interiors and the outside air. The rate at which
pressure changes at a point on the surface as a tornado approaches may be as great as 100
hectopascals per second (100 hectopascals are equivalent to about 10 percent of
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atmospheric pressure at sea level). While this is a significant drop, studies have shown that
most structures are sufficiently open that, even with the high rate of pressure change
associated with a rapidly moving tornado, interior pressure can adjust quickly enough to
prevent an explosion. Indeed, since the area of greatly reduced pressure beneath a tornado
is small compared with the area of damaging winds, it is likely that a building already will
have suffered damage from the winds by the time it experiences a rapid drop in outside
pressure.
Tornado safety
Tornadoes produce extremely hazardous conditions. The main dangers are caused by
extremely high winds and flying debris. Little can be done to prevent heavy damage to
structures that are directly hit by a tornado, though good building practices (such as
securely fastening the roof of the house to the walls and securing the walls to the
foundation) can reduce damage to structures on the periphery of a tornado’s circulation.
Consequently, most hazard research has been focused on saving lives and reducing injuries.
Surviving a tornado requires an understanding of the hazards and some preparation. The
most important step is taking shelter. People are advised not to waste time opening
windows to reduce the pressure in a house. It is a myth that sudden pressure changes
associated with tornadoes cause structures to explode, and flying debris is likely to break
the windows before the tornado hits anyway. The best protection in the home can be found
under a sturdy table or workbench in the basement. In homes without basements (or when
time is extremely limited), the recommendation is to shelter in a small interior room such
as a closet or bathroom, preferably one with thick walls and no windows. A mattress can be
used as additional cover, and a heavy blanket can protect against dust. It is recommended
that people also shield their head and neck with their arms. People are strongly advised to
avoid windows in all cases, as flying glass can cause terrible wounds.
Many of the fatalities produced by tornadoes occur in mobile homes. Such homes are very
lightly constructed and begin to come apart at relatively low wind speeds. In addition, they
can easily be blown over and disintegrate, producing ample amounts of sharp-edged flying
debris. Consequently, mobile homes—even ones with anchors or tie-downs—offer no
shelter from even very weak tornadoes. At the first indication of possible tornadic activity,
residents of mobile homes are advised to seek shelter in sturdy buildings. If no such
building is available, it is better to shelter in a ditch or culvert than to remain in the home.
If caught in the open in tornadic conditions, it is recommended to stay low to the ground
(preferably in a ditch or culvert) and to hold onto a sturdy object such as a tree stump. The
main danger is from being tumbled along the ground by high winds, which can in effect
beat a person to death.
It is advised that cars be abandoned as a tornado approaches and that shelter be sought in a
ditch. Many tornado-related deaths have occurred in traffic jams, such as those associated
with the April 10, 1979, tornado in Wichita Falls, Texas. Cars tend to be tumbled over and
over by tornadoes and, in extreme cases, carried aloft and dropped from significant heights.
Victims are often thrown from the tumbling car or blown out through the windows.
Tornado intensity
Tornado intensity is not estimated directly from measured wind speeds, because tornadoes
rarely pass near meteorological instruments. Rather, it is commonly estimated by
analyzing damage to structures and then correlating that damage with the wind speeds
required to produce such destruction. This method is essential to assigning tornadoes
specific values on the Enhanced Fujita Scale, or EF-Scale, of tornado intensity. The notion
of developing
such a scale for use in comparing events and in research was proposed in 1971 by the
Japanese American meteorologist T. Theodore Fujita.
Fujita’s scale was widely used in the United States and adapted for use in other parts of the
world; however, almost from the beginning, the limitations of his approach were
recognized. The primary criticisms were a lack of sufficient damage indicators for the
many building types found in modern society, no recognition of regional variations in
types and quality of construction of otherwise similar structures, and a lack of a definitive
correlation between observed damage and wind speed. As a result, there were
inconsistencies in the rating of tornado intensity in the historical records (which is shown
as noise in statistical analyses). Also, tornado wind speeds, especially in very high wind
events, were overestimated.
In 2004, after 33 years of experience with the original Fujita Scale, leading atmospheric
researchers and tornado forecasters developed a plan to improve the estimation process and
eliminate some of the limitations. The result, the Enhanced Fujita Scale, was adopted for
use in 2007. It retains many of the features of the original scale but provides more precision
at the higher intensity values. The scientists and forecasters also worked out ways to adjust
the older records so that EF values would be available for the comparison.
To classify a tornado using the EF-Scale, the damage occurring along the tornado’s track is
mapped. A tornado’s intensity varies along its path, with the most extreme damage usually
being restricted to a small area, and the overall EF-Scale value assigned represents the
tornado’s highest attained intensity. Once the degree of damage to structures and
vegetation has been assessed and matched with the appropriate EF-Scale value, the
maximum wind velocities within the range associated with the EF-Scale value are
assigned. Even in its improved form, such a system is inevitably limited. For example, a
powerful tornado that does not pass near buildings or trees, causing little or no damage,
may be given an EF- Scale value less than its true intensity.
The Enhanced Fujita Scale recognizes tornadoes of six different intensities ranging in
number from EF0 to EF5. For many purposes, these can be grouped into three broader
categories—weak, strong, and violent—which are described in turn below, using
Fujita’s original photographs to illustrate the type of damage associated with each
category.
Weak (EF0 and EF1) tornadoes
Though most tornadoes (60 to 70 percent) are in this category, they account for less than 5
percent of all deaths. A weak tornado usually has a single funnel cloud (that is, a column of
water droplets) resembling an elongated, upward-opening cone with a smooth surface. The
cone often does not touch the ground. In weak tornadoes, vertical wind speeds are thought
to be greatest along the central axis of circulation. Many weak tornadoes appear not to
extend upward far beyond the base of the parent storm.
Strong (EF2 and EF3) tornadoes
About 35 percent of all tornadoes are in the strong

