Hybrid Electrical Vehicles

Introduction A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) has two types of energy storage units,
electricity and fuel. Electricity means that a battery is used to store the energy, and that
an electromotor (from now on called motor) will be used as traction motor. Fuel means
that a tank is required, and that an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE, from now on
called engine) is used to generate mechanical power, or that a fuel cell will be used to
convert fuel to electrical energy. In the latter case, traction will be performed by the
electromotor only. In the first case, the vehicle will have both an engine and a motor.
History and development
Ferdinand Porsche developed the Lohner-Porsche in 1901.[2] But hybrid electric
vehicles did not become widely available until the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan
in 1997, followed by the Honda Insight in 1999.[3] Initially, hybrid seemed unnecessary
due to the low cost of gasoline. Worldwide increases in the price of petroleum caused
many automakers to release hybrids in the late 2000s; they are now perceived as a
core segment of the automotive market of the future.[4][5][better source needed]
As of April 2020, over 17 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide
since their inception in 1997.[6][7] Japan has the world's largest hybrid electric vehicle
fleet with 7.5 million hybrids registered as of March 2018.[8] Japan also has the world's
highest hybrid market penetration with hybrids representing 19.0% of all passenger cars
on the road as of March 2018, both figures excluding kei cars.[8][9] As of December
2020, the U.S. ranked second with cumulative sales of 5.8 million units since 1999,[10]
and, as of July 2020, Europe listed third with 3.0 million cars delivered since 2000.[11]
Global sales are led by the Toyota Motor Corporation with more than 15 million Lexus
and Toyota hybrids sold as of January 2020,[6] followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with
cumulative global sales of more than 1.35 million hybrids as of June 2014;[12][13][14]
As of January 2017, worldwide hybrid sales are led by the Toyota Prius liftback, with
cumulative sales of almost 4 million units.[1] The Prius nameplate had sold more than 6
million hybrids up to January 2017.[1] Global Lexus hybrid sales achieved the 1 million
unit milestone in March 2016.[15] As of January 2017, the conventional Prius is the all-
time best-selling hybrid car in both Japan and the U.S., with sales of over 1.8 million in
Japan and 1.75 million in the U.S.
Definition
A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle that combines a conventional
internal combustion engine (ICE) system with an electric propulsion system (hybrid
vehicle drivetrain).The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either
better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle or better performance.
Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative
brakes which convert the vehicle's kinetic energy to electric energy, which is stored in a
battery or supercapacitor. Some varieties of HEV use an internal combustion engine to
turn an electrical generator, which either recharges the vehicle's batteries or directly
powers its electric drive motors; this combination is known as a motor–generator. Many
HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the engine at idle and restarting it when
needed; this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric produces lower tailpipe
emissions than a comparably sized gasoline car since the hybrid's gasoline engine is
usually smaller than that of a gasoline-powered vehicle. If the engine is not used to
drive the car directly, it can be geared to run at maximum efficiency, further improving
fuel economy.
Classification
Types of powertrain
Hybrid electric vehicles can be classified according to the way in which power is
supplied to the drivetrain:
parallel hybrids, the ICE and the electric motor are both connected to the mechanical
transmission and can simultaneously transmit power to drive the wheels, usually
through a conventional transmission. The internal combustion engine of many parallel
hybrids can also act as a generator for supplemental recharging.  Parallel hybrids are
more efficient than comparable non-hybrid vehicles especially during urban stop-and-go
conditions where the electric motor is permitted to contribute, and during highway
operation.

series hybrids, only the electric motor drives the drivetrain, and a smaller ICE (also
called range extender) works as a generator to power the electric motor or to recharge
the batteries. They also usually have a larger battery pack than parallel hybrids, making
them more expensive. Once the batteries are low, the small combustion engine can
generate power at its optimum settings at all times, making them more efficient in
extensive city driving.
Power-split hybrids have the benefits of a combination of series and parallel
characteristics. As a result, they are more efficient overall, because series hybrids tend
to be more efficient at lower speeds and parallel tend to be more efficient at high
speeds; however, the cost of power-split hybrid is higher than a pure parallel.

