Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Analysis and Design of Algorithm
Subject Code: IT-403
Semester: 4th
Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Unit-5 Introduction to branch & bound method

Introduction:

Branch & Bound (B & B) is general algorithm (or Systematic method) for finding optimal solution
of various optimization problems, especially in discrete and combinatorial optimization.
 The B&B strategy is very similar to backtracking in that a state space tree is used to solve a
problem.
 The differences are that the B&B method
 Does not limit us to any particular way of traversing the tree.
 It is used only for optimization problem
 It is applicable to a wide variety of discrete combinatorial problem.
 B&B is rather general optimization technique that applies where the greedy method &
dynamic programming fail.
 It is much slower, indeed (truly), it often (rapidly) leads to exponential time complexities in
the worst case.
 The te B&B efe s to all state spa e sea h ethods i hi h all hild e of the E- ode
are generated befo e a othe li e ode a e o e the E- ode
 Live node is a node that has been generated but whose children have not yet been
generated.
 E-node is a live node whose children are currently being explored.
 Dead node is a generated node that is not to be expanded or explored any further. All
children of a dead node have already been expanded.

 Two graph search strategies, BFS & D-search (DFS) in which the exploration of a new node
cannot begin until the node currently being explored is fully explored.
 Both BFS & D-search (DFS) generalized to B&B strategies.
 BFS like state space search will be called FIFO (First In First Out) search as the list of live
odes is Fi st-in-first-out list o ueue .
 D-search (DFS) Like state space search will be called LIFO (Last In First Out) search as the
list of li e odes is a last-in-first-out list o sta k .
 In backtracking, bounding function are used to help avoid the generation of sub-trees that
do not contain an answer node.
 We will use 3-types of search strategies in branch and bound
1) FIFO (First In First Out) search
2) LIFO (Last In First Out) search

Page no: 1 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

3) LC (Least Count) search

FIFO B&B:
FIFO Branch & Bound is a BFS.
In this, children of E-Node (or Live nodes) are inserted in a queue.
Implementation of list of live nodes as a queue
 Least() Removes the head of the Queue
 Add() Adds the node to the end of the Queue

Assu e that ode is a a s e ode i FIFO sea h, st

we take E- ode has

LIFO B&B:
LIFO Brach & Bound is a D-search (or DFS).
In this children of E-node (live nodes) are inserted in a stack
Implementation of List of live nodes as a stack
 Least() Removes the top of the stack
 ADD() Adds the node to the top of the stack.

Page no: 2 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Travelling Salesman Problem:

Def:- Find a tour of minimum cost starting from a node S going through other nodes only
once and returning to the starting point S.
Time Conmlexity of TSP for Dynamic Programming algorithm is O(n22n)
B&B algorithms for this problem, the worest case complexity will not be any better than O(n22n)
but good bunding functions will enables these B&B algorithms to solve some problem instances
in much less time than required by the dynamic programming alogrithm.
Let G=(V,E) be a directed graph defining an instances of TSP.
Let Cij cost of edge <i, j>
Cij =∞ if <i, j> E
|V|=n total number of vertices.
Assume that every tour starts & ends at vertex 1.
Solution Space S= {1, Π , 1 / Π is a pe utatio of (2, 3. 4. ----n) } then |S|=(n-1)!
The size of S reduced by restricting S
Sothat (1, i1,i2,-----in-1, 1} S iff <ij, ij+1> E. O≤j≤ -1, i0-in=1
“ a e o ga ized i to “tate spa e t ee .
Consider the following Example

State space tree for the travelling salesperson problem with n=4 and i0=i4=1

The above diagram shows tree organization of a complete graph with |V|=4.
Ea h leaf ode L is a solutio ode a d ep ese ts the tou defi ed the path f o the oot
to L.

Node 12 represents the tour.

i0=1, i1=2, i2=4, i3=3, i4=1

Node 14 represents the tour.

i0=1, i1=3, i2=4, i3=2, i4=1.
TSP is solved by using LC Branch & Bound:
To use LCBB to sea h the t a elli g salespe so “tate spa e t ee fi st defi e a ost fu tio
C(.) and other 2 functions Ĉ(.) & u(.)
“u h that Ĉ ≤ C ≤ u(r) for all nodes r.
1
Cost C(.) is the solution node with least C(.) corresponds to a shortest tour in G.

