Linear Algebra for Economics

CHAPTER ONE
MATRICES
1.1 Definition

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers enclosed by a pair of brackets

[ ] or ( ) subject to certain rules of operation. A set of mn numbers
a11 ,a12, a13 , ... amn, arranged in a rectangular array m rows and n

columns like

a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n

a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n
a31 a32 a33 . . . a3n
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
am1 am2 am3 amn

and subject to certain rules of operation is called an mxn (read”m by n”)

matrix. The numbers a11, a12 - - - amn are called the elements (entries) of
the matrix. We denote this matrix by aij where i = 1, 2, 3, - - -, m
j = 1, 2, 3, - - - , n
The matrix above has m rows and n columns. Aij also denotes the
element of the matrix lying in the ith row and jth column and we call this
element as the (i,j)th element of the matrix.

1.1.2 The setting and overview

Matrices are mathematical objects which are useful in the study of systems of
linear equations. Matrices are arrays of numbers, and they can be manipulated
and combined in much the same way as we handle numbers. In this chapter we
develop an “algebra” of matrices, i.e a method of adding, subtracting &
multiplying matrices when these operations make sense.

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In real life, we do not have to deal with a single magnitude but with a set
of magnitudes. In analysis, we treat such set of magnitudes as a single
entity or a single object of thought, abstracted by numbers.
Suppose there are 3 brothers: A, B and C in a family and that.
A has a set of 3 shoes, 3 shirts, 2 Trousers and 1 tie
B has a set of 5 shoes, 2 shirts, 3 Trousers and 2 ties
C has a set of 4 shoes, 4 shirts, 5 Trousers and no tie
Now, we can arrange this data systematically in the following convenient
way.

Shoes
Brothers Shirts Trousers Trousers
(S)
(S) (Tr) (T)

A 3 3 2 1 1st row
B 5 2 3 2 2nd row
C 4 4 5 0 3rd row

1st column 2nd column 3rd column 4th column

The above system comprises 3 rows and 4 columns. (Note that we write
rows first and columns after wards). Clearly, there fore, 1st column gives
us the total number of shoes (3+5+4 = 12) that A, B and C have. While
2nd, 3rd and 4th columns enumerate respectively the number of shirts,
Trousers and Ties that three brothers together have in their family.
Numbers written in such a particular form of rows and columns enclosed by
square brackets or ( ) large parentheses are called a matrix.

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Example1:

The matrix 2 3 8 has two rows and three columns.

2 -1 3 and hence it is a 2x3 matrix.

Similarly, 4 3
2 5 is a 3x2 matrix
7 4

1 2
3 4 is a matrix of order 2. (2x2 matrix)

1 2 3 is a 1x3 matrix and

1
2 is a 3x1 matrix
3

Example2: in the matrix

1 2 3
A= 5 6 7
8 9 10

a11 = 1 an entry located in the first row and first column

a32 = 9 an entry located in the 3rd raw and 2nd column
a23 = 7 an entry located in the 2nd row and 3rd column.
Remark1: unless and otherwise stated, we shall consider matrices over the field
of real numbers for simplicity.
Remark2: A matrix is simply an arrangement of elements and has no
numerical value.
it is wrong to say 8 9
6 4 is greater than 1 2
3 4

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1.2. Various types of Matrices

We shall now define some useful matrices.
1. Row matrix – a matrix having only one row is called a row matrix
(a row vector).
Example: 1 2 3 is a 1x3 row matrix and
a11 a12 a13 . . . a 1n is a 1x n row matrix
2. Column Matrix - A matrix having only one column is called a column matrix
(a column vector)
1
2
Example: 3 is a 4x1 column matrix and
4

a11
a21
a31 is nx1 column matrix.
,
,
an1

3. Square matrix – A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number
of columns is called a square matrix.

Example: 1 2
3 4 is a 2x 2 square matrix

1 2 3
4 5 6 is a 3x3 square matrix
7 8 9
4. Null or zero matrix – A matrix of any order whose all elements are zero is
called a null (zero) matrix and denoted by 0.

Illustration: 0 0
0 0 is a null matrix of order 2 (2 by 2)

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0 0 0
0 0 0 is a null matrix of order 2x3.
5. Diagonal matrix – A square matrix whose all elements except those in the
main diagonal are zero is called a diagonal matrix.

Illustration
A= 2 0 1 0 0 are diagonal matrices of order
0 3 and B= 0 4 0 2 and 3 respectively.
0 0 9
Main
diagonal
Main
diagonal
6. Scalar Matrix – A square matrix whose all elements except those in the main
diagonal are zero and the diagonal elements are all equal
is called a scalar matrix
Illustration

2 0 4 0 0
0 2 & 0 4 0 are scalar matrices of order 2 & 3
0 0 4 respectively.
7. Unit (identify) matrix - a square matrix whose main diagonal entries are all
unity (1) and the other elements are zero is called a
unit or Identify matrix. A unit matrix of order n is
denoted by In.
Illustration
I2 = 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 I3 = 0 1 0 I4 = 0 1 0 0
, 0 0 1 , 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

Are unit matrices of order 2, 3 and 4 respectively.

