History

History (derived from Ancient Greek ἱστορία (historía) 'inquiry; knowledge acquired by

invest igat ion')[1] is t he syst emat ic st udy and t he document at ion of t he human act ivit y.[2][3] The
t ime period of event before t he invent ion of writ ing syst ems is considered prehist ory.[4] "Hist ory"
is an umbrella t erm comprising past event s as well as t he memory, discovery, collect ion,
organizat ion, present at ion, and int erpret at ion of t hese event s. Hist orians seek knowledge of t he
past using hist orical sources such as writ t en document s, oral account s, art and mat erial
art ifact s, and ecological markers.[5] Hist ory is not complet e and st ill has debat able myst eries.

Model of Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC), often considered the "father of history" in the Western world
Hist ory is also an academic discipline which uses narrat ive t o describe, examine, quest ion, and
analyze past event s, and invest igat e t heir pat t erns of cause and effect .[6][7] Hist orians oft en
debat e which narrat ive best explains an event , as well as t he significance of different causes
and effect s. Hist orians also debat e t he nat ure of hist ory as an end in it self, as well as it s
usefulness t o give perspect ive on t he problems of t he present .[6][8][9][10]

St ories common t o a part icular cult ure, but not support ed by ext ernal sources (such as t he t ales
surrounding King Art hur), are usually classified as cult ural herit age or legends.[11][12] Hist ory
differs from myt h in t hat it is support ed by verifiable evidence. However, ancient cult ural
influences have helped spawn variant int erpret at ions of t he nat ure of hist ory which have evolved
over t he cent uries and cont inue t o change t oday. The modern st udy of hist ory is wide-ranging,
and includes t he st udy of specific regions and t he st udy of cert ain t opical or t hemat ic element s
of hist orical invest igat ion. Hist ory is oft en t aught as a part of primary and secondary educat ion,
and t he academic st udy of hist ory is a major discipline in universit y st udies.

Herodot us, a 5t h-cent ury BC Greek hist orian, is oft en considered t he "fat her of hist ory"(as he
was one of t he first hist orians) in t he West ern t radit ion,[13] alt hough he has also been crit icized as
t he "fat her of lies".[14][15] Along wit h his cont emporary Thucydides, he helped form t he
foundat ions for t he modern st udy of past event s and societ ies.[16] Their works cont inue t o be
read t oday, and t he gap bet ween t he cult ure-focused Herodot us and t he milit ary-focused
Thucydides remains a point of cont ent ion or approach in modern hist orical writ ing. In East Asia, a
st at e chronicle, t he Spring and Aut umn Annals, was reput ed t o dat e from as early as 722 BC,
alt hough only 2nd-cent ury BC t ext s have survived.

Etymology

History by Frederick Dielman (1896)

The word history comes from historía (Ancient Greek: ἱστορία, romanized: historíā, lit . 'inquiry,
knowledge from inquiry, or judge'[17]). It was in t hat sense t hat Arist ot le used t he word in his
History of Animals.[18] The ancest or word ἵστωρ is at t est ed early on in Homeric Hymns,
Heraclit us, t he At henian ephebes' oat h, and in Boeot ic inscript ions (in a legal sense, eit her "judge"
or "wit ness", or similar). The Greek word was borrowed int o Classical Lat in as historia, meaning
"invest igat ion, inquiry, research, account , descript ion, writ t en account of past event s, writ ing of
hist ory, hist orical narrat ive, recorded knowledge of past event s, st ory, narrat ive". History was
borrowed from Lat in (possibly via Old Irish or Old Welsh) int o Old English as stær ("hist ory,
narrat ive, st ory"), but t his word fell out of use in t he lat e Old English period.[19] Meanwhile, as
Lat in became Old French (and Anglo-Norman), historia developed int o forms such as istorie,
estoire, and historie, wit h new development s in t he meaning: "account of t he event s of a person's
life (beginning of t he 12t h cent ury), chronicle, account of event s as relevant t o a group of
people or people in general (1155), dramat ic or pict orial represent at ion of hist orical event s
(c. 1240), body of knowledge relat ive t o human evolut ion, science (c. 1265), narrat ive of real or
imaginary event s, st ory (c. 1462)".[19]

It was from Anglo-Norman t hat history was borrowed int o Middle English, and t his t ime t he loan
st uck. It appears in t he 13t h-cent ury Ancrene Wisse, but seems t o have become a common word
in t he lat e 14t h cent ury, wit h an early at t est at ion appearing in John Gower's Confessio Amantis
of t he 1390s (VI.1383): "I finde in a bok compiled | To t his mat iere an old hist oire, | The which
comt h nou t o mi memoire". In Middle English, t he meaning of history was "st ory" in general. The
rest rict ion t o t he meaning "t he branch of knowledge t hat deals wit h past event s; t he formal
record or st udy of past event s, esp. human affairs" arose in t he mid-15t h cent ury.[19] Wit h t he
Renaissance, older senses of t he word were revived, and it was in t he Greek sense t hat Francis
Bacon used t he t erm in t he lat e 16t h cent ury, when he wrot e about nat ural hist ory. For him,
historia was "t he knowledge of object s det ermined by space and t ime", t hat sort of knowledge
provided by memory (while science was provided by reason, and poet ry was provided by
fant asy).[20]

In an expression of t he linguist ic synt het ic vs. analyt ic/isolat ing dichot omy, English like Chinese
史 vs. 诌) now designat es separat e words for human hist ory and st oryt elling in general. In
(
modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are solidly synt het ic
and highly inflect ed, t he same word is st ill used t o mean bot h "hist ory" and "st ory". Historian in
t he sense of a "researcher of hist ory" is at t est ed from 1531. In all European languages, t he
subst ant ive history is st ill used t o mean bot h "what happened wit h men", and "t he scholarly st udy
of t he happened", t he lat t er sense somet imes dist inguished wit h a capit al let t er, or t he word
historiography.[18] The adject ive historical is at t est ed from 1661, and historic from 1669.[21]

Description

The title page to The Historians' History of the World

Hist orians writ e in t he cont ext of t heir own t ime, and wit h due regard t o t he current dominant
ideas of how t o int erpret t he past , and somet imes writ e t o provide lessons for t heir own societ y.
In t he words of Benedet t o Croce, "All hist ory is cont emporary hist ory". Hist ory is facilit at ed by
t he format ion of a "t rue discourse of past " t hrough t he product ion of narrat ive and analysis of
past event s relat ing t o t he human race.[22] The modern discipline of hist ory is dedicat ed t o t he
inst it ut ional product ion of t his discourse.