category, and they account for about 30 percent of all
deaths. Typically, a strong tornado has a broad,
columnar funnel cloud. The funnel surface usually
Machine shed pushed from its
foundation, the type of “moderate has a rough, rapidly changing texture, reflecting
damage” associated with weak tornadoes
small-scale turbulence. Available evidence suggests
(ranking F1 on the Fujita Scale of
tornado intensity). that in a strong tornado, most of the rising air surges
T.T. Fujita, University of Chicago upward in a cylindrical annulus around the central
axis. Vertical speeds are lower along the axis itself.
Sometimes “suction vortices” can be seen within the tornado core at its point of contact
with the ground. This little-understood feature appears to contain the highest wind speeds
in the tornado. Strong tornadoes extend well up into the generating thunderstorm because
they generally form in or around a strongly rotating updraft that may persist through the
storm’s full height.
Violent (EF4 and EF5) tornadoes
Only a very few tornadoes (2 percent or so) reach

intensities high enough to be categorized as violent;
however, they account for about 65 percent of all
deaths. In many cases, a violent tornado has a broad
Multiunit building with its roof and many
walls destroyed, the type of “severe core with a diameter of 0.5 km (0.3 mile) or more. At
damage” associated with strong
the centre of the core, there is a relatively calm and
tornadoes (ranking F3 on the Fujita Scale
of tornado intensity). clear eye. In the eye, nonswirling air flows down
T.T. Fujita, University of Chicago from upper levels of the thunderstorm due to low
pressure in the base of the core. Upon reaching the
ground, this descending inner flow turns outward and mixes with air rushing in from the
inflow boundary layer (that is, the layer of air near ground level). The combined flow then
spirals upward around the eye in an annulus.
In some violent tornadoes, secondary vortices may

form in the annulus, giving rise to what is termed a
multiple-vortex tornado. In these secondary vortices,
air spins rapidly around the axes while the vortices
themselves rotate around the periphery of the central
Completely disintegrated residential eye. Small secondary vortices are also called suction
subdivision, the type of “incredible
damage” associated with the most
vortices when they are most evident in the corner
violent tornadoes (ranking F5 on the region, the area where the wind entering the base of
Fujita Scale of tornado intensity).
the tornado abruptly “turns the corner” from primarily
T.T. Fujita, University of Chicago
horizontal to vertical flow. A tornado with one or
more suction vortices is distinguished from a multiple-vortex tornado in that a suction
vortex is at most only several hundreds of metres high, while multiple vortices extend all
the way up into the cloud base of the parent thunderstorm. The fastest known surface winds
occur around the tips of secondary vortices.
Physical characteristics of tornadoes