C(A)={Length of tour defined by the path from root to A if A is leaf

Page no: 3 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Cost of a minimum-cost leaf in the sub-tree A, if A is not leaf }

From1 Ĉ ≤ C(r) then Ĉ(r) is the length of the path defined at node A.
From previous example the path defined at node 6 is i0, i1, i2=1, 2, 4 & it consists edge of <1,2> &
<2,4>
A ette Ĉ a e o tai ed usi g the edu ed ost at i o espo di g to G.
 A row (column) is said to be reduced iff it contains at least one zero & remaining entries
are non negative.
 A matrix is reduced iff every row & column is reduced.

Page no: 4 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Given the following cost matrix:

 The TSP starts from node 1: Node 1

 Reduced Matrix: To get the lower bound of the path starting at node 1
Row # 1: reduce by 10 Row #2: reduce 2 Row #3: reduce by 2

Row # 4: Reduce by 3: Row # 5: Reduce by 4 Column 1: Reduce by 1

Column 2: It is reduced. Column 3: Reduce by 3 Column 4: It is reduced.

Column 5: It is reduced.

The reduced cost is: RCL = 25

So the cost of node 1 is: Cost (1) = 25
The reduced matrix is:

Page no: 5 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

 Choose to go to vertex 2: Node 2

- Cost of edge <1,2> is: A(1,2) = 10
- Set row #1 = inf since we are choosing edge <1,2>
- Set column # 2 = inf since we are choosing edge <1,2>
- Set A(2,1) = inf
- The resulting cost matrix is:

- The matrix is reduced:

- RCL = 0
- The cost of node 2 (Considering vertex 2 from vertex 1) is:
Cost(2) = cost(1) + A(1,2) = 25 + 10 = 35

 Choose to go to vertex 3: Node 3

- Cost of edge <1,3> is: A(1,3) = 17 (In the reduced matrix
- Set row #1 = inf since we are starting from node 1
- Set column # 3 = inf since we are choosing edge <1,3>
- Set A(3,1) = inf
- The resulting cost matrix is:

Reduce the matrix: Rows are reduced

The columns are reduced except for column # 1:
Reduce column 1 by 11:

The lower bound is: RCL = 11

The cost of going through node 3 is:
cost(3) = cost(1) + RCL + A(1,3) = 25 + 11 + 17 = 53

 Choose to go to vertex 4: Node 4

Remember that the cost matrix is the one that was reduced at the starting vertex 1
Cost of edge <1,4> is: A(1,4) = 0

Page no: 6 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Set row #1 = inf since we are starting from node 1

Set column # 4 = inf since we are choosing edge <1,4>
Set A(4,1) = inf
The resulting cost matrix is:

Reduce the matrix: Rows are reduced

Columns are reduced
The lower bound is: RCL = 0

The cost of going through node 4 is:

cost(4) = cost(1) + RCL + A(1,4) = 25 + 0 + 0 = 25

Page no: 7 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

 Choose to go to vertex 5: Node 5

- Remember that the cost matrix is the one that was reduced at starting vertex 1
- Cost of edge <1,5> is: A(1,5) = 1
- Set row #1 = inf since we are starting from node 1
- Set column # 5 = inf since we are choosing edge <1,5>
- Set A(5,1) = inf
- The resulting cost matrix is:

Reduce the matrix:

Reduce rows:
Reduce row #2: Reduce by 2

Reduce row #4: Reduce by 3

Columns are reduced

The lower bound is: RCL = 2 + 3 = 5
The cost of going through node 5 is:
cost(5) = cost(1) + RCL + A(1,5) = 25 + 5 + 1 = 31

In summary:

Page no: 8 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

So the live nodes we have so far are:

 2: cost(2) = 35, path: 1->2
 3: cost(3) = 53, path: 1->3
 4: cost(4) = 25, path: 1->4
 5: cost(5) = 31, path: 1->5
Explore the node with the lowest cost: Node 4 has a cost of 25
Vertices to be explored from node 4: 2, 3, and 5
Now we are starting from the cost matrix at node 4 is:

 Choose to go to vertex 2: Node 6 (path is 1->4->2)

Cost of edge <4,2> is: A(4,2) = 3
Set row #4 = inf since we are considering edge <4,2>
Set column # 2 = inf since we are considering edge <4,2>
Set A(2,1) = inf
The resulting cost matrix is:

Reduce the matrix: Rows are reduced

Columns are reduced

The lower bound is: RCL = 0

The cost of going through node 2 is:

cost(6) = cost(4) + RCL + A(4,2) = 25 + 0 + 3 = 28

Page no: 9 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

 Choose to go to vertex 3: Node 7 ( path is 1->4->3 )

Cost of edge <4,3> is: A(4,3) = 12
Set row #4 = inf since we are considering edge <4,3>
Set column # 3 = inf since we are considering edge <4,3>
Set A(3,1) = inf
The resulting cost matrix is:

Reduce the matrix:

Reduce row #3: by 2:

Reduce column # 1: by 11

The lower bound is: RCL = 13

So the RCL of node 7 (Considering vertex 3 from vertex 4) is:

Cost(7) = cost(4) + RCL + A(4,3) = 25 + 13 + 12 = 50

Page no: 10 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

 Choose to go to vertex 5: Node 8 ( path is 1->4->5 )

Cost of edge <4,5> is: A(4,5) = 0
Set row #4 = inf since we are considering edge <4,5>
Set column # 5 = inf since we are considering edge <4,5>
Set A(5,1) = inf
The resulting cost matrix is:

Reduce the matrix:

Reduced row 2: by 11

Columns are reduced

The lower bound is: RCL = 11
So the cost of node 8 (Considering vertex 5 from vertex 4) is:
Cost(8) = cost(4) + RCL + A(4,5) = 25 + 11 + 0 = 36

In summary: So the live nodes we have so far are:

 2: cost(2) = 35, path: 1->2
 3: cost(3) = 53, path: 1->3
 5: cost(5) = 31, path: 1->5
 6: cost(6) = 28, path: 1->4->2
 7: cost(7) = 50, path: 1->4->3
 8: cost(8) = 36, path: 1->4->5
 Explore the node with the lowest cost: Node 6 has a cost of 28
 Vertices to be explored from node 6: 3 and 5
 Now we are starting from the cost matrix at node 6 is:

Page no: 11 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

 Choose to go to vertex 3: Node 9 ( path is 1->4->2->3 )

Cost of edge <2,3> is: A(2,3) = 11
Set row #2 = inf since we are considering edge <2,3>
Set column # 3 = inf since we are considering edge <2,3>
Set A(3,1) = inf
The resulting cost matrix is:

Reduce the matrix: Reduce row #3: by 2

Reduce column # 1: by 11

The lower bound is: RCL = 2 +11 = 13

So the cost of node 9 (Considering vertex 3 from vertex 2) is:

Cost(9) = cost(6) + RCL + A(2,3) = 28 + 13 + 11 = 52

Page no: 12 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

 Choose to go to vertex 5: Node 10 ( path is 1->4->2->5 )

Cost of edge <2,5> is: A(2,5) = 0
Set row #2 = inf since we are considering edge <2,3>
Set column # 3 = inf since we are considering edge <2,3>
Set A(5,1) = inf
The resulting cost matrix is:

Reduce the matrix: Rows reduced

Columns reduced
The lower bound is: RCL = 0
So the cost of node 10 (Considering vertex 5 from vertex 2) is:
Cost(10) = cost(6) + RCL + A(2,3) = 28 + 0 + 0 = 28

In summary: So the live nodes we have so far are:

 2: cost(2) = 35, path: 1->2
 3: cost(3) = 53, path: 1->3
 5: cost(5) = 31, path: 1->5
 7: cost(7) = 50, path: 1->4->3
 8: cost(8) = 36, path: 1->4->5
 9: cost(9) = 52, path: 1->4->2->3
 10: cost(2) = 28, path: 1->4->2->5
 Explore the node with the lowest cost: Node 10 has a cost of 28
 Vertices to be explored from node 10: 3
 Now we are starting from the cost matrix at node 10 is:

Page no: 13 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

 Choose to go to vertex 3: Node 11 ( path is 1->4->2->5->3 )

Cost of edge <5,3> is: A(5,3) = 0
Set row #5 = inf since we are considering edge <5,3>
Set column # 3 = inf since we are considering edge <5,3>
Set A(3,1) = inf
The resulting cost matrix is:

Reduce the matrix: Rows reduced

Columns reduced
The lower bound is: RCL = 0
So the cost of node 11 (Considering vertex 5 from vertex 3) is:
Cost(11) = cost(10) + RCL + A(5,3) = 28 + 0 + 0 = 28

State Space Tree:

Page no: 14 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Lower Bound Theory

To find a function g(n) which is a lower bound on the time that algorithm must take, So if f(n) is the
ti e fo so e algo ith the e a ite f =Ω g he e g is lo e ou d fo f(n)Or we can
say f(n) >= c * g(n) for all n>n 0 Where c & n 0 are constants For many problems it is easy to
calculate the lower bound on n inputs e.g. consider the set of problems to find the maximum of an
ordered set of n integers. Clearly every integer must e e a i ed at least o e. “o Ω is a lo e
ou d fo that. Fo at i ultipli atio e ha e i puts so the lo e ou d a e Ω Fo
a u o de ed set the sea hi g algo ith ill take Ω as the lo e ou d. Fo a o de ed set it
will take Ω log as the lo e ou d. “i ila l all the so ti g algo ith s a ot so t i less the
Ω log ti e so Ω log is the lo e ou d fo so ti g algo ith s.
For all sorting & searching we use decision trees/comparison trees for finding the lower bound.
-Internal nodes represent comparisons
-Leaves represent outcomes
-The running time of the algorithm = the length of the path taken.
-Worst-case running time = height of tree.
ITS USE::: EXAMPLE: Sorting
o Decision tree for sorting 3 elements Sort a1, a2, …, an
Each internal node is labeled i:j for i, j { , ,…, n}.
The left subtree shows subsequent comparisons if ai aj.
The right subtree shows subsequent comparisons if ai aj.

Page no: 15 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

NP Completeness & NP Hard Problems

Basic concepts:
NP: Nondeterministic Polynomial time
The p o le s has est algo ith s fo thei solutio s ha e Co puti g ti es , that luste i to t o
groups
Group 1 Group 2

Problems with solution time bound by a  Problems with solution times not
polynomial of a small degree. bound by polynomial (simply non
polynomial )

It also alled T a ta le Algo ith s

 These are hard or intractable

Most Searching & Sorting algorithms are

problems

polynomial time algorithms

 None of the problems in this group

Ex:
has been solved by any polynomial
time algorithm
Ordered Search (O (log n)),

Polynomial evaluation O(n)  Ex:

Sorting O(n.log n) Traveling Sales Person O(n2 2n)

Knapsack O(2n/2)

No one has been able to develop a polynomial time algorithm for any problem in the 2nd group
(i.e., group 2) So, it is compulsory and finding algorithms whose computing times are greater than
polynomial very quickly because such vast amounts of time to execute that even moderate size
problems cannot be solved.
Theory of NP-Completeness:
Show that may of the problems with no polynomial time algorithms are computational time
algorithms are computationally related.
There are two classes of non-polynomial time problems
 NP-Hard
 NP-Complete

NP Complete Problem: A problem that is NP-Complete can solved in polynomial time if and only if
(iff) all other NP-Complete problems can also be solved in polynomial time.
NP-Hard: Problem can be solved in polynomial time then all NP-Complete problems can be solved
in polynomial time.
All NP-Complete problems are NP-Hard but some NP-Hard problems are not know to be NP-
Complete.