Types by degree of hybridization

Full hybrid, sometimes also called a strong hybrid, is a vehicle that can run only on a
combustion engine, only on an electric motor, or a combination of both. A large, high-
capacity battery pack is needed for battery-only operation. These vehicles have a split
power path allowing greater flexibility in the drivetrain by interconverting mechanical and
electrical power, at some cost in complexity.
Mild hybrid, is a vehicle that cannot be driven solely on its electric motor, because the
electric motor does not have enough power to propel the vehicle on its own. Mild
hybrids include only some of the features found in hybrid technology, and usually
achieve limited fuel consumption savings, up to 15 percent in urban driving and 8 to 10
percent overall cycle. A mild hybrid is essentially a conventional vehicle with oversize
starter motor, allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the car is coasting, braking,
or stopped, yet restart quickly and cleanly. The motor is often mounted between the
engine and transmission, taking the place of the torque converter, and is used to supply
additional propulsion energy when accelerating.
Plug-in hybrids (PHEVs)
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a hybrid
electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge by
connecting a plug to an external electric powersource. A PHEV shares the
characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle, having an electric motor
and an internal combustion engine; and of an all-electric vehicle, also having a plug to
connect to the electrical grid.
Flex-fuel hybrid
flex-fuel engine capable of running with electricity and ethanol fuel or gasoline.
Energy Management Systems
To take advantage of the emission reduction potential of hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs), appropriate design of their energy management systems (EMSs) to control the
power flow between the engine and the battery is essential.
In a conventional (non-hybrid) vehicle, there is no need for an energy management
strategy: the driver decides the instant power delivery using the brake and accelerator
pedals and, in manual transmission vehicles, decides which gear is engaged at any
time. In a hybrid vehicle, on the other hand, there is an additional decision that must be
taken due to its ability to recover energy during braking or driving downhill: how much
power is delivered by each of the energy sources on-board of the vehicle. 

Environmental impact
Electric hybrids reduce petroleum consumption under certain circumstances, compared
to otherwise similar conventional vehicles, primarily by using three mechanisms: [255]
1. Reducing wasted energy during idle/low output, generally by turning the ICE off
2. Recapturing waste energy (i.e. regenerative braking)
3. Reducing the size and power of the ICE, and hence inefficiencies from under-
utilization, by using the added power from the electric motor to compensate for
the loss in peak power output from the smaller ICE.
Any combination of these three primary hybrid advantages may be used in different
vehicles to realize different fuel usage, power, emissions, weight and cost profiles.
Noise
Reduced noise emissions resulting from substantial use of the electric motor at idling
and low speeds, leading to roadway noise reduction in comparison to conventional
gasoline or diesel-powered engine vehicles, resulting in beneficial noise health effects
(although road noise from tires and wind, the loudest noises at highway speeds from the
interior of most vehicles, are not affected by the hybrid design alone). Reduced noise
may not be beneficial for all road users, as blind people or the visually impaired
consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets and feel
quiet hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard. Tests have shown that vehicles
operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mph (32 km/h).
Vehicle types

 1Motorcycles

 2Automobiles and light trucks

 3High-performance cars

 4Formula One

 5Taxis

 6Buses

 7Trucks

 8Military vehicles

 9Locomotives

 10Marine and other aquatic

 11Aircraft
Finally, all of these HEVs include a raft of exciting technological features. The most
common are below.
REGENERATIVE BRAKING
Vehicles possess huge kinetic energy when in motion. To stop the vehicle this energy
needs to be reduced, when the driver applies brakes to stop, that kinetic energy needs
to go somewhere. In regenerative technology, the electric motor applies resistance to
slow down the wheels and stop the vehicle. During this period, the motor operates as a
generator and converts the kinetic energy from the wheels into electrical energy. This
energy is then stored in the batteries for later use.
ELECTRIC MOTOR DRIVE/ASSIST
Internal combustion engine vehicles require additional power in many driving scenarios.
While driving at slow speeds, driving uphill, or accelerating, the vehicle needs more
power. This additional power comes from burning more fuel. However, in HEVs this
additional power comes from the electric motor. This also allows HEVs to use a smaller
engine, which in turn increases the efficiency of the vehicle. Sometimes at speeds slow
enough that ICEVs require maximum power, the HEV’s electric motor alone propels the
vehicle, cutting out the gas-powered engine entirely.