Airflow regions
Fully developed tornadoes contain distinct regions of airflow. As is shown in the figure, the
central axis of circulation is within the core region, a roughly cylindrical area of lower
atmospheric pressure that is bounded by the maximum tangential winds (the fastest winds
circulating around the centre of the tornado). If a visible funnel cloud forms, it will occur
within the core region. The funnel cloud consists of a column of water droplets, commonly
called the condensation funnel. In very dry conditions there may be no condensation funnel
associated with a tornado.
Responding to the reduced pressure in the central

core, air near the ground located in what is referred to
as the inflow boundary layer converges from all
directions into a tornado’s “corner region.” This
region gets its name because the wind abruptly “turns
tornadic thunderstorm the corner” from primarily horizontal to vertical flow
(Left) In a tornadic thunderstorm, the
as it enters the core region and begins its upward
rotating updraft that produces the tornado
extends high into the main body of the spiral. The corner region is very violent. It is often
cloud. (Right) Anatomy of a tornado: Air
marked by a dust whirl or a debris fountain, where the
feeds into the base of a tornado and meets
the tornado's central downflow. These erupting inflow carries aloft material ripped from the
flows mix and spiral upward around the surface. The inflow boundary layer that feeds the
central axis.
The tornado's diameter can be much corner region is usually a few tens of metres deep and
greater than that of the visible has turbulent airflow. Above the boundary layer, the
condensation funnel. At times the tornado
may be hidden by a shroud of debris core is surrounded by a weakly swirling outer flow—
lifted from the ground. the inflow to the storm’s updraft—where radial
motions (movements toward or away from the
tornado’s axis) are relatively small. Somewhere aloft
(exactly where is not known), the core and the swirling outer flow merge with the updraft
of the generating thunderstorm.
Winds in a tornado are almost always cyclonic; that is, they turn counterclockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. This dominance of
rotation direction is indirectly due to the Earth’s rotation, which plays a role in controlling
the structure of all large-scale weather systems. As is explained more fully in the section
Tornado formation, most tornadoes are produced by thunderstorms, and a tornado’s
parent thunderstorm is in turn embedded within a larger weather system that determines
the vertical shear in the winds (that is, their change in speed and direction with height
across the troposphere). These systems rotate cyclonically, and a tornado’s rotation comes
from a concentration of the spin present in the sheared winds. However, not all tornadoes
are
cyclonic. About 5 percent of all observed tornadoes rotate anticyclonically—that is, they
turn clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere.
Wind speeds and air pressures
Measurement of wind speeds can be obtained by photogrammetry (measurements from