Page no: 16 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Concept of Nondeterministic Algorithms:

Algorithms with the property that the result of every operation is uniquely defined are termed as
deterministic algorithms. Such algorithms agree with the way programs are executed on a
computer. Algorithms which contain operations whose outcomes are not uniquely defined but are
limited to specified set of possibilities. Such algorithms are called nondeterministic algorithms. The
machine executing such operations is allowed to choose any one of these outcomes subject to a
termination condition to be defined later.

To specify nondeterministic algorithms, there are 3 new functions.

Choice(S) arbitrarily chooses one of the elements of sets S
Failure () Signals an Unsuccessful completion
Success () Signals a successful completion.
Example for Non Deterministic algorithms:
Algorithm Search(x){ Whenever there is a set of choices
that leads to a successful
//Problem is to search an element x
completion then one such set of
//output J, such that A[J]=x; or J=0 if x is not in A choices is always made and the
algorithm terminates.
J:=Choice(1,n);
if( A[J]:=x) then { A Nondeterministic algorithm
terminates unsuccessfully if and
Write(J); only if (iff) there exists no set of
Success(); choices leading to a successful
signal.
}
else{
write(0);
failure();
}
Nondeterministic Knapsack algorithm

Algorithm DKP(p, w, n, m, r, x){ p given Profits

W:=0; wgiven Weights
P:=0; n Number of elements (number of p
for i:=1 to n do{ or w)
x[i]:=choice(0, 1); mWeight of bag limit
W:=W+x[i]*w[i]; P[]Final Profit
P:=P+x[i]*p[i]; W[]Final weight
}
if( (W>m) or (P<r) ) then Failure();
else Success();
}

The Classes NP-Hard & NP-Complete:

For measuring the complexity of an algorithm, we use the input length as the parameter. For
example, An algorithm A is of polynomial complexity p() such that the computing time of A is

Page no: 17 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

O(p(n)) for every input of size n.

Decision problem/ Decision algorithm: Any problem for which the answer is either zero or one is
decision problem. Any algorithm for a decision problem is termed a decision algorithm.
Optimization problem/ Optimization algorithm: Any problem that involves the identification of an
optimal (either minimum or maximum) value of a given cost function is known as an optimization
problem. An optimization algorithm is used to solve an optimization problem.

P is the set of all decision problems solvable by deterministic algorithms in polynomial time.
NP is the set of all decision problems solvable by nondeterministic algorithms in polynomial time.

Since deterministic algorithms are just a special case of nondeterministic, by this we concluded
that P ⊆NP

Commonly
believed relationship between P & NP
The ost fa ous u sol a le p o le s i Co pute “ ie e is Whethe P=NP o P≠NP
In considering this problem, s.cook formulated the following question.
If there any single problem in NP, such that if we sho ed it to e i P the that ould i pl that
P=NP.
Cook answered this question with
Theorem: Satisfiability is in P if and only if (iff) P=NP
Notation of Reducibility
Let L1 and L2 be problems, Problem L1 reduces to L2 (written L1 α L2) iff there is a way to solve L1 by
a deterministic polynomial time algorithm using a deterministic algorithm that solves L 2 in
polynomial time
This implies that, if we have a polynomial time algorithm for L 2, Then we can solve L1 in polynomial
time.
He e α is a transitive relation i.e., L1 α L2 and L2 α L3 then L1 α L3
A problem L is NP-Hard if and only if (iff) satisfiability reduces to L ie., Statisfiability α L
A problem L is NP-Complete if and only if (iff) L is NP-Hard and L Є NP

Page no: 18 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Commonly believed relationship among P, NP, NP-Complete and NP-Hard

Most natural problems in NP are either in P or NP-complete.

 Packing problems: SET-PACKING, INDEPENDENT-SET.

Examples of NP-complete problems:

 Covering problems: SET-COVER, VERTEX-COVER.

 Sequencing problems: HAMILTONIAN-CYCLE, TSP.
 Partitioning problems: 3-COLOR, CLIQUE.
 Constraint satisfaction problems: SAT, 3-SAT.

Page no: 19 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

 We hope you find these notes useful.
You can get previous year question papers at
https://qp.rgpvnotes.in .

If you have any queries or you want to submit your

study notes please write us at
rgpvnotes.in@gmail.com