AUTOMATIC START/SHUTOFF
Some HEVs use a feature that automatically switches off the engine when the vehicle
comes to a halt. Doing so saves energy and fuel. The engine restarts by itself when the
accelerator is engaged.
Technology for HEVs and EVs is changing fast. Innovation in this field is making
amazing strides, making HEVs vehicles of the future.

Advantage and disadvantage of hybrid cars

Advantages of a Hybrid Car
Here are a few of the top advantages of having a hybrid car:-
1. Environmentally Friendly
One of the biggest advantages of a hybrid car over a gasoline-powered car is that it
runs cleaner and has better gas mileage, which makes it environmentally friendly. A
hybrid vehicle runs on twin powered engine (gasoline engine and electric motor) that
cuts fuel consumption and conserves energy.
2. Financial Benefits
Hybrid cars are supported by many credits and incentives that help to make them
affordable. Lower annual tax bills and exemption from congestion charges come in the
form of less amount of money spent on the fuel.
3. Less Dependence on Fossil Fuels
A Hybrid car is much cleaner and requires less fuel to run, which means fewer
emissions and less dependence on fossil fuels. This, in turn, also helps to reduce the
price of gasoline in the domestic market.
4. Regenerative Braking System
Each time you apply the brake while driving a hybrid vehicle, it helps you to recharge
your battery a little. An internal mechanism kicks in that captures the energy released
and uses it to charge the battery, which in turn eliminates the amount of time and need
for stopping to recharge the battery periodically.
5. Built From Light Materials
Hybrid vehicles are made up of lighter materials, which means less energy is required to
run. The engine is also smaller and lighter, which also saves much energy.
6. Assistance From Electric Motor
The electric motor assists the internal combustion engine in case of accelerating,
passing or climbing a hill.

7. Smaller Engines
The gasoline engines used in hybrid cars are usually small, light, and highly efficient as
they don’t have to power the car alone.
8. Automatic Start and Stop
In hybrid cars, the engine is automatically shut off when the vehicle is idle and starts
when the accelerator is pressed. In comparison to traditional hybrid vehicles, PHEVs
can drive longer distances at higher speeds. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles have lower
energy emissions because they emit only water vapor and warm air.
9. Electric-Only Drive
Hybrid vehicles can be driven entirely with electricity. This usually happens while
moving at low speeds, when the engine is idling at a stoplight or when the engine starts
up. Normally, the internal combustion engine starts operating only at higher speeds,
where it has more efficiency. This helps increase the overall fuel efficiency of the
vehicle.
10. Higher Resale Value
With a continuous increase in the price of gasoline, more and more people are turning
towards hybrid cars. The result is that these green vehicles have started commanding
higher than average resale values. So, in case you are not satisfied with your vehicle,
you can always sell it at a premium price to buyers looking for it.

Disadvantages of a Hybrid Car

1. Less Power
Hybrid cars are twin powered engine. The gasoline engine, which is the primary source
of power, is much smaller as compared to what you get in single-engine powered cars
while the electric motor is of low power. The combined power of both is often less than
that of a gas-powered engine. It is therefore suited for city driving and not for speed and
acceleration.
2. Can be Expensive
The biggest drawback of having a hybrid car is that it can burn a hole in your pocket.
Hybrid cars are comparatively expensive than a regular petrol car and can cost $5000
to $10000 more than a standard version. However, that extra amount can be offset with
lower running costs and tax exemptions.