All event s t hat are remembered and preserved in some aut hent ic form const it ut e t he hist orical
record.[23] The t ask of hist orical discourse is t o ident ify t he sources which can most usefully
cont ribut e t o t he product ion of accurat e account s of past . Therefore, t he const it ut ion of t he
hist orian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidat ing t he usage of
cert ain t ext s and document s (by falsifying t heir claims t o represent t he "t rue past "). Part of t he
hist orian's role is t o skillfully and object ively use t he vast amount of sources from t he past , most
oft en found in t he archives. The process of creat ing a narrat ive inevit ably generat es a silence as
hist orians remember or emphasize different event s of t he past .[24]

The st udy of hist ory has somet imes been classified as part of t he humanit ies and at ot her t imes
as part of t he social sciences.[25] It can also be seen as a bridge bet ween t hose t wo broad areas,
incorporat ing met hodologies from bot h. Some individual hist orians st rongly support one or t he
ot her classificat ion.[26] In t he 20t h cent ury t he Annales school revolut ionized t he st udy of
hist ory, by using such out side disciplines as economics, sociology, and geography in t he st udy of
global hist ory.[27]

Tradit ionally, hist orians have recorded event s of t he past , eit her in writ ing or by passing on an oral
t radit ion, and have at t empt ed t o answer hist orical quest ions t hrough t he st udy of writ t en
document s and oral account s. From t he beginning, hist orians have also used such sources as
monument s, inscript ions, and pict ures. In general, t he sources of hist orical knowledge can be
separat ed int o t hree cat egories: what is writ t en, what is said, and what is physically preserved,
and hist orians oft en consult all t hree.[28] But writ ing is t he marker t hat separat es hist ory from
what comes before.

Archeology is especially helpful in uneart hing buried sit es and object s, which cont ribut e t o t he
st udy of hist ory. Archeological finds rarely st and alone, wit h narrat ive sources complement ing it s
discoveries. Archeology's met hodologies and approaches are independent from t he field of
hist ory. "Hist orical archaeology" is a specific branch of archeology which oft en cont rast s it s
conclusions against t hose of cont emporary t ext ual sources. For example, Mark Leone, t he
excavat or and int erpret er of hist orical Annapolis, Maryland, US, has sought t o underst and t he
cont radict ion bet ween t ext ual document s idealizing "libert y" and t he mat erial record,
demonst rat ing t he possession of slaves and t he inequalit ies of wealt h made apparent by t he
st udy of t he t ot al hist orical environment .

There are variet ies of ways in which hist ory can be organized, including chronologically, cult urally,
t errit orially, and t hemat ically. These divisions are not mut ually exclusive, and significant
int ersect ions are oft en present . It is possible for hist orians t o concern t hemselves wit h bot h t he
very specific and t he very general, alt hough t he modern t rend has been t oward specializat ion.
The area called Big Hist ory resist s t his specializat ion, and searches for universal pat t erns or
t rends. Hist ory has oft en been st udied wit h some pract ical or t heoret ical aim, but also may be
st udied out of simple int ellect ual curiosit y.[29]

Prehistory
Human hist ory is t he memory of t he past experience of Homo sapiens sapiens around t he world,
as t hat experience has been preserved, largely in writ t en records. By "prehist ory", hist orians mean
t he recovery of knowledge of t he past in an area where no writ t en records exist , or where t he
writ ing of a cult ure is not underst ood. By st udying paint ing, drawings, carvings, and ot her
art ifact s, some informat ion can be recovered even in t he absence of a writ t en record. Since t he
20t h cent ury, t he st udy of prehist ory is considered essent ial t o avoid hist ory's implicit exclusion
of cert ain civilizat ions, such as t hose of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America.
Hist orians in t he West have been crit icized for focusing disproport ionat ely on t he West ern
world.[30] In 1961, Brit ish hist orian E. H. Carr wrot e:

The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is

crossed when people cease to live only in the present, and become
consciously interested both in their past and in their future. History
begins with the handing down of tradition; and tradition means the
carrying of the habits and lessons of the past into the future.
Records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future
generations.[31]

This definit ion includes wit hin t he scope of hist ory t he st rong int erest s of peoples, such as
Indigenous Aust ralians and New Zealand Māori in t he past , and t he oral records maint ained and
t ransmit t ed t o succeeding generat ions, even before t heir cont act wit h European civilizat ion.

Historiography
The title page to La Historia d'Italia

Hist oriography has a number of relat ed meanings.[32] First ly, it can refer t o how hist ory has been
produced: t he st ory of t he development of met hodology and pract ices (for example, t he move
from short -t erm biographical narrat ive t oward long-t erm t hemat ic analysis). Secondly, it can
refer t o what has been produced: a specific body of hist orical writ ing (for example, "medieval
hist oriography during t he 1960s" means "Works of medieval hist ory writ t en during t he 1960s").[32]
Thirdly, it may refer t o why hist ory is produced: t he philosophy of hist ory. As a met a-level analysis
of descript ions of t he past , t his t hird concept ion can relat e t o t he first t wo in t hat t he analysis
usually focuses on t he narrat ives, int erpret at ions, world view, use of evidence, or met hod of
present at ion of ot her hist orians. Professional hist orians also debat e t he quest ion of whet her
hist ory can be t aught as a single coherent narrat ive or a series of compet ing narrat ives.[33][34]

Methods
A depiction of the ancient Library of Alexandria

Hist orical met hod basics

The following quest ions are used by hist orians in modern work.

1. When was t he source, writ t en or unwrit t en, produced (dat e)?

2. Where was it produced (localizat ion)?

3. By whom was it produced (aut horship)?

4. From what pre-exist ing mat erial was it produced (analysis)?

5. In what original form was it produced (int egrit y)?

6. What is t he evident ial value of it s cont ent s (credibilit y)?

The first four are known as hist orical crit icism; t he fift h, t ext ual crit icism; and, t oget her, ext ernal
crit icism. The sixt h and final inquiry about a source is called int ernal crit icism.