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8. Singular and Non- singular Matrices with every square matrix A

of certain order, we associate a determinant /A/ or det A of the same
order formed by the corresponding elements of A. If /A/= 0, the matrix A
is called a singular matrix and if /A/  0, the matrix A is called a non –
singular matrix
Definition:- if A = a b , then /A/ = ad – bc (details will be discussed later on)
c a
Illustration
i. If A = 4 6
2 3 then by definition /A/ = 4x3 -2x6 = 12 – 12 = 0 and
therefore, A is a singular matrix of order 2
ii. If A = 4 5
6 8 , then /A/ = 4x8 – 6x5 = 32 – 30 = 2
/A/  0. Hence A is a non – singular matrix of order 2.
9. Symmetric and skew – symmetric matrices
A square matrix A = (aij) is said to be symmetric if aij = aji for all i and j i.e. a12 =
a21, a23 = a32, e.t.c
Illustration
2 7 -5 a b c
7 8 -4 and b d a are symmetric matrices of
-5 -4 3 c a e order 3

A square matrix A is said to be skew – symmetric If aij = - aji for all i and j i.e.
if a21 = - a12, a13 = - a31, a32 = -a23 etc. and a11 = a22 = - - - = 0
Illustration
0 -2 -4 0 a b
2 0 -6 and -a 0 -c are skew symmetric matrices of
4 6 0 -b c 0 order 3.

10. Triangular matrix – A square matrix whose elements aij = 0 whenever i<j
is called a lower triangular Matrix. Similarly, a square matrix whose
elements aij = 0 whenever i> j is called an upper Triangular Matrix.

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2 0 0
8 10 0 and 4 0
14 16 18 10 15 are lower triangular matrices

2 4 6 5 10
0 8 10 and 0 15 are upper triangular matrices.
0 0 12

11. Augemented matrix – A matrix which includes both coefficients and

constants of a linear system of equations is called an Augmented matrix.
Illustration
Given: 3x+ 2y +7z = 18
9x+ 3y +3z = 28
3x+6y + 5z = 20
The above system of linear equations can be written in matrix form as
3 2 7
9 3 3 = coefficient matrix (A)
3 6 5
x
y = Variable matrix (x)
z

18
28 = constant matrix. (c)
20

3 2 7 18
9 3 3 28 Augmented matrix
3 6 5 20

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1.3 Rules of operations on matrices (Algebra of matrices)

Under the operations on matrices, we shall discuss scalar
multiplication of a matrix, addition of matrices, subtraction and
multiplication of a matrix by a matrix.
A. equality of Matrices
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if and only if
i. A and B have the same order (dimension) and
ii. Each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B
Illustration
3 5 7 3 5 7
1. Let A = 4 8 9 2 x3 and B= 4 8 9 2 x3

Then A = B as they satisfy the conditions for equality

having the same dimension (2x3) and corresponding entries are equal
a11  b11 , a22  b22 etc.

A= 1 2 3 1 2 3
Let 4 5 6 and B= 7 8 9
A  B as matrix A is of order 2x3, while B is of order 3x3
3. The following two matrices are also not equal
A= 1 2 3 1 2 3
5 6 7 and B= 4 6 7
A  B as a 21 = 5 and b21 = 4 are different corresponding entries.
4. Suppose the following two matrices are equal. Find the value of the variable t,
a, b and m.
4t b-2 t2+4 -7
A= log81
a 9 2x2 and B = 4 m 2x2

Solution
Since the matrices are equal they must have equal dimension and
corresponding entries of the matrices should be equal.

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a) 4t = t2 +4 b) b- 2 = -7 c) log81
a = 4 d) 9 = m

t2 -4t+4 = 0 b = -7+2 a4 = 81
(t – 2) 2 = 0 b = -5 a4 = 3 4
t=2 a=3
Thus, A = B if and only if t=2, b = -5, a =3 and m = 9
B. Scalar multiplication of a matrix
Let  be a scalar and A be a matrix. Then the produce of the scalar  and the
matrix A, written as  A, is the matrix obtained by multiplying each element of
A by .
Illustration
a. If  = 4 and A = 1 2 4
2 -3 4 , then

A= 4. 1 2 4 4x1 4x2 4x4 4 8 16

2 -3 4 = 4x2 4x-3 4x4 = 8 -12 16
C. Addition and subtraction of two matrices
If two matrices A and B are of the same order i.e if they have same number of
rows and columns, then the sum of A and B or subtraction of B from A
(A+B) or (A – B) is the matrix obtained by adding or subtracting the
corresponding elements of A and B.
Note that A – B = A+ (-B), adding the negative of B to A.
Illustration
If A = 1 2 3 2 3 4
4 5 6 2 x3 and B = 5 6 7 2 x3

Then A + B = 1+2 2+3 3 -4 3 5 7

4+5 5+6 6+7 = 9 11 13 2 x3

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And A – B = 1-2 2-3 3+4 -1 -1 -1

4-5 5-6 6-7 = -1 -1 -1
D. Matrix Multiplication (multiplication of a matrix by a matrix)
The product AB of two matrices A and B is defined only when the
number of columns of the first matrix A is the same as the number of
rows of the second matrix in B and by definition the product AB is a
matrix C of order mxp if A and B were of order mxn and nxp
respectively. The following example will give the rule to multiply two
matrices.
a11 a12 a13 b11 b12
Let A = a21 a22 a23 and B = b21 b22
2 x3 b31 b32 3..x 2

