International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change. www.ijicc.

net
Volume 15, Issue 10, 2021

Exploring the Theoretical Link

Between Career Choice Anxiety,
Psychological Well-Being and Career
Self-Efficacy: A Conceptual
Framework
Petronella Jonck, PhD Psychology, GIFT research entity, Faculty of
Economics and Management Sciences, North-West University, Email:
petronellajonck@hotmail.com

The influence of COVID-19 has yet to be fully realised, however it

is hypothesised that the global pandemic increased the anxiety
response in adolescents. Another unintended consequence is the
impact thereof on the world of work. Uncertainty relating to the job
market, unemployment, career opportunities and expectations could
further exacerbate perceived anxiety bringing about career choice
anxiety. This article explores the theoretical link between career
choice anxiety, psychological well-being and career self-efficacy in
an effort to propose a conceptual framework that could be
implemented as theoretical underpinning for the development of a
psychometric stable measuring instrument. Psychological well-
being has emerged as a public health anomaly especially for
adolescents as some mental health concerns have an early onset
around the age of 14. While, anxiety has been identified as prevalent
in the age group. Furthermore, career self-efficacy could
hypothetically moderate the link between career choice anxiety and
psychological well-being. Assessment and possible interventions are
pivotal in the context of COVID-19 as the intensity of fear and
anxiety have increased in an already at risk age group with adverse
consequences. Ascribed to the lacuna of empirical evidence relating
to career choice anxiety and psychological well-being the proposed
conceptual framework will not only contribute to the corpus of
knowledge but could also be implemented to inform career guidance
practice in future. Above and beyond the knowledge contribution the
proposed conceptual framework will also have a societal impact
addressing goal three of the sustainable development goals notably
good health and well-being.

Key words: COVID-19, anxiety response, psychological well-being, theoretical

underpinning, psychometric stable measuring instrument

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Introduction

COVID-19 is deemed the most disruptive pandemic in modern history which will transform
societies profoundly and irreversibly (Varlik, 2020). South Africa headed the call from the
World Health Organization declaring COVID-19 a global pandemic and subsequently a
comprehensive lockdown was pronounced on the 26th of March 2020 (Spaul & Van der Berg,
2020). As a result of the containment measures UNICEF (2021) extrapolated that learners in
South Africa is 75 percent to a full academic year behind normal educational development with
between 400 000 and 500 000 learners reportedly exiting the school system. Spaul and Van der
Berg (2020) elaborated on the impact of lockdown measures on learners within the South
African context underscoring, for example learning loss, malnutrition, depression and
impairment in terms of cognitive development. A recent study conducted in Australia revealed
that adolescents’ depressive symptoms, anxiety and life satisfaction deteriorated as a result of
pandemic lockdown measures (Magson et al., 2021). Similar results were reported in a study
conducted in Germany with reference to a decrease in autonomy and psychological well-being
and an increase in anxiety and depression (Parola et al., 2020). Cohen et al. (2021) expound
that the cumulative literature suggests that the global pandemic increase anxiety responses in
adolescents and pose a threat to their mental health specifically those with early life stress.

Research suggest that anxiety is the most prevalent metal health concern amongst adolescents,
while the body of knowledge underscore vocational decision-making and indecision in relation
thereto (Jonck et al, 2019). Mahmud et al. (2021a) hypothesised that ascribed to the COVID-
19 pandemic, the future workforce is experiencing career choice anxiety resulting in long-term
negative effect on psychological well-being. Correspondingly, Maftei et al. (2021) opine that
COVID-19 has significant adverse consequences on adolescents’ career choice anxiety in
response to uncertainty relating to the job market, career possibilities and expectations.
Consequently, growing uncertainty related to job-security and employment especially in light
of the current COVID-19 pandemic necessitate exploring the theoretical link between career
choice anxiety, psychological well-being and career self-efficacy. To date similar research
within the South African context could not be identified.