The hist orical met hod comprises t he t echniques and guidelines by which hist orians use primary
sources and ot her evidence t o research and t hen t o writ e hist ory.

Herodot us of Halicarnassus (484 BC–c. 425 BC)[35] has generally been acclaimed as t he "fat her
of hist ory". However, his cont emporary Thucydides (c. 460 BC–c. 400 BC) is credit ed wit h having
first approached hist ory wit h a well-developed hist orical met hod in his work t he History of the
Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, unlike Herodot us, regarded hist ory as being t he product of t he
choices and act ions of human beings, and looked at cause and effect , rat her t han as t he result
of divine int ervent ion (t hough Herodot us was not wholly commit t ed t o t his idea himself).[35] In his
hist orical met hod, Thucydides emphasized chronology, a nominally neut ral point of view, and t hat
t he human world was t he result of t he act ions of human beings. Greek hist orians also viewed
hist ory as cyclical, wit h event s regularly recurring.[36]

There were hist orical t radit ions and sophist icat ed use of hist orical met hod in ancient and
medieval China. The groundwork for professional hist oriography in East Asia was est ablished by
t he Han dynast y court hist orian known as Sima Qian (145–90 BC), aut hor of t he Records of the
Grand Historian (Shiji). For t he qualit y of his writ t en work, Sima Qian is post humously known as
t he Fat her of Chinese hist oriography. Chinese hist orians of subsequent dynast ic periods in China
used his Shiji as t he official format for hist orical t ext s, as well as for biographical lit erat ure.

Saint August ine was influent ial in Christ ian and West ern t hought at t he beginning of t he medieval
period. Through t he Medieval and Renaissance periods, hist ory was oft en st udied t hrough a
sacred or religious perspect ive. Around 1800, German philosopher and hist orian Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a more secular approach in hist orical st udy.[29]

In t he preface t o his book, t he Muqaddimah (1377), t he Arab hist orian and early sociologist , Ibn
Khaldun, warned of seven mist akes t hat he t hought t hat hist orians regularly commit t ed. In t his
crit icism, he approached t he past as st range and in need of int erpret at ion. The originalit y of Ibn
Khaldun was t o claim t hat t he cult ural difference of anot her age must govern t he evaluat ion of
relevant hist orical mat erial, t o dist inguish t he principles according t o which it might be possible
t o at t empt t he evaluat ion, and last ly, t o feel t he need for experience, in addit ion t o rat ional
principles, in order t o assess a cult ure of t he past . Ibn Khaldun oft en crit icized "idle superst it ion
and uncrit ical accept ance of hist orical dat a". As a result , he int roduced a scient ific met hod t o t he
st udy of hist ory, and he oft en referred t o it as his "new science".[37] His hist orical met hod also
laid t he groundwork for t he observat ion of t he role of st at e, communicat ion, propaganda and
syst emat ic bias in hist ory,[38] and he is t hus considered t o be t he "fat her of hist oriography"[39][40]
or t he "fat her of t he philosophy of hist ory".[41]

In t he West , hist orians developed modern met hods of hist oriography in t he 17t h and 18t h
cent uries, especially in France and Germany. In 1851, Herbert Spencer summarized t hese
met hods:

From the successive strata of our historical deposits, they

[Historians] diligently gather all the highly colored fragments,
pounce upon everything that is curious and sparkling and chuckle
like children over their glittering acquisitions; meanwhile the rich
 veins of wisdom that ramify amidst this worthless debris, lie utterly
neglected. Cumbrous volumes of rubbish are greedily accumulated,
while those masses of rich ore, that should have been dug out, and
from which golden truths might have been smelted, are left
untaught and unsought [42]

By t he "rich ore" Spencer meant scient ific t heory of hist ory. Meanwhile, Henry Thomas Buckle
expressed a dream of hist ory becoming one day science:

In regard to nature, events apparently the most irregular and

capricious have been explained and have been shown to be in
accordance with certain fixed and universal laws. This have been
done because men of ability and, above all, men of patient, untiring
thought have studied events with the view of discovering their
regularity, and if human events were subject to a similar treatment,
we have every right to expect similar results[43]

Cont rary t o Buckle's dream, t he 19t h-cent ury hist orian wit h great est influence on met hods
became Leopold von Ranke in Germany. He limit ed hist ory t o "what really happened" and by t his
direct ed t he field furt her away from science. For Ranke, hist orical dat a should be collect ed
carefully, examined object ively and put t oget her wit h crit ical rigor. But t hese procedures "are
merely t he prerequisit es and preliminaries of science. The heart of science is searching out order
and regularit y in t he dat a being examined and in formulat ing generalizat ions or laws about
t hem."[44]

As Historians like Ranke and many who followed him have pursued
it, no, history is not a science. Thus if Historians tell us that, given
the manner in which he practices his craft, it cannot be considered
a science, we must take him at his word. If he is not doing science,
then, whatever else he is doing, he is not doing science. The
traditional Historian is thus no scientist and history, as
conventionally practiced, is not a science.[45]

In t he 20t h cent ury, academic hist orians focused less on epic nat ionalist ic narrat ives, which
oft en t ended t o glorify t he nat ion or great men, t o more object ive and complex analyses of
social and int ellect ual forces. A major t rend of hist orical met hodology in t he 20t h cent ury was a
t endency t o t reat hist ory more as a social science rat her t han as an art , which t radit ionally had
been t he case. Some of t he leading advocat es of hist ory as a social science were a diverse
collect ion of scholars which included Fernand Braudel, E. H. Carr, Frit z Fischer, Emmanuel Le Roy
Ladurie, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bruce Trigger, Marc Bloch, Karl Diet rich Bracher, Pet er Gay, Robert
Fogel, Lucien Febvre, and Lawrence St one. Many of t he advocat es of hist ory as a social science
were or are not ed for t heir mult idisciplinary approach. Braudel combined hist ory wit h geography,
Bracher hist ory wit h polit ical science, Fogel hist ory wit h economics, Gay hist ory wit h psychology,
Trigger hist ory wit h archeology, while Wehler, Bloch, Fischer, St one, Febvre, and Le Roy Ladurie
have in varying and differing ways amalgamat ed hist ory wit h sociology, geography, ant hropology,
and economics. Nevert heless, t hese mult idisciplinary approaches failed t o produce a t heory of
hist ory. So far only one t heory of hist ory came from t he pen of a professional Hist orian.[46]
What ever ot her t heories of hist ory we have, t hey were writ t en by expert s from ot her fields (for
example, Marxian t heory of hist ory). More recent ly, t he field of digit al hist ory has begun t o
address ways of using comput er t echnology t o pose new quest ions t o hist orical dat a and
generat e digit al scholarship.