Order of A = 2x3 and order of B = 3x2

The product AB is defined since the number of the pre multiply matrix
columns of A is (3) and number of rows of matrix B (3) are the same.
When the number of the post multiply columns of the first matrix and
the number of rows of the second matrix (B) are equal, then the two
matrices A and B are conformable for the product AB.
Let us see now how to multiply the above two matrices A and B.
C = AB = a11 a12 a13 b11 b12
a21 a22 a23 x b21 b22
b31 b32
C = AB = a11 b11+ a12b21+ a13 b31 a11 b12 + a12 b22 + a13 b32
a21 b11+ a22b21+ a13 b31 a21 b12 + a22 b22 + a23 b32
n
C = ail blj + ai2 b2j + - - - + ain bnj = a
k 1
ik b kj

C= C11 C12 Where C11 = a11 b11 + a12 b21 + a13 b31
C21 C22 C12 = a11 b12+ a12 b22 + a13 b32
C21 = a21 b11+ a22 b21 + a23 b31
C22 = a21 b12+ a22 b22 + a23 b32

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Entries of the product matrix C = AB is obtained as follows,

C11: Multiply elements of the first row of A with corresponding elements
of the first column of B and add
C 12: Multiply elements of the first row of A with corresponding
elements of the second column of B and add.
C21: Multiply elements of the second row of A with corresponding
elements of the first column of B and add.
C22: Multiply elements of the second row of A with corresponding
elements of the first column of B and add.
C22: Multiply elements of the second row of A with corresponding
elements of the second column of B and add.
Remark 1: If A and B are two matrices, then AB may not be equal to
BA (even though both are defined).

Example A = 2 2 2 0
0 0 2x2 &B= 0 0 2x2

AB = 2 2 x 2 0 2x2 + 2x0 2x0 + 2x0 4 0

0 0 0 0 = 0x2 + 0x0 0x0 + 0x0 = 0 0
BA = 2 0 2 0
0 0 x 0 0 = 2x2 + 0x0 2x0 + 2x0 4 4
0x2 + 0x0 0x2 + 0x0 0 0
So, AB  BA.
Remark 2: If product AB is defined, then it is not necessary that BA
must also be defined.
Example: if A is of order 2x3 and B is of order 3x1 then clearly
AB is defined, but BA is not defined as the number of columns
of B is different from the number of rows of A
(Commutative property doesn’t hold in matrix multiplication)
AB  BA.

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Remark 3: Note the following properties

i. A (BC) = (AB) C  Associative property
ii. A (B+C) = AB+ AC  Distributive property
iii. (A+B) C = AC + BC  Distributive property
Example: verify remark 3 ( i, ii, iii) for the following matrices
A= -1 0 5 , B= 1 7 0 -1 -1
7 -2 0 2x3 -3 -1 0 , C= 2 0
1 0 5 3x 3 0 4 3x2

Solution
i. Since the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows
of B, we can obtain the product AB as follows

i. AB = (-1x1) + (0x) (-3) + (5x1) (-1x7) + 0x (-1) + (5x0) (-1x0)+(0x0) + (5x5)

(7x1) + (-2x (-3) +(0x1) (7x7)+(-2 (-1) +(0x0) (7x0)+(-2)x0)+(0x5)

AB = 4 -7 25
13 51 0

So, (AB) C = -18 96 4 -7 25 -1 -1

89 -13 = 13 51 0 x 2 0
0 4
13 -1 1 7 0 -1 -1
Again BC = 1 3 = -3 -1 0 x 2 0
-1 19 1 0 5 0 4

So, A (BC) = -18 96 -1 0 5 13 -1

89 -13 = 7 -2 0 x 1 3
-1 19

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Therefore, A (BC) = (AB) C.

Example If A = 1 -2 3 2 3 -1
2 4 -1 and B = 1 0 2
-3 4 5
Find AB and BA if possible
Solution
Matrix A is a 2x3 matrix and B is a 3x3 matrix so that the product AB is
defined and it is a 2x3 matrix.

AB = 1 -2 3 2 3 -1
2 4 -1 x 1 0 2
-3 4 5

(1x2+(-2x1) + (3x-3) (1x3) (-2x0)+(3x4) (1x-1) +(-2x2) +3x5)

= (2x2)+(4x1) +(-1x-3) (2x3)+(4x0)+(-1x4) (2x-1) +(4x2) +(-1x5)

= -9 15 10
11 2 1
Note: that the product BA is not defined in this case, since the number of
columns in B  the number of rows in A. since the number of columns of
the first matrix B is different from the number of rows of the second
matrix A we can not multiply B with A.)
Illustrative examples
Example1. If A = 0 2 3 7 6 3
2 1 4 2x3 and B = 1 4 5 2x3

Find the value of 2A +3B

2. Find x and y, if x+y = 7 0 3 0

2 5 & x-y = 0 3

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3. Determine the matrices A and B where

A+2B = 1 2 0 2 -1 5
6 -3 -3 and 2A – B = 2 -1 6
-1 3 1 0 1 2

4. Find the product AB of two matrices A& B

1
Where A = 0 and B = 2 4 9 6 5 0
7 1x6
8 4x1
5. A man buys 8 kgs of Mangoes, 10 kgs of apples, and 4kgs of bananas.
Mangoes cost birr 4 per kg, apples 9 birr per kg and bananas cost birr
6 per kg, represent the quantities bought by a row matrix and the
prices by a column matrix and hence obtain the total cost.
6. If A = 2 -1 and B = 2 , find the matrix C of suitable
4 -3 -3 order such that AC = B.