Problem statement

Adolescence is characterized by significant social, physical and psychological changes

(Aggarwal et al., 2020). Carneiro et al. (2019) noted that 10 to 20 percent of adolescents’
experience mental illness world-wide with early onset around the age of 14. Depression, for
example is often underdiagnosed as it is assumed that all adolescents experienced depression
to some extend (Aggarwal et al. 2020). Sharma and Chandiramani (2021) noted that
adolescents seem to be at a greater risk for problem behaviour associated with lower levels of
adjustment and psychological well-being. Psychological well-being has been proposed as a
mediating factor with reference to psychological disorders (Carneiro et al. 2019). Van

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Schalkwyk and Wissing (2010) opine that empirical evidence relating to psychosocial well-
being of adolescence in the South African context is sparse given the exposure to abuse,
violence and exploitation. Moreover, the impact of COVID-19 on the psychological well-being
of adolescents has emerged as a novel research focus. UNESCO (2020), for example advised
that the impact of confinement measures ascribed to the global pandemic on the psychological
well-being of learners i.e. adolescents should be assessed. Another aspect that has been
severely impacted by the occurrence of COVID-19 is the world of work. Hodder (2020)
reflecting on the work of Lewis and Bell (2019) noted that debate around the future of work
and the impact of artificial intelligence on occupations have increased in the recent past and
further emphasized by the COVID-19 pandemic. Vocational environments require a skill set
that exceed knowledge for employability and career development (Jonck et al. 2019). Hence,
Mares et al. (2021) explain that career decision-making becomes increasingly difficult as a
result of the global pandemic taking into consideration job nature as well as the balance
between passion and risks.

The study of career decision-making has a robust body of literature and assessment tools
underscoring, for example career exploration, career maturity and career adaptability (Bubany,
2011). However, a paucity of studies investigate the underlying emotive response caused by
career decision-making. Career choice anxiety is defined as the level of reported anxiety that
is associated with the process of career decision-making (Jonck et al. 2019). Chartrand and
colleagues (1990) noted that career choice anxiety is an important personal-emotional facet
that inhibits the career decision-making process. Moreover, to date there is no measuring
instrument that focus specifically on career choice anxiety nationally and internationally and
the prevalence is also not known. Al-Kalbani and Salleh (2010) developed a Career Decision-
Making Indicator in Oman measuring decidedness, comfort, career choice anxiety, external
barrier, need for career information, readiness, career salience and inconsistent information.
Yilman and Gunduz (2018) reporting on a follow up study conducted in Turkey based on the
scale of career anxiety the authors developed in 2016 expounded that the scale consists of 5
items underscoring family effect and 9 items which focus on career choice within the career
development process. Kaur and Kaur (2017) conducted a study concentrating on a student
sample with learning disabilities focusing on career choice anxiety in India. In the mentioned
study the State Trait Anxiety Inventory developed by Spielberger in 1983 was utilized. Park et
al. (2019) studied career choice anxiety in Korea also utilizing Spielberger’s State Trait
Anxiety Inventory. Thus, to date no measuring instrument measure career choice anxiety as
the State Trait Anxiety Inventory include general statements, for example “I am tense”, “I am
relaxed”, and “I feel calm”.

Another lacuna in the body of knowledge relates to possible coping mechanisms when
experiencing career choice anxiety. A hypothesized construct that would presumably be a
coping mechanism is career self-efficacy which is the internalized views supporting whether
or not the learner is able to successfully accomplish behaviours that would lead to desired

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outcomes (Jonck et al., 2019). Foretasted contention is based on the supposition that career
certainty functions as a dimension of career decision-making status with career self-efficacy as
a mediating factor (Jemini-Gashi et al, 2019). Thus, career indecision theoretically would also
be a dimension of career decision-making status with career self-efficacy as a mediating factor.
Furthermore, there is a positive association between career indecision and career choice anxiety
(Guy et al., 2003).

Against the stated background, career choice anxiety linked with career self-efficacy is largely
a novel research terrain internationally and especially in the South African context. Moreover,
research suggests that psychological well-being of adolescents has not been research
extensively in the South African context especially in light of the current global pandemic.
Mares et al. (2021) citing Mahmud et al. (2021a) emphasized that career counselling is pivotal
in the context of COVID-19 as the intensity of fear and anxiety have increased in an already at
risk age group which could adversely impact some personality types.