In sincere opposit ion t o t he claims of hist ory as a social science, hist orians such as Hugh Trevor-
Roper, John Lukacs, Donald Creight on, Gert rude Himmelfarb, and Gerhard Rit t er argued t hat t he
key t o t he hist orians' work was t he power of t he imaginat ion, and hence cont ended t hat hist ory
should be underst ood as an art . French hist orians associat ed wit h t he Annales School int roduced
quant it at ive hist ory, using raw dat a t o t rack t he lives of t ypical individuals, and were prominent in
t he est ablishment of cult ural hist ory (cf. histoire des mentalités). Int ellect ual hist orians such as
Herbert But t erfield, Ernst Nolt e and George Mosse have argued for t he significance of ideas in
hist ory. American hist orians, mot ivat ed by t he civil right s era, focused on formerly overlooked
et hnic, racial, and socioeconomic groups. Anot her genre of social hist ory t o emerge in t he post -
WWII era was Alltagsgeschichte (Hist ory of Everyday Life). Scholars such as Mart in Broszat , Ian
Kershaw and Det lev Peukert sought t o examine what everyday life was like for ordinary people in
20t h-cent ury Germany, especially in t he Nazi period.

Marxist hist orians such as Eric Hobsbawm, E. P. Thompson, Rodney Hilt on, Georges Lefebvre,
Eugene Genovese, Isaac Deut scher, C. L. R. James, Timot hy Mason, Herbert Apt heker, Arno J.
Mayer, and Christ opher Hill have sought t o validat e Karl Marx's t heories by analyzing hist ory from
a Marxist perspect ive. In response t o t he Marxist int erpret at ion of hist ory, hist orians such as
François Furet , Richard Pipes, J. C. D. Clark, Roland Mousnier, Henry Ashby Turner, and Robert
Conquest have offered ant i-Marxist int erpret at ions of hist ory. Feminist hist orians such as Joan
Wallach Scot t , Claudia Koonz, Nat alie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbot ham, Gisela Bock, Gerda
Lerner, Elizabet h Fox-Genovese, and Lynn Hunt have argued for t he import ance of st udying t he
experience of women in t he past . In recent years, post modernist s have challenged t he validit y
and need for t he st udy of hist ory on t he basis t hat all hist ory is based on t he personal
int erpret at ion of sources. In his 1997 book In Defence of History, Richard J. Evans defended t he
wort h of hist ory. Anot her defense of hist ory from post modernist crit icism was t he Aust ralian
hist orian Keit h Windschut t le's 1994 book, The Killing of History.

Today, most hist orians begin t heir research process in t he archives, on eit her a physical or digit al
plat form. They oft en propose an argument and use t heir research t o support it . John H. Arnold
proposed t hat hist ory is an argument , which creat es t he possibilit y of creat ing change.[5] Digit al
informat ion companies, such as Google, have sparked cont roversy over t he role of int ernet
censorship in informat ion access.[47]

Marxian theory

The Marxist t heory of hist orical mat erialism t heorises t hat societ y is fundament ally det ermined
by t he material conditions at any given t ime – in ot her words, t he relat ionships which people have
wit h each ot her in order t o fulfill basic needs such as feeding, clot hing and housing t hemselves
and t heir families.[48] Overall, Marx and Engels claimed t o have ident ified five successive st ages
of t he development of t hese mat erial condit ions in West ern Europe.[49] Marxist hist oriography
was once ort hodoxy in t he Soviet Union, but since t he collapse of communism t here in 1991,
Mikhail Krom says it has been reduced t o t he margins of scholarship.[50]

Potential shortcomings in the production of history

Many hist orians believe t hat t he product ion of hist ory is embedded wit h bias because event s
and known fact s in hist ory can be int erpret ed in a variet y of ways. Const ant in Fasolt suggest ed
t hat hist ory is linked t o polit ics by t he pract ice of silence it self.[51] He also said: "A second
common view of t he link bet ween hist ory and polit ics rest s on t he element ary observat ion t hat
hist orians are oft en influenced by polit ics."[51] According t o Michel-Rolph Trouillot , t he hist orical
process is root ed in t he archives, t herefore silences, or part s of hist ory t hat are forgot t en, may
be an int ent ional part of a narrat ive st rat egy t hat dict at es how areas of hist ory are
remembered.[24] Hist orical omissions can occur in many ways and can have a profound effect on
hist orical records. Informat ion can also purposely be excluded or left out accident ally. Hist orians
have coined mult iple t erms t hat describe t he act of omit t ing hist orical informat ion, including:
"silencing",[24] "select ive memory",[52] and erasures.[53] Gerda Lerner, a t went iet h cent ury hist orian
who focused much of her work on hist orical omissions involving women and t heir
accomplishment s, explained t he negat ive impact t hat t hese omissions had on minorit y groups.[52]
Environment al hist orian William Cronon proposed t hree ways t o combat bias and ensure aut hent ic
and accurat e narrat ives: narrat ives must not cont radict known fact , t hey must make ecological
sense (specifically for environment al hist ory), and published work must be reviewed by scholarly
communit y and ot her hist orians t o ensure account abilit y.[53]

Areas of study
Particular studies and fields

These are approaches t o hist ory; not list ed are hist ories of ot her fields, such as hist ory of
science, hist ory of mat hemat ics and hist ory of philosophy.

Ancient hist ory: t he st udy of hist ory from t he beginning of human hist ory unt il t he Early Middle
Ages.

At lant ic hist ory: t he st udy of t he hist ory of people living on or near t he At lant ic Ocean.

Art hist ory: t he st udy of changes in and t he social cont ext of art .

Comparat ive hist ory: t he hist orical analysis of social and cult ural ent it ies not confined t o
nat ional boundaries.

Cont emporary hist ory: t he st udy of recent hist orical event s.

Count erfact ual hist ory: t he st udy of hist orical event s as t hey might have happened in
different causal circumst ances.