Solution
1. We have 2A = 2x 0 2 3 0 4 6
2 1 4 = 4 2 8

And 3B = 3 x 7 6 3 21 18 9
1 4 5 = 3 12 15

Hence 2A +3B = 0 4 6 + 21 18 9
4 2 8 3 12 15
= 0+21 4+18 6+9
4+3 2+12 8+15

= 21 22 15
7 14 23

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2. If x+y = 7 0 3 0
2 5 and x – y = 0 3

We have x+y = 7 0 1
2 5

And x-y = 3 0
0 3 2

Adding 1 and 2, we get

(x+y) + ( x-y) = 7 0 3 0
2 5 + 0 3 = (x+y+x-y = 2x)

10 0
2x = 2 8 = multiplying both sides by ½

10 0
x= ½ = 2 8

x= 5 0
1 4

Now we can substitute the value of x = 5 0

1 4 to obtain
From 1, x+y = 7 0
2 5

5 0 7 0
1 4 +y = 2 5

y= 7 0 5 0
2 5 - 1 4

y= 2 0
1 1 subtraction of matrices

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1
0 xB= 2 4 9 6 5 0
4. A = 7 1x6
8 4x1

1
AB = 0 x 2 4 9 6 5 0
7
8

1x2 1x4 1x9 1x6 1x5 1x0

AB = 0x2 0x4 0x9 0x6 0x5 0x0
7x2 7x4 7x9 7x6 7x5 7x0
8x2 8x4 8x9 9x6 8x5 8x0 4x6

AB = 2 4 9 6 5 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
14 28 63 42 35 0
16 32 72 48 40 0

5. Let A be the row matrix representing the quantities bought. And B

be the column matrix representing the price
4
A= 8 10 4 1x 3 and B = 9
6 3x1

The total cost is given by the element of the product AB which is 1x1
matrix.
AB = 4
8 10 4 x 9
6
AB = 8x4 + 10x9 + 4x6

AB = 32 + 90 + 24

AB = 146

Hence, the required total cost is birr 146.

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6. If A = 2 -1 2
4 -3 and B = -3 , find C such that AC = B

Since A is a 2x2 matrix and AC i.e B is a 2x1 matrix

C must be a 2x1 matrix and let C = x
y

Then, AC = B gives = 2 -1 x 2
4 -3 x y = -3

2x –y 2
4x-3y = -3

Thus, by equality of two matrices, we get

2x – y = 2
4x – 3y = -3
-4x + 2y = -4 Multiplying the 1st equation by - 2
4x – 3y = -3
-y = -7
y=7
Substituting y = 7 in the first equation, we get:
2x – 7 = 2
2x = 9
x= 9/2
Hence the required matrix is C = x 9/2
y = 7
1.4 Transpose of a matrix
Let A be a matrix. The matrix obtained from A by interchanging its rows
and columns is called the transpose of A, i.e as the name implies rows
become columns or columns become rows.

The transpose of matrix A is denoted by At.

Let us see the following examples on row to find transpose of a matrix.

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i. If A = 1 0 2 then transpose of A = At = 1 2
2 3 4 2x3 0 3
2 4 3x2

ii. If B = a b c a d g
d e f , then Bt = b e h rows become columns.
g h i 3x3 c f I 3x3

It can be verified that for two matrices A and B,

a) (At)t = A
b) (A+B)t = At +Bt
c) (AB)t = Bt At

Example: For the following two matrices verify that (At)t = A and (A+B)t = At+Bt
A= 1 2 3 2 3 4
4 5 6 , and B = 1 8 6

Solution
a.) At = 1 4 2 1
2 5 and Bt = 3 8
3 6 4 6

(At)t = 1 2 3
5 5 6 =A

Thus, (At)t = A

b) A+B = 3 5 7
5 13 12

(A+B)t = 3 5 3 5
5 13 and At +Bt = 5 13
7 12 7 12

Hence, (A+B)t = At +Bt

Note that (AB)t  At Bt for two comfortable matrices

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Example: verify that (AB)t =Bt At and (AB)t  At Bt