3. Poorer Handling
A hybrid car houses a gasoline-powered engine, a lighter electric engine and a pack of
powerful batteries. This adds weight and eats up the extra space in the car. Extra
weight results in fuel inefficiency and manufacturers cut down weight, which has
resulted in motor and battery downsizing and less support in the suspension and body.
4. Higher Maintenance Costs
The presence of a dual engine and continuous improvement in technology make it
difficult for mechanics to repair the car and maintenance cost is also much higher. It is
also difficult to find a mechanic with such expertise.
5. Accident from High Voltage in Batteries
In case of an accident, the high voltage present inside the batteries can prove lethal for
you. There is a high chance of you getting electrocuted in such cases, which can also
make the task difficult for rescuers to get other passengers and driver out of the car.
6. Battery Replacement is Pricey
According to Green Car Reports, battery replacement of hybrid vehicles is currently
rare. However, if a battery needs to be replaced, it can get pricey.
7. Battery Disposal and Recycling
The batteries that are at the end of their useful life cycle can be recycled to harvest
usable materials for repurposing. This removes waste from the environment. But, the
main issue with recycling lies in the collection rate of vehicle batteries. 
The same problem lies in recycling lithium batteries in mobile electronics. Although
lithium is 100% recyclable, extracting it costs too much to make it of high economic
value. It is only done because of federal mandates and/or ecological purposes.
8. Hydrogen Fuel Cell Issues
The source of hydrogen can be both “clean” sources such as solar or wind power or
dirty sources like coal and natural gas. Sourcing from coal and natural gas undermines
the ecological motive for the use of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
Fuel cell electric vehicles
introduction
FCEVs share many of the same components as BEVs, such as electric motors and
power controllers or inverters; however, the major difference is the main energy source.
While BEVs use energy stored in the battery, FCEVs use fuel cells as they are superior
to batteries in many ways. The major advantages are that fuel cells are lighter and
smaller and can produce electricity as long as the fuel is supplied. Due to the clear
similarities between batteries and fuel cells, both these technologies will coexist in the
future, while the BEV is suitable for short range and small vehicles, the FCEV is suitable
for medium-large and long-range vehicles.
History and development
The concept of the fuel cell was first demonstrated by Humphry Davy in 1801, but the
invention of the first working fuel cell is credited to William Grove, a chemist, lawyer,
and physicist. Grove's experiments with what he called a "gas voltaic battery" proved in
1842 that an electric current could be produced by an electrochemical reaction between
hydrogen and oxygen over a platinum catalyst. English engineer Francis Thomas Bacon
expanded on Grove's work, creating and demonstrating various Alkaline fuel cells from
1939 to 1959.
The first modern fuel cell vehicle was a modified Allis-Chalmers farm tractor, fitted with
a 15-kilowatt fuel cell, around 1959. The Cold War Space Race drove further
development of fuel cell technology. Project Gemini tested fuel cells to provide electrical
power during manned space missions. Fuel cell development continued with the Apollo
Program. The electrical power systems in the Apollo capsules and lunar modules used
alkali fuel cells. In 1966, General Motors developed the first fuel cell road vehicle, the
Chevrolet Electrovan. It had a PEM fuel cell, a range of 120 miles and a top speed of 70
mph. There were only two seats, as the fuel cell stack and large tanks of hydrogen and
oxygen took up the rear portion of the van. Only one was built, as the project was
deemed cost-prohibitive.
Definition
A fuel cell vehicle (FCV) or fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) is an electric vehicle that
uses a fuel cell, sometimes in combination with a small battery or supercapacitor, to
power its onboard electric motor. Fuel cells in vehicles generate electricity generally
using oxygen from the air and compressed hydrogen. Most fuel cell vehicles are
classified as zero-emissions vehicles that emit only water and heat. As compared with
internal combustion vehicles, hydrogen vehicles centralize pollutants at the site of the
hydrogen production, where hydrogen is typically derived from reformed natural gas.
Transporting and storing hydrogen may also create pollutants.
Fuel cells have been used in various kinds of vehicles including forklifts, especially in
indoor applications where their clean emissions are important to air quality, and in
space applications. The first commercially produced hydrogen fuel cell automobile, the
Hyundai ix35 FCEV, was introduced in 2013, Toyota Mirai followed in 2015 and then
Honda entered the market. Fuel cells are being developed and tested in trucks, buses,
boats, motorcycles and bicycles, among other kinds of vehicles.
FCEVs use a propulsion system similar to that of electric vehicles, where energy
stored as hydrogen is converted to electricity by the fuel cell. Unlike conventional
internal combustion engine vehicles, these vehicles produce no harmful tailpipe
emissions. Other benefits include increasing U.S. energy resiliency through diversity
and strengthening the economy.
FCEVs are fueled with pure hydrogen gas stored in a tank on the vehicle. Similar to
conventional internal combustion engine vehicles, they can fuel in less than 4 minutes
and have a driving range over 300 miles. FCEVs are equipped with other advanced
technologies to increase efficiency, such as regenerative braking systems that capture
the energy lost during braking and store it in a battery. Major automobile manufacturers
are offering a limited but growing number of production FCEVs to the public in certain
markets, in sync with what the developing infrastructure can support.
.
Description and purpose of fuel cells in vehicles
All fuel cells are made up of three parts: an electrolyte, an anode and a cathode. In
principle, a hydrogen fuel cell functions like a battery, producing electricity, which can
run an electric motor. Instead of requiring recharging, however, the fuel cell can be
refilled with hydrogen. Different types of fuel cells include polymer electrolyte
membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells, direct methanol fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel
cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, solid oxide fuel cells, reformed methanol fuel cell and
Regenerative Fuel Cells.