Cult ural hist ory: t he st udy of cult ure in t he past .

Digit al hist ory: t he use of comput ing t echnologies t o do massive searches in published
sources.

Economic hist ory: t he use of economic models fit t ed t o t he past .

Int ellect ual hist ory: t he st udy of ideas in t he cont ext of t he cult ures t hat produced t hem and
t heir development over t ime.

Marit ime hist ory: t he st udy of marit ime t ransport and all connect ed subject s.

Mat erial hist ory: t he st udy of object s and t he st ories t hey can t ell.

Modern hist ory: t he st udy of Modern Times, t he era aft er t he Middle Ages.

Milit ary hist ory: t he st udy of warfare, hist orical wars, and Naval hist ory, which is somet imes
considered t o be a sub-branch of milit ary hist ory.

Oral hist ory: t he collect ion and st udy of hist orical informat ion by ut ilizing spoken int erviews
wit h people who have lived past event s.

Palaeography: t he st udy of ancient t ext s.

People's hist ory: hist orical work from t he perspect ive of common people.

Polit ical hist ory: t he st udy of polit ics in t he past .

 Psychohist ory: t he st udy of t he psychological mot ivat ions for hist orical event s.

Pseudohist ory: st udies about t he past t hat fall out side t he domain of mainst ream hist ory
(somet imes equivalent t o pseudoscience).

Social hist ory: t he st udy of t he process of social change t hroughout hist ory.

Women's hist ory: t he hist ory of female human beings. Gender hist ory is relat ed and covers t he
perspect ive of gender.

World hist ory: t he st udy of hist ory from a global perspect ive, wit h special at t ent ion t o non-
West ern societ ies.

Periods

Hist orical st udy oft en focuses on event s and development s t hat occur in part icular blocks of
t ime. Hist orians give t hese periods of t ime names in order t o allow "organising ideas and
classificat ory generalisat ions" t o be used by hist orians.[54] The names given t o a period can vary
wit h geographical locat ion, as can t he dat es of t he beginning and end of a part icular period.
Cent uries and decades are commonly used periods and t he t ime t hey represent depends on t he
dat ing syst em used. Most periods are const ruct ed ret rospect ively and so reflect value
judgment s made about t he past . The way periods are const ruct ed and t he names given t o t hem
can affect t he way t hey are viewed and st udied.[55]

Prehistoric periodization

The field of hist ory generally leaves prehist ory t o archeologist s, who have ent irely different set s
of t ools and t heories. In archeology, t he usual met hod for periodizat ion of t he dist ant prehist oric
past is t o rely on changes in mat erial cult ure and t echnology, such as t he St one Age, Bronze Age,
and Iron Age, wit h subdivisions t hat are also based on different st yles of mat erial remains. Here
prehist ory is divided int o a series of "chapt ers" so t hat periods in hist ory could unfold not only in a
relat ive chronology but also narrat ive chronology.[56] This narrat ive cont ent could be in t he form
of funct ional-economic int erpret at ion. There are periodizat ions, however, t hat do not have t his
narrat ive aspect , relying largely on relat ive chronology, and t hat are t hus devoid of any specific
meaning.

Despit e t he development over recent decades of t he abilit y t hrough radiocarbon dat ing and
ot her scient ific met hods t o give act ual dat es for many sit es or art efact s, t hese long-
est ablished schemes seem likely t o remain in use. In many cases neighboring cult ures wit h
writ ing have left some hist ory of cult ures wit hout it , which may be used. Periodizat ion, however,
is not viewed as a perfect framework, wit h one account explaining t hat "cult ural changes do not
convenient ly st art and st op (combinedly) at periodizat ion boundaries" and t hat different
t raject ories of change need t o be st udied in t heir own right before t hey get int ert wined wit h
cult ural phenomena.[57]

Geographical locations

Part icular geographical locat ions can form t he basis of hist orical st udy, for example, cont inent s,
count ries, and cit ies. Underst anding why hist oric event s t ook place is import ant . To do t his,
hist orians oft en t urn t o geography. According t o Jules Michelet in his book Histoire de France
(1833), "wit hout geographical basis, t he people, t he makers of hist ory, seem t o be walking on
air".[58] Weat her pat t erns, t he wat er supply, and t he landscape of a place all affect t he lives of
t he people who live t here. For example, t o explain why t he ancient Egypt ians developed a
successful civilizat ion, st udying t he geography of Egypt is essent ial. Egypt ian civilizat ion was
built on t he banks of t he Nile River, which flooded each year, deposit ing soil on it s banks. The rich
soil could help farmers grow enough crops t o feed t he people in t he cit ies. That meant everyone
did not have t o farm, so some people could perform ot her jobs t hat helped develop t he
civilizat ion. There is also t he case of climat e, which hist orians like Ellswort h Hunt ingt on and Ellen
Churchill Semple cit ed as a crucial influence on t he course of hist ory. Hunt ingt on and Semple
furt her argued t hat climat e has an impact on racial t emperament .[59]

Regions
Hist ory of Africa begins wit h t he first emergence of modern human beings on t he cont inent ,
cont inuing int o it s modern present as a pat chwork of diverse and polit ically developing nat ion
st at es.

Hist ory of t he Americas is t he collect ive hist ory of Nort h and Sout h America, including Cent ral
America and t he Caribbean.
Hist ory of Nort h America is t he st udy of t he past passed down from generat ion t o
generat ion on t he cont inent in t he Eart h's nort hern and west ern hemisphere.

Hist ory of Cent ral America is t he st udy of t he past passed down from generat ion t o
generat ion on t he cont inent in t he Eart h's west ern hemisphere.

Hist ory of t he Caribbean begins wit h t he oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains
have been found.

Hist ory of Sout h America is t he st udy of t he past passed down from generat ion t o
generat ion on t he cont inent in t he Eart h's sout hern and west ern hemisphere.
 Hist ory of Ant arct ica emerges from early West ern t heories of a vast cont inent , known as
Terra Aust ralis, believed t o exist in t he far sout h of t he globe.

Hist ory of Eurasia is t he collect ive hist ory of several dist inct peripheral coast al regions: t he
Middle East , Sout h Asia, East Asia, Sout heast Asia, and Europe, linked by t he int erior mass of
t he Eurasian st eppe of Cent ral Asia and East ern Europe.
Hist ory of Europe describes t he passage of t ime from humans inhabit ing t he European
cont inent t o t he present day.