Give A = 1 2 3 and B = 4 7
4 5 6 2x3 5 8
6 9 3x2
Solution

At = 1 4 4 5 6
2 5 Bt = 7 8 9 2x3
3 6 3x2

Su, At Bt = 1x4+4x7 1x5+4x8 1x6 +4x9 32 37 42

2x4+5x7 2x5+5x8 2x6+5x9 = 43 50 57
3x4+6x7 3x5+6x8 3x6+6x9 54 63 72 3x3

and Bt At = 4 5 6 1 4 4x1+5x2+6x3 4x4+5x5+6x6

7 8 9 x 2 5 = 7x1+8x2+9x3 7x4+8x5+9x6
3 6

Bt At = 32 77
50 122 2x2

Again (AB)t 1 2 3 4 7 1x4+2x5+3x6 1x7+2x8+3x9

= 4 5 6 x 5 8 = 4x4+5x5+x6x 4x7+5x8+ 6x9
6 9

(AB)t = 32 50 t

77 122

So, (AB)t = 32 77
50 122 2x2

Hence, (AB)t = Bt At = 32 77
50 122

But, (AB)t  At Bt, having different orders which is 2x2 and 3x3
respectively.
Note the following:
i. A matrix ‘A’ with a property A = At is called a symmetric matrix.
Example:
If A = 2 8 18 2 8 18
8 14 10 , then At = 8 14 10
18 10 16 18 10 16

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Write any three symmetric matrices. Based on the example.

ii. A square matrix with the property of A = A2 is known as Idempotent
matrix.
iii. A square matrix with the property of A2 = I is called involuntary
matrix.

1.5DETERMINATS
If A is a square matrix with entries (elements) from the field of complex
numbers, then determinant of A is some complex number. This will be
denoted by det A or /A/. Determinant is a numerical value of a square
matrix.
a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n
a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n
If A= , , , ,
, , , ,
An1 an3 an3 ann

a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n

a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n
, , , ,
Then det A = /A/ = , , , ,
an1 an3 an3 ann

Note: the following points.

i) det A or /A/ is defined for square matrix A only
ii) det A or /A/ will be defined in such a way that A is invertible if and
only if A 0
iii) The determinant of an nxn matrix will be called determinant of
order n.
1.5.1 Determinant of order one
Let A = (a11) be a square matrix of order one. Then detA = a11
Example: letA = (3), then detA = /A/ = 3 by definition.

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1.5.2 Determinant of order two

Let A = a11 a12 be a square matrix of order two.
a21 a22

then we define
det A = /A/ = a11 a22 – a12 a21
If B = a b
c d , then B = ad – bc

Example: find det A or /A/ if A= 3 4

5 6
Solution
Det A = /A/ = (3x6)-(4x5) = 18 -20 = -2
1.5.3 Determinant of order three or more
The determinant of order three or more is determined using two methods
(Laplace’s expansion method and Sarru’s method).
1.5.3.1 Laplace’s Expansion method
Laplace’s expansion method to determine the determinant of order three
or more requires the knowledge of minors and cofactors which will be
covered in later topics. Thus, I will use the formula which defines the
determinant of a square matrix.
+ - +
Let A= a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 be a 3x3 square matrix.
a31 a32 a33

Then we define,
det A = a11 (a22 x a33 - a23 x a32 ) - a12 (a21 x a33 - a23 a31 ) + a13 (a21 x a32 - a22 x
a31)

The above definition may be explained as follows:

The first bracket is determinant of matrix obtained after removing
first row and first column. (a22 a33 - a23 a32 )
The second bracket is determinant of matrix obtained after
removing first row and second column. (a21 a33 - a23 a31)

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The third bracket is determinant of matrix obtained after removing

first row and third column (a21 a32 - a22 a31)
The elements before three brackets are first, second and third
element respectively of first row with alternate positive and
negative signs.
Example1 find the determinant of the following matrix
1 2 3
A= 4 5 -6
7 8 9

Solution
The first bracket in the definition of det A is determinant of the matrix
after deleting the first row and first column. Of matrix A

1 2 3 5 -6
4 5 -6 = 8 9 = (5x9) – (-6x9) = 45+54 = 99
7 8 9

The second bracket is determinant of the matrix after removing the first
row and the second column of matrix A.

1 2 3 4 -6
4 5 -6 = 7 9 = (4x9) – (-6x7) = 36 +42 = 78
7 8 9

The third bracket is determinant of the matrix after removing the first
row and third column of matrix A.

1 2 3
4 5 -6 4 5
7 8 9 = 7 8 = (4x8) – (5x7) = 32 -35 = -3

So, det A = 1 (99) -2 (78) +3 (-3)

= -66

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Example2: Find the determinants of the following matrices.

2 -1 3 -4 -5 6
i) A= 1 2 -4 ii) B = 7 8 9
-3 1 5 1 2 3

Solution

i. det A = 2 2 -4 1 -4 1 2
1 5 - (-1) -3 5 + 3 -3 1

= 2 (2x5) – (1x-4) +1 (1x5) – (-3x-4) +3 (1x1) – (2x-3)

=2 (10+4) + (5-12) +3 (7)
= 28 -7 +21
= 42
1.5.3.2. Sarru’s Method
Sarru’s diagram (method) is the most convenient method of determining
the determinant of orders three or more square matrices. To use this
method to order three matrices, follow the following steps.
Step 1: extend the (n-1) columns to the given matrix.
Step2: Multiply entries on the main diagonal and add. (Diagonal drawn
from the left upper corner to the right bottom)
Step3: Multiply entries on the off diagonal and add (diagonal drawn from
left bottom to the right upper corner).
Step4: The determinant is the difference between the sum of the product
of elements on the main diagonal (Step2) and the sum of the
product of elements on the off diagonal (step3)
Example:- if A= 2 -1 3
1 2 -4 , then det A?
-3 1 5