photographs) and through remote sensing techniques using the Doppler effect. These two
techniques are complementary. They provide information about tornado wind speeds by
tracking objects in and around the core (the assumption being that the objects are moving
with the speed of the air). Photogrammetry allows speeds across the image plane to be
determined by analysis of motions of dust packets, pieces of vegetation, and building
debris as recorded on film or videotape, but it cannot be used to determine wind speed
toward or away from the camera. On the other hand, through processing of Doppler-shifted
electromagnetic “echoes” received from raindrops and debris illuminated with pulses of
radio waves (radar) or light (lidar), wind speed toward or away from the instrument can be
determined.
Under some conditions, extreme wind speeds can occur in the corner region of a tornado.
The few measurements of violent tornado winds that have been made using Doppler radar
and photogrammetry suggest that the maximum possible tangential wind speeds generated
by tornadoes are in the range of 125 to 160 metres per second, or 450 to 575 km per hour
(about 410 to 525 feet per second, or 280 to 360 miles per hour). Most researchers believe
the actual extreme value is near the lower end of this range. Consistent with this thinking
was the measurement made using a mobile Doppler radar of the fastest wind speed ever
measured, 318 miles per hour (about 512 km per hour), in a tornado that hit the suburbs of
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, on May 3, 1999.
Maximum tangential speeds occur in a ring-shaped region that surrounds the tip of the
vortex core that is centred 30 to 50 metres (100 to 160 feet) above the ground. (Hence, they
tend to be a bit higher than damage-causing winds at the surface.) The vertical speeds of air
rising as a central jet through the hole in the ring may be as high as 80 metres per second,
or 300 km per hour (about 250 feet per second, or 170 miles per hour). Radial speeds of air
flowing from the inflow region to the corner region (which feeds the central jet) are
estimated to reach 50 metres per second, or 180 km per hour (about 160 feet per second, or
110 miles per hour). Because the organization of the airflow varies considerably with
tornado intensity, extremes in vertical and radial speeds may not occur at the same time as
extremes in tangential speeds.
These extreme speeds are the strongest winds known to occur near the Earth’s surface. In
reality, they occur over a very small portion of the tornado core close to the ground. Their
actual occurrence is rare, and, when they do occur, they usually last only a very short
time.In almost all tornadoes (about 98 percent), the maximum attained wind speed is much
less than these maximum possible speeds.
While there have not been any direct measurements of atmospheric pressure in tornadoes, a
few measurements have been taken when tornadoes passed near weather stations with
barographs (instruments that record atmospheric pressure over time). Data from such
incidents, along with measurements made in laboratory vortices, provide for the
construction of mathematical models describing the distribution of surface pressure beneath
tornadoes. These models, combined with information on tornado winds, are used to
extrapolate what was the most likely air pressure at the centre of any given tornado.
These extrapolations indicate that a region of low surface pressure is centred beneath the
tornado core. The area of this region is relatively small compared with that of the annulus
of high-speed winds that surrounds it. Even for violent tornadoes, the reduction in surface
pressure in this area (relative to surface pressure in the surrounding atmosphere) is
probably no more than 100 hectopascals (that is, about 10 percent of standard atmospheric
pressure at sea level). In most tornadoes, the reduction in central surface pressure is not that
great.
The lowest atmospheric pressure in a tornado is thought to be at the centre of the core a few
tens to a few hundred metres above the surface, though the magnitude of the pressure
reduction is unknown. In violent tornadoes this pressure difference appears to be sufficient
to induce a central downflow.
Funnel clouds
A tornado is often made visible by a distinctive funnel-shaped cloud. Commonly called the
condensation funnel, the funnel cloud is a tapered column of water droplets that extends
downward from the base of the parent cloud. It is commonly mixed with and perhaps
enveloped by dust and debris lifted from the surface. The funnel cloud may be present but
not visible due to heavy rain. Over a tornado’s lifetime, the size and shape of the funnel
cloud may change markedly, reflecting changes in the intensity of the winds, the moisture
content of the inflowing air, properties of the ground, and other factors. Very frequently
the condensation funnel extends from the parent cloud only partway to the ground, and in
very dry conditions there may be no condensation funnel. Generally, the more moist the air
and the more intense the tornado, the larger the funnel cloud.
The funnel cloud usually outlines only the innermost core. Typically, its diameter is at
most one-tenth that of the overall tornado circulation. Indeed, a tornado can occur without
a funnel cloud being present at all. The funnel cloud’s length can range from tens of metres
to several kilometres; its diameter can span a few metres to hundreds of metres. Funnel
clouds of weak tornadoes are usually cone-shaped, while strong and violent tornadoes form
short, broad, cylindrical pillars. Long, rope-like tubes that trail off horizontally are common
in the waning phase of many tornadoes.
Duration
The lifetime of a tornado is directly related to its intensity, with more intense tornadoes
tending to last longer. On average, a tornado is on the ground for about 15 minutes, but
this value is misleading because the average is heavily weighted by the rare but long-lived
violent tornadoes. Most tornadoes are weak, lasting only about two to three minutes on
average. A typical lifetime for strong tornadoes is about 8 minutes, while for violent events
it is about 25 minutes. In exceptional cases, violent events can last more than three hours.
Speed and direction of movement