How Fuel Cells Work

The most common type of fuel cell for vehicle applications is the polymer electrolyte
membrane (PEM) fuel cell. In a PEM fuel cell, an electrolyte membrane is sandwiched
between a positive electrode (cathode) and a negative electrode (anode). Hydrogen is
introduced to the anode, and oxygen (from air) is introduced to the cathode. The
hydrogen molecules break apart into protons and electrons due to an electrochemical
reaction in the fuel cell catalyst. Protons then travel through the membrane to the
cathode.
The electrons are forced to travel through an external circuit to perform work (providing
power to the electric car) then recombine with the protons on the cathode side where
the protons, electrons, and oxygen molecules combine to form water.
Advantages and disadvantages
advantages
1. Less Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles emit greenhouse gases (GHGs), mostly carbon
dioxide (CO2), that contribute to climate change. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) powered by
pure hydrogen emit no tailpipe GHGs, only heat and water.
Producing the hydrogen for FCVs can generate GHGs, depending on the production
method. Still, it generates much less GHGs than conventional gasoline and diesel
vehicles. 
2. Reduced Oil Dependence
FCVs could reduce our dependence on foreign oil since hydrogen can be derived from
domestic sources. These sources include natural gas and coal, as well as renewable
sources such as water, biogas, and agricultural waste. That would make our economy
less dependent on other countries and less vulnerable to oil price shocks from an
increasingly volatile oil market.

3. Less Air Pollutants

Highway vehicles emit much of the air pollutants that contribute to smog and harmful
particulates in the U.S. FCVs powered by pure hydrogen emit no harmful pollutants.
Producing hydrogen from fossil fuels causes some pollutants, but much less than the
amount generated by conventional vehicles.
Disadvantages
Only a few models are now available for sale or lease, and availability is limited to areas
with hydrogen fueling stations, mostly in California. Several challenges must be
overcome before FCVs will be a successful, competitive alternative for consumers.
Vehicle Cost
1. Fuel Cell System Cost Progress
 USDOE, Fuel Cell Technologies
Office,
Fuel Cell Technologies Office Accomplishments and Progress.
FCVs are currently more expensive than conventional vehicles and hybrids. However,
costs have decreased significantly and are approaching DOE's goal for 2020 (see
graph). Car makers must continue to lower costs, especially for the fuel cell stack and
hydrogen storage, for FCVs to compete with conventional vehicles.
2. Getting Hydrogen to Consumers
The current infrastructure for producing and getting hydrogen to consumers cannot yet
support the widespread adoption of FCVs. In 2013, H2USA was launched as a public-
private partnership between DOE and other federal agencies, automakers, state
government, academic institutions, and additional stakeholders. Its goal is to coordinate
research and identify cost-effective solutions for deploying hydrogen infrastructure. By
the end of 2015, more than 50 public stations should be available, mostly in California.
This is an important first step in making hydrogen available to consumers.
3. Fuel Cell Durability and Reliability
Fuel cell systems are not yet as durable as internal combustion engines, especially in
some temperature and humidity ranges. On-road fuel cell stack durability is currently
about half of what is needed for commercialization. Durability has increased
substantially over the past few years from 29,000 miles to 75,000 miles, but experts
believe FCVs must achieve a 150,000-mile expected lifetime to compete with gasoline
vehicles.
4. Public Education
FCVs must be embraced by consumers before their benefits can be realized. As with
any new vehicle technology, consumers may have concerns about the dependability
and safety of these vehicles when they first hit the market. Plus, they must become
familiar with a new kind of fuel. Public education can accelerate this process.