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Od1
Md1 Md2 Md3 Od2 Od3
2 -1 3 2 -1
1 2 -4 -1 2
-3 1 5 -3 1

Solution
We can compute the determinant of the matrix using sarru’s method as
follows. 2 -1 3
1 2 -4 =
-3 1 5
Where md = main diagonal
od = off diagonal
Md1 = 2x2x5 = 20
Md2 = -1x-4x-3 = -12
Md3 = 3x1x1 = 3
and
Od1 = 3x2 x(-3) = -18
Od2 = 2x-4x1 = -8
Od3 = 1x1x5 = -5
det A = (md1+md2+md3) – (od1+0d2+od3)
= (20 – 12+3) – (-18 – 8-5)
= 11- (-31)
= 11+31
= 42
a b c
Example2: If A = d e f , then det A = ?
g h i

Od1
Md1 Md2 Md3 Od2 Od3
a b c a b
d e f d e
g h i g h

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det A = (aei+ bfj+ dch) – (ceg + afh + bdi)

1.5.4 Properties of Determinants

We list below some important properties of determinants
1. If two rows (or columns) of a matrix are interchanged, its determinant
retains its absolute value but changes its sign,
Let A = a b
c d , then /A/ = ad – bc

and B= c d
a b , interchanging the two rows of A

/B/ = bc – ad = - (ad-bc) = -/A/

2. If rows are changed in to columns or columns into rows, the

determinate remains unchanged.
Let A = a b
c d , then /A/ = ad – bc

B= a c
b d rows are changed into columns

/B/ = ad – bc = /A/ Hence, the result follows.

3. If two rows (or columns) are identical, the determinant is zero
(vanishes).
Let A = a b
a b , then /A/ = ab – ab = 0

Similarly if A = a1 a2 a3
a1 a2 a3 , then /A/ = 0
c1 c2 c3

4. If any row (or column) is multiplied by a real number k, then the

determinant obtained is k times the original determinant.
Let A = a b
c d , then /A/ ad – bc

and let B = ka kb
c d = multiplying the first row by K.

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then /B/ = kad kbc = k (ad – bc) = k /A/

5. If to any row (or column) is added k times a the corresponding elements
of another row cor column), the determinant remains unchanged.
i.e if A= a b
c d and

B = a+kc b+kd
c d adding k times of the second row to the first row
Now. /B/ = (a+kc) d- (b+kd) c
= ad + kdc – bc – kdc
= ad – bc = /A/

1.5 Minors and contactors of the element of a determinant

1.5.1 Minors
A minor is a sub determinant of a given order determinant obtained by
deleting (canceling) the ith and jth column of the required element and
evaluating the n-1 order determinant Minors are denoted by Mij Mll is a
minor of the element located in the first row and first column and
obtained by canceling the first row and first column.
Similarly, M23 is a minor of the element located in the 2nd row and 3rd
column and obtained by canceling the 2nd row and 3rd column of the
given determinant.
Example1 If A = a b
c d , then find the minors of each element.

Solution

/A/ = a b = ad-bc
c d

M11 (minor of a)= a b =d

c d

M12 (minor of b) a b
c d =c

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M21 = (minor of c) a b
c d =b

M22 (minor of d) a b
c d =a

Example If A = 1 -2
-3 -4 , then find minors of each element

Solution

/A/ = 1 -2 M11 = -4 M21 = -2

-3 -4 M12 = -3 M22 = 1

Example 3: If A = a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2 , find the minors of each
a3 b3 c3 element and evaluate then.
Solution

The minors of any element in /A/ is a determinant of second order

obtained by omitting from /A/ the row and column in which that
element occurs. Thus minors by a1, b1, a2, b2, c2
M11 = b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2 a2 b2
b3 c3 , m12 = a3 c3 , M13 = a3 b3 , M21 = a3 b3 , etc

Example 4: write the minors of the elements of the first row of the
following determinant and hence evaluate them.

/A/ = 1 2 3
-4 3 6
2 -7 9

Solution
M11 = 3 6
-7 9 = 27 – (-42) = 69

-4 6
M12 = 2 9 = -36 -12 = -48

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-4 3
M13 = 2 -7 = 28 -6 = 22

Use the same procedures to find minors of the 2nd and 3rd row elements
1.5.2 Cofactors
The cofactors of any element in /A/ is the minor of that element in /A/
with proper sign depending on the numbers of the row and the column in
which the element occurs. If an element occurs in ith row and jth column
in /A/, then the cofactor of the element = (-1) i+j x (Minor of the element),
cofactor of the element is denoted by Cij.
Thus, Cij = (-1) i+j x Mij