The movement of a tornado is determined by the motion of the generating thunderstorm.
The average tornado moves at a speed of about 12 to 13 metres per second, or 43 to 47 km
per hour (about 39 to 43 feet per second, or 27 to 29 miles per hour), but some have
remained nearly stationary while others have traveled faster than 25 metres per second, or
90 km per hour (80 feet per second, or 55 miles per hour). As an extreme example, speeds
of up to 33 metres per second, or 120 km per hour (110 feet per second, or 75 miles per
hour) were measured in a tornado that struck Guin, Alabama, on April 3, 1974.
Most tornado-producing thunderstorms occur in a warm air mass that is under the influence
of an active synoptic-scale low-pressure system (such a system covers about one-half of the
continent). The middle-level winds (3 to 10 km [2 to 6 miles] in altitude) that in large part
determine the direction of storm motion tend to be from the west or southwest in the
Northern Hemisphere. Hence, most tornadoes (around 80 percent) come from the west or
southwest and move to the east or northeast. Tornadoes move from northwest to southeast
about 5 percent of the time. Many hurricane-related tornadoes have traveled east to west, as
have a few Great Plains and Midwest tornadoes. In the Southern Hemisphere, storms (and
consequently tornadoes) tend to move from the west or northwest to the east or southeast.
Tornado cyclones, tornado families, and long-track tornadoes
About 90 percent of tornadoes are associated with thunderstorms, usually supercells; this
association accounts for many weak and almost all strong and violent tornadoes. The other
10 percent of tornado occurrences are associated with rapidly growing cumulus clouds;
these vortices are almost always weak and short-lived.
As a very rough estimate, about 100,000 thunderstorms occur in the United States each
year. About 10 percent of these (or about 10,000 per year) will become severe
thunderstorms, and only about 5 percent to 10 percent of these severe storms (or about 500
to 1,000 per year) will produce tornadoes.
The typical tornado-producing thunderstorm lasts for two to three hours and usually
produces one or two relatively short-lived tornadoes. The period of storm maturity during
which a tornado is most likely to form may last only a few tens of minutes. However, on
rare occasions a storm may produce a tornado cyclone (a core of concentrated rotation
within the storm from which tornadoes are spawned) that is stable and long-lived. The
strength of the tornado cyclone usually pulsates, creating a sequence of tornadoes. This
gives rise to what is known as a tornado family. Tornado families typically have two or
three members, though they can be much larger. During the Super Outbreak of April 3–4,
1974, in the United States, a single storm traveling along the Ohio River produced a family
with eight members spread over several hundred kilometres.
On very rare occasions, the strength of a tornado cyclone will remain nearly constant for
several hours, forming a single, long-lasting tornado with a continuous damage path many
times the average length. This is referred to as a long-track tornado. Long-track tornadoes
can be difficult to distinguish from tornado families. For instance, the Great Tri-State
Tornado of March 18, 1925, is credited with a path length of 352 km (219 miles), though
it cannot be proved that this event, which affected Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, was an
individual tornado or a series in the same family. On the other hand, the Monticello,
Indiana, tornado on April 3, 1974 (part of the Super Outbreak mentioned above), produced
a continuous track of damage for over 160 km (99 miles). It was also the fifth and final
member of a tornado family.
Tornado formation
The mesocyclone
Tornadoes may occur wherever conditions favour the development of strong
thunderstorms. Essential conditions for such storms are the presence of cool, dry air at
middle levels in the troposphere, overlying a layer of moist, conditionally unstable air near
the surface of the Earth. Conditional instability occurs when a saturated air parcel (air at
100 percent relative humidity) continues to rise once set in motion, but an unsaturated air
parcel resists being displaced vertically. The unsaturated air, if moved upward, will be
cooler than the surrounding air and it will sink. On the other hand, when conditionally
unstable air rises it becomes warmer owing to the condensation of water vapour. As the
water condenses, heat is released, further warming the air and fueling its rise. This
convective action (that is, the circulation of air as a result of heat transfer) produces the
huge clouds commonly associated with thunderstorms and tornadoes. Convection can be
initiated when the Sun heats a localized area of the ground, destabilizing the near-surface
air.
Thunderstorms can also form along the boundary, or front, between air masses of different
temperatures. In this case, the denser cool air displaces the warmer and forces it to rise. The
greater the contrast in temperature and moisture across the frontal boundary, the greater the
instability of the atmosphere and the greater the likelihood of a strong thunderstorm.
Most tornadoes are formed when a strong updraft such as those described above acts to
concentrate atmospheric rotation, or spin, into a swirling column of air. Spin is a natural
occurrence in air because horizontal winds almost always experience both an increase in
speed and a veering in direction with increasing height above the surface. The increase of
wind speed with height (called vertical speed shear) produces “crosswise spin,” that is,
rotation about a horizontal axis crosswise to the direction of wind flow. When air
containing crosswise spin flows into an updraft, the spin is drawn upward, producing
rotation about a vertical axis. The veering of wind direction with height (vertical direction
shear) is another source of horizontal spin, this time oriented in the same direction as the
wind flow and known as “streamwise spin.” When air containing streamwise spin is drawn
into an updraft, it too is tilted upward and rotates about a vertical axis. Although crosswise
spin and streamwise spin are oriented at right angles to each other, both rotations exist in
the horizontal plane, and both types have been revealed by Doppler radar observations to
contribute to the evolution of a rotating updraft. Radar observations also have shown that
updraft rotation makes its appearance in a thunderstorm at altitudes of 4 to 8 km (2.5 to 5
miles). At first, the tilting of crosswise spin into the vertical appears to be the principal
mechanism of rotation; subsequently, as updraft rotation intensifies, the tilting of
streamwise spin becomes more important. The resulting swirling column of rising air,
perhaps 10 to 20 km (6 to 12 miles) in diameter and only weakly rotating, is called a
mesocyclone.
The dynamic pipe