Hist ory of Asia can be seen as t he collect ive hist ory of several dist inct peripheral coast al
regions, East Asia, Sout h Asia, and t he Middle East linked by t he int erior mass of t he
Eurasian st eppe.
Hist ory of East Asia is t he st udy of t he past passed down from generat ion t o
generat ion in East Asia.

Hist ory of t he Middle East begins wit h t he earliest civilizat ions in t he region now
known as t he Middle East t hat were est ablished around 3000 BC, in Mesopot amia
(Iraq).

Hist ory of India is t he st udy of t he past passed down from generat ion t o generat ion
in t he Sub-Himalayan region.

Hist ory of Sout heast Asia has been charact erized as int eract ion bet ween regional
players and foreign powers.

Hist ory of Oceania is t he collect ive hist ory of Aust ralia, New Zealand and t he Pacific Islands.
Hist ory of Aust ralia st art s wit h t he document at ion of t he Makassar t rading wit h
Indigenous Aust ralians on Aust ralia's nort h coast .

Hist ory of New Zealand dat es back at least 700 years t o when it was discovered and
set t led by Polynesians, who developed a dist inct Māori cult ure cent ered on kinship links
and land.

Hist ory of t he Pacific Islands covers t he hist ory of t he islands in t he Pacific Ocean.

Military

Milit ary hist ory concerns warfare, st rat egies, bat t les, weapons, and t he psychology of
combat .[60] The "new milit ary hist ory" since t he 1970s has been concerned wit h soldiers more
t han generals, wit h psychology more t han t act ics, and wit h t he broader impact of warfare on
societ y and cult ure.[61]
Religious

The hist ory of religion has been a main t heme for bot h secular and religious hist orians for
cent uries, and cont inues t o be t aught in seminaries and academe. Leading journals include Church
History, The Catholic Historical Review, and History of Religions. Topics range widely from polit ical
and cult ural and art ist ic dimensions, t o t heology and lit urgy.[62] This subject st udies religions from
all regions and areas of t he world where humans have lived.[63]

Social

Social history, somet imes called t he new social history, is t he field t hat includes hist ory of
ordinary people and t heir st rat egies and inst it ut ions for coping wit h life.[64] In it s "golden age" it
was a major growt h field in t he 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and st ill is well represent ed in
hist ory depart ment s. In t wo decades from 1975 t o 1995, t he proport ion of professors of hist ory
in American universit ies ident ifying wit h social hist ory rose from 31% t o 41%, while t he proport ion
of polit ical hist orians fell from 40% t o 30%.[65] In t he hist ory depart ment s of Brit ish universit ies in
2007, of t he 5723 facult y members, 1644 (29%) ident ified t hemselves wit h social hist ory while
polit ical hist ory came next wit h 1425 (25%).[66] The "old" social hist ory before t he 1960s was a
hodgepodge of t opics wit hout a cent ral t heme, and it oft en included polit ical movement s, like
Populism, t hat were "social" in t he sense of being out side t he elit e syst em. Social hist ory was
cont rast ed wit h polit ical hist ory, int ellect ual hist ory and t he hist ory of great men. English
hist orian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as t he bridging point bet ween economic and polit ical hist ory,
reflect ing t hat , "Wit hout social hist ory, economic hist ory is barren and polit ical hist ory
unint elligible."[67] While t he field has oft en been viewed negat ively as hist ory wit h t he polit ics left
out , it has also been defended as "hist ory wit h t he people put back in".[68]

Subfields

The chief subfields of social hist ory include:

Black hist ory

Demographic hist ory

Et hnic hist ory

Gender hist ory

Hist ory of childhood

Hist ory of educat ion

 Hist ory of t he family

Labor hist ory

LGBT hist ory

Rural hist ory

Urban hist ory

American urban hist ory

Women's hist ory

Cultural

Cult ural hist ory replaced social hist ory as t he dominant form in t he 1980s and 1990s. It t ypically
combines t he approaches of ant hropology and hist ory t o look at language, popular cult ural
t radit ions and cult ural int erpret at ions of hist orical experience. It examines t he records and
narrat ive descript ions of past knowledge, cust oms, and art s of a group of people. How peoples
const ruct ed t heir memory of t he past is a major t opic. Cult ural hist ory includes t he st udy of art
in societ y as well is t he st udy of images and human visual product ion (iconography).[69]

Diplomatic

Diplomat ic hist ory focuses on t he relat ionships bet ween nat ions, primarily regarding diplomacy
and t he causes of wars.[70] More recent ly it looks at t he causes of peace and human right s. It
t ypically present s t he viewpoint s of t he foreign office, and long-t erm st rat egic values, as t he
driving force of cont inuit y and change in hist ory. This t ype of political history is t he st udy of t he
conduct of int ernat ional relat ions bet ween st at es or across st at e boundaries over t ime.
Hist orian Muriel Chamberlain not es t hat aft er t he First World War, "diplomat ic hist ory replaced
const it ut ional hist ory as t he flagship of hist orical invest igat ion, at once t he most import ant ,
most exact and most sophist icat ed of hist orical st udies".[71] She adds t hat aft er 1945, t he t rend
reversed, allowing social hist ory t o replace it .

Economic

Alt hough economic hist ory has been well est ablished since t he lat e 19t h cent ury, in recent years
academic st udies have shift ed more and more t oward economics depart ment s and away from
t radit ional hist ory depart ment s.[72] Business hist ory deals wit h t he hist ory of individual business
organizat ions, business met hods, government regulat ion, labour relat ions, and impact on societ y.
It also includes biographies of individual companies, execut ives, and ent repreneurs. It is relat ed
t o economic hist ory. Business hist ory is most oft en t aught in business schools.[73]

Environmental

Environment al hist ory is a new field t hat emerged in t he 1980s t o look at t he hist ory of t he
environment , especially in t he long run, and t he impact of human act ivit ies upon it .[74] It is an
offshoot of t he environment al movement , which was kickst art ed by Rachel Carson's Silent
Spring in t he 1960s.