Example:- If A = 2 -3
4 3 , find the cofactors of each element.
Solution
Recalling the method of finding minor of an element, we obtain
M11 = 3, M21 = -3 and
M12 = 4 M22 = 2
After obtaining the minors of the elements, we simply substitute them in
the formula to find the corresponding cofactors.
C11 = (-1) 1+1 .M11 = 1x3=3
C12 = (-1) 1+2 .M12 = -1x4 = -4
C21 = (-1) 2+1 . M21 = -1x(-3) = 3
C22 = (-1) 2+2 .M22 = 1x2 = 2
In matrix form the cofactors can be put as follows

CA= 3 -4
3 2

Example2: If A = 1 2 3
-4 3 6 , find the cofactors of each element
2 -7 9

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Solution
First find the minors of each element and multiply each minor by (-1) i+j

obtain cofactors.
M11 = 3 6
-7 9 = 27 – (-42) = 69

C11 = (-1) 1+1 M11 = M11 = 69

-4 6
M12 = 2 9 = -36 -12 = -48

C12 = (-1) 1+2 xM12 = -1x (-48) = 48

M13 = -4 3
2 -7 = 28 -6 =22
C13 = (-1) 1+3 xM13 = M13 = 22
Self test:
Obtain the cofactors of the 2nd and 3rd row elements in a similar manner.
Note: - that in the identity Cij = (-1) i+j x Mij,
i. The minor and cofactor of an element is equal if the sum of row
and column in which it is located is even and
ii. The cofactor of an entry is the negative of its minor if the sum of
row and column in which the element is located is odd.
1.6 Adjoint of a square matrix
Let A = (aij) be a square matrix of order n. Then /A/ is the determinant
of A of the same order n formed by the corresponding elements of A. If
Cij be the cofactors of aij in A, then the transpose of the matrix (Cij)
obtained by replacing the elements of A by their corresponding
cofactors in A is called the adjoint (or adjugate) of the matrix A and it is
denoted by adj A,
Follow the following steps to obtain the adjoint of a square matrix.
Step1. Obtain the cofactors of each element of the square matrix A
Step2. From a cofactor matrix by replacing entries of the original
matrix by the corresponding cofactors, i.e

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Step3. Transposing the cofactor matrix gives the adjoint matrix

Example: Let A= 1 2
3 4 , then find adj A.
Solution
Step1: C11 = 4, C12 = -3, C21 = -2 , C22 = 1
Step2: Cofactor of matrix A = CA = 4 -3
-2 1
Step3: Transposing the cofactor matrix, we get
CAt = 4 -2
-3 1 = adjA.
Hence, adj A = Cat = 4 -2
-3 1

Example2: For the following matrix A, prove that A. adjA= 0

1 -1 1
A= 2 3 0
18 2 10

Solution:-
We have A = 1 -1 1
2 3 0
18 2 10

and using the steps above to find adjoint of a matrix we obtain adj A =

3 0 -1 1 -1 1
2 10 - 2 10 3 0

2 0 1 1 1 1
- 18 10 18 10 2 0
Adj A =

2 3 1 -1 1 -1
18 2 - 18 2 2 3

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30 22 -3
Adj A = -20 -8 2
-50 -20 5

There fore, A. adj A = 1 -1 1 30 22 -3 multiplying

2 3 0 x -20 -8 2 the conformable
18 2 10 -50 -20 5 matrices

0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0

Where 0 is the null matrix of order 3.

1.8 INVERSE OF A SQUARE MATRIX

If A is a square matrix of order n, then a square matrix B of the same
order n is said to be inverse of A if AB = BA = I (unit matrix of order n).
Consider the matrices
2 0 -1 3 -1 1
A= 5 -1 0 , B= -15 6 -5
0 1 3 5 -2 2

Multiplying A and B
It can be easily see that
AB = BA = I (unit matrix)
In this case, we, say, B is inverse of A. or A is inverse of B.
Note that:
i. Inverse of a square matrix is defined only for square matrices
ii. If B is an inverse of A, then A is also an inverse of B.
iii. If a matrix A has an inverse, then A is said to be invertible
iv. Inverse of a matrix is unique
Uniqueness of inverse of a matrix can be easily shown as follows

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For, let B and C be two inverses of A.

then, AB = BA = I and AC = CA = I
So B = BI = B(AC) = (BA)C = IC = C
Hence, B = C This shows that the matrix A can not have two
distinct inverse
Notation: Inverse of A is denoted by A-1
V. Every square matrix is not invertible.
 In this section, we give a method to determine the inverse of a matrix.
Let us see now the following two ways of finding the inverse of a square
matrix.
a) Adjoint method and
b) Gaussian elimination procedure

a) The adjoint method of finding an inverse

Theorem If A be a square matrix of order n, then A (adjA) = (adj A) A = AI,
where I is the Identity matrix of order n.
By the theorem above, we have

A (adjA) = (adjA) A = AI

A(adjA) (adjA) A A I
   (Dividing both sides by A 0.)
A A A

A(adjA) (adjA)
 Since A-1A= AA-1= I,  A  AA1  I
A A

adj A 1
 This relation shows that A-1 =  (adjA) dividing again both sides by A.
A A

1
Hence, A-1 = inverse of A= (adjA), where A  0
A

We can easily obtain the inverse of a square matrix A (adjoint method)

using the following steps.
Step1: finding the determinant of the given matrix A

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Step2: finding the adjoint of the given matrix

Step3: Dividing the adjoint matrix by the determinant obtained in step1.
adjA CAt
Thus, A-1 = 
A A

Note that if A= 0, then A-1 doesn’t exist.