As spin-up of the mesocyclone continues, its rotating action begins to reorganize airflow in
the updraft. The local pressure field and the strongly curved wind field move toward a
dynamic equilibrium called cyclostrophic balance. In this state, the pressure-gradient force,
which acts to move air inward in response to the lower pressure in the centre of the rotating
column, is equaled by the outward-directed centrifugal force. When cyclostrophic balance
is achieved, air readily flows in a circular path around the mesocyclone’s axis, while flow
toward or away from its centre is strongly suppressed. This state, in which airflow is
constrained by its own rotation, is known as the dynamic pipe effect.
The middle level of the storm is usually the first area where cyclostrophic balance is
achieved, and it is this section of the mesocyclone that begins to act as a dynamic pipe.
Almost all the air flowing along the mesocyclone’s axis is drawn in through the bottom of
the pipe. This inflow further intensifies rotation at the pipe’s lower end, causing it to extend
rapidly downward as the more quickly rotating region comes into cyclostrophic balance.
Strong convergence of inflowing air at the lower end of the pipe causes air parcels to be
accelerated upward and vertically “stretched.” Vertical stretching normally causes the
mesocyclone to contract to a diameter of about 2 to 6 km (1 to 4 miles). As this happens,
the mesocyclone rotates more quickly, which in turn strengthens the convergence of
inflowing winds at its base. In this manner the mesocyclone grows in strength in a positive-
feedback, or self-amplifying, process.
Development of the dynamic pipe effect can produce a mesocyclone that extends the full
depth of the thunderstorm, from about 1 km (0.6 mile) above the ground to near the storm’s
top at about 15 km (9 miles). Frequently, the maturation of the mesocyclone is heralded at
the bottom of the cloud by a lowering of a portion of the thunderstorm’s base in the area of
the updraft. This approximately cylindrical extension is known as a wall cloud. Surface
winds with speeds as high as 33 metres per second, or 120 km per hour (110 feet per
second, or 75 miles per hour) can be present beneath this swirling cloud, often producing
damage even when no tornado forms.
The tornado core and the condensation funnel
The extension of a concentrated swirling core to the surface—in other words, the actual
formation of a tornado—can occur once the mesocyclone is established. Most
mesocyclones do not generate tornadoes. In the ones that do, a small region of increased
convergence and stretching that is typically no more than one kilometre in diameter
develops in the mesocyclone for reasons that have so far eluded storm researchers. This
usually occurs at the interface between the thunderstorm’s updraft and downdraft.
Enhanced spin begins several kilometres above the ground, then quickly builds downward.
Around such a small volume, rotation is strong enough for a smaller dynamic pipe to form
and extend to within several tens of metres of the surface. This dynamic pipe is called the
tornado core. Once it forms, the parent mesocyclone is reclassified as a tornado cyclone.
As the core approaches the ground, surface friction slows the rotational motion and
prevents the establishment of cyclostrophic balance. Surface friction also limits the rate of
airflow into the base of the core. This restriction prevents inflow from filling the tornado’s
low-pressure core from below. At the same time, the parent storm’s strong updraft
prevents sufficient air from filling the core from above.
With air pressure in the vortex core thus reduced in comparison to the pressure outside the
core at the same elevation, a condensation funnel forms. This occurs because, at lower
atmospheric pressure, air flowing upward in the core cools more quickly with increasing