World

World hist ory is t he st udy of major civilizat ions over t he last 3000 years or so. World hist ory is
primarily a t eaching field, rat her t han a research field. It gained popularit y in t he Unit ed St at es,[75]
Japan[76] and ot her count ries aft er t he 1980s wit h t he realizat ion t hat st udent s need a broader
exposure t o t he world as globalizat ion proceeds.

It has led t o highly cont roversial int erpret at ions by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee,
among ot hers.

The World Hist ory Associat ion publishes t he Journal of World History every quart er since
1990.[77] The H-World discussion list [78] serves as a net work of communicat ion among
pract it ioners of world hist ory, wit h discussions among scholars, announcement s, syllabi,
bibliographies and book reviews.

People's

A people's hist ory is a t ype of hist orical work which at t empt s t o account for hist orical event s
from t he perspect ive of common people. A people's hist ory is t he hist ory of t he world t hat is t he
st ory of mass movement s and of t he out siders. Individuals or groups not included in t he past in
ot her t ypes of writ ing about hist ory are t he primary focus, which includes t he disenfranchised,
t he oppressed, t he poor, t he nonconformist s, and t he ot herwise forgot t en people. The aut hors
are t ypically on t he left and have a socialist model in mind, as in t he approach of t he Hist ory
Workshop movement in Brit ain in t he 1960s.[79]

Intellectual
Int ellect ual hist ory and t he hist ory of ideas emerged in t he mid-20t h cent ury, wit h t he focus on
t he int ellect uals and t heir books on t he one hand, and on t he ot her t he st udy of ideas as
disembodied object s wit h a career of t heir own.[80][81]

Gender

Gender hist ory is a subfield of Hist ory and Gender st udies, which looks at t he past from t he
perspect ive of gender. The out growt h of gender hist ory from women's hist ory st emmed from
many non-feminist hist orians dismissing t he import ance of women in hist ory. According t o Joan
W. Scot t , "Gender is a const it ut ive element of social relat ionships based on perceived
differences bet ween t he sexes, and gender is a primary way of signifying relat ions of power",[82]
meaning t hat gender hist orians st udy t he social effect s of perceived differences bet ween t he
sexes and how all genders use allot t ed power in societ al and polit ical st ruct ures. Despit e being a
relat ively new field, gender hist ory has had a significant effect on t he general st udy of hist ory.
Gender hist ory t radit ionally differs from women's hist ory in it s inclusion of all aspect s of gender
such as masculinit y and femininit y, and t oday's gender hist ory ext ends t o include people who
ident ify out side of t hat binary.
LGBT hist ory deals wit h t he first recorded inst ances of same-sex
love and sexualit y of ancient civilizat ions, and involves t he hist ory of lesbian, gay, bisexual and
t ransgender (LGBT) peoples and cult ures around t he world.[83]

Public

Public hist ory describes t he broad range of act ivit ies undert aken by people wit h some t raining in
t he discipline of hist ory who are generally working out side of specialized academic set t ings.
Public hist ory pract ice has quit e deep root s in t he areas of hist oric preservat ion, archival science,
oral hist ory, museum curat orship, and ot her relat ed fields. The t erm it self began t o be used in t he
U.S. and Canada in t he lat e 1970s, and t he field has become increasingly professionalized since
t hat t ime. Some of t he most common set t ings for public hist ory are museums, hist oric homes
and hist oric sit es, parks, bat t lefields, archives, film and t elevision companies, and all levels of
government .[84]

Historians
Benedetto Croce

Ban Zhao, courtesy name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian.

Professional and amat eur hist orians discover, collect , organize, and present informat ion about
past event s. They discover t his informat ion t hrough archeological evidence, writ t en primary
sources, verbal st ories or oral hist ories, and ot her archival mat erial. In list s of hist orians, hist orians
can be grouped by order of t he hist orical period in which t hey were writ ing, which is not
necessarily t he same as t he period in which t hey specialized. Chroniclers and annalist s, t hough
t hey are not hist orians in t he t rue sense, are also frequent ly included.

Judgement

Since t he 20t h cent ury, West ern hist orians have disavowed t he aspirat ion t o provide t he
"judgement of hist ory".[85] The goals of hist orical judgement s or int erpret at ions are separat e t o
t hose of legal judgement s, t hat need t o be formulat ed quickly aft er t he event s and be final.[86] A
relat ed issue t o t hat of t he judgement of hist ory is t hat of collect ive memory.

Pseudohistory

Pseudohist ory is a t erm applied t o t ext s which purport t o be hist orical in nat ure but which depart
from st andard hist oriographical convent ions in a way which undermines t heir conclusions. It is
closely relat ed t o decept ive hist orical revisionism. Works which draw cont roversial conclusions
from new, speculat ive, or disput ed hist orical evidence, part icularly in t he fields of nat ional,
polit ical, milit ary, and religious affairs, are oft en reject ed as pseudohist ory.

Teaching

Scholarship vs teaching

A major int ellect ual bat t le t ook place in Brit ain in t he early t went iet h cent ury regarding t he place
of hist ory t eaching in t he universit ies. At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship was downplayed.
Professor Charles Harding Firt h, Oxford's Regius Professor of hist ory in 1904 ridiculed t he
syst em as best suit ed t o produce superficial journalist s. The Oxford t ut ors, who had more vot es
t han t he professors, fought back in defense of t heir syst em saying t hat it successfully
produced Brit ain's out st anding st at esmen, administ rat ors, prelat es, and diplomat s, and t hat
mission was as valuable as t raining scholars. The t ut ors dominat ed t he debat e unt il aft er t he
Second World War. It forced aspiring young scholars t o t each at out lying schools, such as
Manchest er Universit y, where Thomas Frederick Tout was professionalizing t he Hist ory
undergraduat e programme by int roducing t he st udy of original sources and requiring t he writ ing of
a t hesis.[87][88]

In t he Unit ed St at es, scholarship was concent rat ed at t he major PhD-producing universit ies,
while t he large number of ot her colleges and universit ies focused on undergraduat e t eaching. A
t endency in t he 21st cent ury was for t he lat t er schools t o increasingly demand scholarly
product ivit y of t heir younger t enure-t rack facult y. Furt hermore, universit ies have increasingly
relied on inexpensive part -t ime adjunct s t o do most of t he classroom t eaching.[89]

Nationalism

From t he origins of nat ional school syst ems in t he 19t h cent ury, t he t eaching of hist ory t o
promot e nat ional sent iment has been a high priorit y. In t he Unit ed St at es aft er World War I, a
st rong movement emerged at t he universit y level t o t each courses in West ern Civilizat ion, so as
t o give st udent s a common herit age wit h Europe. In t he U.S. aft er 1980, at t ent ion increasingly
moved t oward t eaching world hist ory or requiring st udent s t o t ake courses in non-west ern
cult ures, t o prepare st udent s for life in a globalized economy.[90]

At t he universit y level, hist orians debat e t he quest ion of whet her hist ory belongs more t o social
science or t o t he humanit ies. Many view t he field from bot h perspect ives.