Example: Find the inverse of each of the following matrices
i. 2 -1 a b 2 -3 5
-1 2 , ii. B. c d iii. C. 5 2 -7
-4 3 1
Solution
We give below the solution to I and ii and try iii by your own.
i. A = 2 -1
-1 2
Step1: A= 4-(1) = 3
Step2: C11 = 2, C12 = -(-1) = 1, C21 = -(-1) = 1, C22 =2
Remember how to find cofactors of each element,
2 1
CA = -1 2

2 1
CAt = 1 2 = adj. A
   
1 1  2 1 2 1 
Step3: A-1 = .adj A    =  3 3
A 3   1 2 
1 2  
 3 3
 
2 1 
Thus, A-1 =  3 3
1 2 

 3 3

ii. B = a b
c d

Step:1 B= ad – bc
Step 2: C11 = d, C12 = -C, C21 = -b, C22 = a
CB = d -c
-b a

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CBt = d -b
-c a = adj B
 
b 
 d  b  
d
Step 3. B-1 =
1
=
1  
=  ad  bc ad  bc 
adj B x   
ad  bc  
 c a    c a 
B

 ad  bc ad  bc 
b) The Gaussian elimination procedure
The following elementary operations are needed to use Gaussian method of finding an
inverse of a matrix
i. Interchanging two rows
ii. Multiplying a row by a non-zero scalar
iii. Adding a scalar multiple of one row to another.
Briefly, the Gaussian method starts by writing the given matrix at the left and the
corresponding identify matrix at the left and the corresponding identify matrix next to it
at the right). Then select and carry out row operations that will convert the given matrix
into the identify matrix, and apply the same operations to the matrix at the right. When
the left matrix becomes the identify matrix, the matrix on the right will be the desired
inverse.
Zeros, first: For simplicity, the Gauss- Jordan method proceeds to obtain ones on the
main diagonal and zeros on the off diagonal elements.
 Obtain the off –diagonal zeros first and following this, obtain ones on the main
diagonal.
To illustrate, let us find the inverse of the matrix
A= 3 2
1 1

A = AI = 3 2 1 0
1 1 0 1

 1 1 0 1 - interchanging row 1 and row 2

3 2 1 0

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 1 1 0 1  R2 = -3 R1+R2
0 -1 1 -3

R2
 1 1 0 1  R2 =
1
0 1 -1 3

 1 0 0 1  R1 = R1 –R2
0 1 -1 3

We now have the identify matrix at the left, so the inverse of

A= 3 2
1 1 is the matrix at the right, namely;

A-1 = 1 -2
-1 3
As a check, we have
3 2 1 -2 1 0
1 1 x -1 3 = 0 1

Example2: find the inverse of the following matrices using Gaussian

elimination method.
i. A 7 3 ii. 0 1
2 1 , 2 3
Solution
Applying the procedure of the above example, we can obtain the inverse
of the matrices A and B as follows.

i. A = AI= 7 3 1 0
2 1 0 1

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 2 1 0 1
7 3 1 0 - Interchanging rows.

 1 ½ 0 ½ Dividing row 1 by 2 R1=R1 to obtain 1

7 3 1 0 2 in the main
diagonal

 1 ½ 0 ½ R2 = R2 – 7 R1 converting a21 (7) to zero.

0 -½ 1 0

1 0 1 -3
 0 -½ 1 7/2 R1 = R1+R2

 1 0 1 -3
0 1 -2 7 R2 = -2 R2

Since the left matrix is converted to identify, the inverse of A

A1  1 -3
-2 3 at the right.

ii. B= 0 1
2 3

B= BI 0 1 1 0 , we have un wanted zero as the upper left

2 3 0 1 diagonal element. Inter changing rows we
have,

 2 3 0 1 Interchanging rows
0 1 1 0

 2 0 -3 1 R1 = -3R2 +R1
0 1 1 0

 1 0 3/2 ½ R1 = R1
0 1 1 0 2

Hence, A 1 = -3/2 ½
1 0
Partitioned Matrices

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In real world problems, systems can have huge numbers of equations and un-knowns.
Thousands of equations and hundreds of thousands of variables are not uncommon.
Standard computation techniques are inefficient in such cases, so we need to develop
techniques which exploit the internal structure of the matrices. In most cases, the matrices
of interest have lots of zeros: they are sparse.

Rank of a Matrix
The maximum number of its linearly independent columns (or rows) of a matrix is
called the rank of a matrix. The rank of a matrix cannot exceed the number of its rows or
columns.
If we consider a square matrix, the columns (rows) are linearly independent only if the
matrix is nonsingular. In other words, the rank of any nonsingular matrix of order m is m.
The rank of a matrix A is denoted by ρ (A).
The rank of a null matrix is zero. A null matrix has no non-zero rows or columns. So,
there are no independent rows or columns. Hence the rank of a null matrix is zero.

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How to find the Rank of a Matrix?

To find the rank of a matrix, we will transform that matrix into its echelon form.

Then determine the rank by the number of non-zero rows. Matrix

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