height than air rising at higher pressure just outside the core. Assuming that inflowing air
has the same amount of moisture throughout, air rising in the core reaches its dew point at a
lower height than air rising just outside the core; any further rise leads to condensation and
a visible cloud. Because pressure is lowest at the axis of the vortex, air rising along this
centre line reaches its dew point nearer the ground than air spiraling up just a short distance
outward. This process gives rise to the characteristic conical or funnel shape of the
condensation cloud.
Location in the parent storm
Many weak tornadoes form between the surface and the lowest portion of the parent cloud.
These tornadoes exist for only a short time (a few minutes). Such tornadoes most
commonly form beneath the flanking line of cumulus congestus clouds that frequently
develop above a strong thunderstorm’s gust front (the leading edge of the storm’s
downdraft). Often called gustnadoes, these vortices are true tornadoes when they are
attached to the updraft of a rapidly growing congestus cloud. Gustnadoes draw their spin
from the wind shear across the gust front. Their transient nature, relatively small diameters,
and lack of a rotating region within the generating cloud cause them to be difficult to
observe with radar. As a result, small tornadoes are not well documented, and in many
respects they are less understood than stronger events.
In contrast to gustnadoes, almost all strong and violent tornadoes (and some weak ones as
well) are closely connected with a rotating updraft that extends through much of the height
of the parent storm. Such tornadoes tend to form near the interface between a storm’s
updraft and downdraft. To an observer on the ground, they are generally perceived as
being beneath the right-rear quadrant of the main body of the storm in the Northern
Hemisphere as viewed along the storm path. Because of the connection of these tornadoes
to large- diameter circulations within the thunderstorm, many of the events leading to their
formation have been fairly well documented both visually and by radar.
John Snow
Citation Information
Article Title: tornado
Website Name: Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Date Published: 26 May 2022
URL: https://www.britannica.com/science/tornado
Access Date: July 09, 2022

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7/9/22, 2:08 PM tornado -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia

extreme events. When winds of this

The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale of tornado intensity*

wind speed range**

Tornado occurrence and distribution

Occurrence in the United States

From 1916 through 1998, about 45,000 tornadoes

The main concentration of tornado activity migrates

according to the Fujita Scale of tornado

Prediction and detection of tornadoes

Conditions commonly leading to thunderstorm

Doppler radars can measure rotation in the updraft

Death and damage

In the period 1916 through 1998, tornadoes claimed

It used to be thought that many buildings “exploded” owing to the development of an

Weak (EF0 and EF1) tornadoes

Strong (EF2 and EF3) tornadoes

About 35 percent of all tornadoes are in the strong

Violent (EF4 and EF5) tornadoes

Only a very few tornadoes (2 percent or so) reach

In some violent tornadoes, secondary vortices may

Physical characteristics of tornadoes

Responding to the reduced pressure in the central

Wind speeds and air pressures

Measurement of wind speeds can be obtained by photogrammetry (measurements from

Speed and direction of movement

Tornado cyclones, tornado families, and long-track tornadoes

The dynamic pipe

The tornado core and the condensation funnel

Location in the parent storm

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