The t eaching of hist ory in French schools was influenced by t he Nouvelle histoire as
disseminat ed aft er t he 1960s by Cahiers pédagogiques and Enseignement and ot her journals for
t eachers. Also influent ial was t he Inst it ut nat ional de recherche et de document at ion
pédagogique, (INRDP). Joseph Leif, t he Inspect or-general of t eacher t raining, said pupils children
should learn about hist orians' approaches as well as fact s and dat es. Louis François, Dean of t he
Hist ory/Geography group in t he Inspect orat e of Nat ional Educat ion advised t hat t eachers should
provide hist oric document s and promot e "act ive met hods" which would give pupils "t he immense
happiness of discovery". Proponent s said it was a react ion against t he memorizat ion of names
and dat es t hat charact erized t eaching and left t he st udent s bored. Tradit ionalist s prot est ed
loudly it was a post modern innovat ion t hat t hreat ened t o leave t he yout h ignorant of French
pat riot ism and nat ional ident it y.[91]

Bias in school teaching

History books in a bookstore

In several count ries hist ory t ext books are t ools t o fost er nat ionalism and pat riot ism, and give
st udent s t he official narrat ive about nat ional enemies.[92]

In many count ries, hist ory t ext books are sponsored by t he nat ional government and are writ t en
t o put t he nat ional herit age in t he most favorable light . For example, in Japan, ment ion of t he
Nanking Massacre has been removed from t ext books and t he ent ire Second World War is given
cursory t reat ment . Ot her count ries have complained.[93] Anot her example includes Turkey, where
t here is no ment ion of t he Armenian Genocide in Turkish t ext books as a result of t he denial of
t he genocide.[94]

It was st andard policy in communist count ries t o present only a rigid Marxist hist oriography.[95][96]

In t he Unit ed St at es, t ext books published by t he same company oft en differ in cont ent from
st at e t o st at e.[97] An example of cont ent t hat is represent ed different in different regions of
t he count ry is t he hist ory of t he Sout hern st at es, where slavery and t he American Civil War are
t reat ed as cont roversial t opics. McGraw-Hill Educat ion for example, was crit icized for describing
Africans brought t o American plant at ions as "workers" inst ead of slaves in a t ext book.[98]

Academic hist orians have oft en fought against t he polit icizat ion of t he t ext books, somet imes
wit h success.[99][100]

In 21st -cent ury Germany, t he hist ory curriculum is cont rolled by t he 16 st at es, and is
charact erized not by superpat riot ism but rat her by an "almost pacifist ic and deliberat ely
unpat riot ic undert one" and reflect s "principles formulat ed by int ernat ional organizat ions such as
UNESCO or t he Council of Europe, t hus orient ed t owards human right s, democracy and peace."
The result is t hat "German t ext books usually downplay nat ional pride and ambit ions and aim t o
develop an underst anding of cit izenship cent ered on democracy, progress, human right s, peace,
t olerance and Europeanness."[101]
See also

Out line of hist ory

Glossary of hist ory

 Hist ory port al

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Further reading

Norton, Mary Beth; Gerardi, Pamela, eds. (1995). The American Historical Association's Guide to
Historical Literature (3rd ed.). Oxford U.P; Annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English
language history books in all fields and topics.

Benjamin, Jules R. (2009). A Student's Guide to History.

Carr, E.H. (2001). What is History?. With a new introduction by Richard J. Evans. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan. ISBN 0333977017.

Cronon, William (2013). "Storytelling" (http://www.williamcronon.net/aha-writings.htm) . American

Historical Review. 118 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1093/ahr/118.1.1 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fahr%2F118.1.1) .
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160723044136/http://www.williamcronon.net/aha-writings.
htm) from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 24 July 2016; Discussion of the impact of the end
of the Cold War upon scholarly research funding, the impact of the Internet and Wikipedia on history
study and teaching, and the importance of storytelling in history writing and teaching.

Evans, Richard J. (2000). In Defence of History. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393319598.

Furay, Conal; Salevouris, Michael J. (2010). The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide.
 Kelleher, William (2008). Writing History: A Guide for Students; excerpt and text search (https://www.am
azon.com/dp/0195337557/) .

Lingelbach, Gabriele (2011). "The Institutionalization and Professionalization of History in Europe and
the United States" (https://books.google.com/books?id=xVrwFT6zAFoC&pg=PA78) . The Oxford
History of Historical Writing. Vol. 4: 1800–1945. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-0199533091. Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20150915192900/https://books.google.com/books?id=xVrwFT6zAFoC&pg=PA78)
from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2015.

Presnell, Jenny L. (2006). The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to Research for History Students;
excerpt and text search (https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195176510/) .

Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History. ISBN 1405823518.

Woolf, D.R. (1998). A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing. Vol. 2. Garland Reference Library of the
Humanities; excerpt and text search (https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Historical-Writing-Refe
rence-Humanities/dp/0815315147/) .

Williams, H.S., ed. (1907). The Historians' History of the World (https://books.google.com/books?id=g5s
FAAAAIAAJ) . Vol. Book 1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150915174251/https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ) from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2015;
This is Book 1 of 25 Volumes.

External links

Best hist ory sit es .net (ht t p://www.best hist orysit es.net /)

BBC Hist ory Sit e (ht t ps://www.bbc.co.uk/hist ory)

Int ernet Hist ory Sourcebooks Project (ht t p://www.fordham.edu/halsall/) See also Int ernet
Hist ory Sourcebooks Project . Collect ions of public domain and copy-permit t ed hist orical t ext s
for educat ional use

History at Wikipedia's sister projects: Defi nitions from Wiktionary

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Last edited 3 days ago by !Bonvern