Rationale and significance

The COVID-19 pandemic has radically impacted work and employment (Hodder, 2020).
Moreover, anxiety related to the pandemic hypothetically stimulate career choice anxiety
(Mahmud et al., 2021b). Furthermore, career choice anxiety theoretically has a long-term
negative impact on psychological well-being (Mahmud et al., 2021a). Research suggest that
anxiety is the most prevalent mental health concern amongst adolescents, while the body of
knowledge mostly give emphasis to vocational decision-making and indecision in relation
thereto (Jonck et al., 2019). Besides, Jonck et al. (2019) in a qualitative study reported the
prevalence of career choice anxiety in a sample Grade 10 learners to be 51.42% pre-COVID-
19. The contention of the research reported on is that ascribed to the growing uncertainty related
to job-security and employment especially in light of the current pandemic the prevalence of
career choice anxiety has increased which negatively impact on psychological well-being.
Ascribed to the lacuna of empirical evidence relating to career choice anxiety and
psychological well-being of adolescents the proposed conceptual framework will contribute to
the corpus of knowledge. The knowledge impact of the proposed framework in addition relates
to the establishment of a theoretical underpinning for the development of a psychometric stable
questionnaire measuring career choice anxiety and adolescent psychological well-being which
is a novel research endeavour nationally and internationally. It is envisioned that the measuring
instrument will inform career guidance practice in future. Above and beyond the knowledge
contribution and application the proposed conceptual framework will also have a societal
impact addressing goal three of the sustainable development goals i.e. good health and well-
being.

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Defining the constructs

The key variables of the proposed conceptual framework subsume psychological well-being,
career choice anxiety and career self-efficacy which will be briefly introduced in the sequential
section.

Psychological well-being is concerned with perceived fulfilment across various domains

including home life, school, managing situations and interpersonal relationships (Davids et al.
2017). Matud et al. (2019) defined psychological well-being as living life in a complete and
satisfactory manner centring on individual development and self-realization. Moreover,
psychological well-being is described as a state that is characterized by a sense of coherence,
life satisfaction, fortitude, coping and psychological resilience to mention a few (Pienaar et al.,
2006). A multi-dimensional perspective of psychological well-being has been proposed and
well-known as the Ryff’s model, which include autonomy, environmental mastery, personal
development, positive relationships with others, purpose and self-acceptance (Ryff & Keyes,
1995).

Career choice anxiety can be defined as the level of reported anxiety that is associated with the
process of career decision-making (Chiesa et al., 2016). As such, career choice anxiety refers
to anxiety experienced when a learner has difficulty with a career choice and unable to commit
to a particular course of action (Park et al., 2019, citing Jung et al., 2015). Kaur and Kaur (2017)
reflecting on previous research defined career choice anxiety as affective distress associated
with career decision-making and conceptualized as a significant personal-emotional factor
inhibiting career decision-making. Jonck et al. (2019) reflecting on the work of Corkin et al.
(2008) noted that career choice anxiety refers to difficulty with processing and acting on career-
related information as a result of, inter alia, a lack of knowledge or skills to make a career
decision.

Career self-efficacy can be defined as an individual’s perception of the innate ability to

organize and implement a modus operandi related to a desired career (Jemini-Gashi et al.,
2019). Makki et al. (2015) defined career self-efficacy as a sense of self-assurance in the ability
to perform actions related to career choices. While, Park et al. (2019) defined career self-
efficacy as the extent to which the individual has belief or confidence in innate career decision-
making ability. Career self-efficacy is positively associated with career aspiration (Tahira et
al., 2019) and have an impact on individual interests that eventually determine career choice
(Jonck & Swanepoel, 2019). As such, Carpenter (2014) opine that career self-efficacy will
determine whether a particular task (i.e. career) will be selected or avoided.

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Literature review
Psychological well-being can be described as healthy mental functioning and optimization of
individual innate potential. Hence, psychological well-being is a mental state characterised by
self-acceptance, healthy interpersonal relationships, self-directed behaviour, agency (viz.
ability to control or adapt to the environment) also referred to as environmental mastery and
life purpose (Fithria et al., 2018). Davids et al. (2017) expounded on previous research noted
that approximately 20% of adolescents’ experience mental health concerns annually resulting
in strained psychological well-being. Moreover, psychological well-being has emerged as a
public health concern (Davids et al. 2017), since the probability of maintaining mental health
into adulthood is significant (Pound & Campbell, 2015). Matud et al. (2019) explained that
psychological well-being is pivotal for physical health ascribed to the regulation of various
physiological and neurological systems. Furthermore, research suggest psychological well-
being predicts physical activity, less smoking, improved sleep patterns and less psychosomatic
symptoms (Garcia et al., 2012). Hence, psychological well-being promotes a healthy lifestyle.
Trudel-Fitzgerald et al. (2019) reported that psychological well-being is associated with lower
disease and mortality risk.

Psychological well-being can be investigated from two perspectives, namely a hedonic

approach that perceive psychological well-being as the presence of positive affect in the
absence of negative affect. Alternatively, a eudemonic stance can be adopted that perceive
psychological well-being as a consequence of optimal psychological functioning through
which an individual develops inherent potential (Guerra-Bustamante et al., 2019). In the same
vein, Govender et al. (2019) assert that psychological well-being can be conceptualised in terms
of a hedonic tradition emphasising constructs such as happiness, positive effect, low negative
effect and life satisfaction or a eudemonic tradition highlighting psychological functioning and
human development through challenges, growth and life purpose. In the research reported on
last mentioned stance will be adopted i.e. psychological well-being as optimal psychological
functioning and impetus to develop intrinsic career-related potential. In line with the
eudemonic approach a multidimensional model consisting of six facets underscoring self-
actualization ideally would be implemented as theoretical underpinning for future research
endeavours. The six facets include autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth,
positive interpersonal relationships, purpose in life and self-acceptance (Guerra-Bustamante et
al., 2019). Ryff’s six factor model is one of the most well-known psychological well-being
theories, which evaluates individual psychological functioning in response to life demands
premised on a eudemonic notion of self-actualization (Blasco-Belled & Alsinet, 2021).

Within the South African context, Govender et al. (2019) conducted a systematic review to
establish the prevalence of studies underscoring psychological well-being of adolescents.
Results identified 28 published research articles on psychological well-being of pubescent
respondents aged between 10 and 24 years between 2000 and 2016. Three identified studies
(see, for example Edwards et al., 2004; Liebenberg & Roos, 2008; Steyn & Roux, 2009)

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utilized the eudemonic stance operationalised by means of the six facets, inter alia, autonomy,
environmental mastery, personal growth, purpose in life, positive relations with others and self-
acceptance (Govender et al., 2019). Edwards et al. (2004) studied the psychological well-being
of university students. Liebenberg and Roos (2008) critically reflected on preadolescent
leaders. While, Steyn and Roux (2009) studied Tae Kwon do, hockey and non-sport group
respondents underscoring aggression frequency. Moreover, 20 of the studies included in the
systematic review were quantitative in nature howbeit most of the measuring instrument lack
cross-cultural validation giving rise to the possibility of measurement bias and the context of
the studies were also not in relation with career psychology (Govender et al., 2019). From a
career or learning standpoint, Pienaar et al. (2006) opine that changes to the world of work
could influence the psychological well-being of adolescents howbeit the study investigated the
relationship between conservatism and psychological well-being. Moreover, Cilliers and
Flotman (2016) noted that psychological well-being of students is seen as a contributory factor
towards having a meaningful, enjoyable and productive learning experience. Hence, research
exploring the link between psychological well-being and career choice anxiety mediated by
career self-efficacy within the South African context could not be identified.

Anxiety can be defined as the anticipated expectation of a future danger or negative event,
accompanied by feelings of apprehension, uncertainty, fear and alarm directed towards an
experience the individual perceive or is helpless against (Perrotta, 2019). Rahmadani and
Sahrani (2021) reflecting on the corpus of knowledge define anxiety as a feeling or affect
coupled with resultant discomfort that is followed by physical sensations that caution the
individual against impending dangers. Takil and Sari (2021) noted that one of the biggest
causes of anxiety at present is career anxiety. Career anxiety can be defined as the anxiety
embedded in a career problem when facing the career development process (Pisarik et al.,
2017). The career problem is not delineated as per the previous definition. On the other hand,
career choice anxiety is defined as the level of reported anxiety that is associated with career
decision-making viz. career selection (Jonck et al., 2019). Yilman and Gunduz (2018) opine
that career choice anxiety is a dimension of career anxiety as it relates to career indecision.
Furthermore, career decision-making is the manner in which learners make career and
educational decisions by examining, for example precursors that impede career choice resulting
in career indecision and the internalised views supporting whether the learner is able to
successfully accomplish behaviours that will give rise to the desired outcome (viz. career self-
efficacy) according to Savickas (2000). Hence, adolescents (viz. in the South African Context
Grade 9 learners) are expected to make decisions about a career field, occupational or higher
education with lifelong consequences that might cause career choice anxiety influencing
psychological well-being amongst other (Jonck et al., 2019; Yilmaz & Gunduz, 2018).

Self-efficacy can be defined as an individual’s confidence and beliefs relating to innate

strengths and capabilities and is the impetus for performance in any given behaviour. As such,
self-efficacy has been linked to academic performance, ambition and achievement (Tahira et

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al., 2019). The Social Cognitive Career Development Theory (SCCT) an extension of the
original self-efficacy expectation theory by Bandura is often used as theoretical underpinning
(Jonck, 2014). The theory proposes that individual background and characteristics influence
learning experiences and self-efficacy. Self-efficacy, in turn, fosters interests and outcome
expectations, which eventually determine career choice (Lent et al., 2000 cited in Jonck, 2014).
Likewise, Betz (2007) expound that self-efficacy sources of information (i.e. background and
learning experiences) lead to the development of self-efficacy for a given domain. Self-efficacy
sequentially influences three major career-related outcomes including career choice or
avoidance, level of performance and persistence. Hence, learners form enduring interests in
activities when they perceive themselves as competent or capable and anticipate that
performing said interests will produce valued outcomes (Jonck, 2014). Abe et al., (2021) noted
that self-efficacy convictions determine consistent goals, confidence in the ability to achieve
goals and activate the achievement of a given career task. Last mentioned authors conducted a
South African study reporting on the link between career self-efficacy and career outcome
expectations of university students. Results support the theoretical supposition that self-
efficacy predicts outcome expectations and that learning experiences and background
statistically significantly influence both constructs (Abe et al., 2021). Dabula and Makura
(2013) reported in the South African context that learner’s career decision-making ability is
hampered by a lack of self-efficacy.

Proposed conceptual framework

Based on the discussion thus far the following hypothesized conceptual framework is put
forward (see Figure 1 below). It is hypothesized that ascribe to growing uncertainty relating to
job-security and employment especially in light of the current COVID-19 pandemic and the
changing world of work there is an increase in the perceived career choice anxiety of adolescent
learners negatively impacting their psychological well-being. Moreover, it is the contention of
the research that career self-efficacy mediates the relationship between career choice anxiety
and psychological well-being.

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Career self-
“COVID-19 efficacy
Fear”
Changed Career choice Psychological
world of work anxiety well-being
Fourth
industrial
revolution

Figure 1: Conceptual framework exploring the link between career choice anxiety,
psychological well-being and career self-efficacy’

Way forward

To test the model a self-constructed questionnaire was developed in accordance with the
proposed conceptual framework. The questionnaire consists out of five sections. Section A
ascertain adolescents’ biographical information e.g. gender, age, home language, socio-
economic status, disability, dependents and home environment. Last two, namely dependents
and home environment might statistically significantly influence perceived anxiety. Section B
Measures Career Choice Anxiety and consist out of 21 items on a Likert-Scale ranging from
never to always. Items include, for example “I feel worried, when thinking about the career
path I have decided upon”; “I feel agitated when other learners talk about their future career
plans”; “I feel secure that I have selected the appropriate subjects” and “I am tense about my
subject-career link”. The State Trait Anxiety Inventory was bridged to make it more applicable
to the conceptual framework under investigation. Section C measures career self-efficacy on a
Likert-Scale ranging from no confidence to very confident and consist out of 21 items. Items
included, for example: “How confident am I to use the internet to find information about
occupations that interest me” and “How confident am I to select one occupation from a list of
potential occupations I am considering.” The sub-scale was previously validated by Jonck
(2014) with a mean of 2.19, STD of 0.855 and alpha coefficient of 0.86.

Section D measures psychological well-being and consist out of 41 items on a Likert-Scale

ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The psychological well-being sub-scale was
adapted from the seminal Psychological Well-being Scale (PWBS) developed by Ryff for adult
usage. Items include, for example “I don’t have a concrete idea of what I’m trying to
accomplish in life (e.g. my goals and vision)”; “I am good at managing the many
responsibilities I have, for example sports, school, family and friendships” and “When I
compare myself to other learners, I feel good about who I am”. The questionnaire measure six

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dimensions of psychological well-being, inter alia, autonomy, environmental mastery,

personal development, positive relationship with others, purpose and self-acceptance (Ryff &
Keyes 1995). The last section consists out of 5 open-ended questions where learners can
describe their anxiety or the lack thereof using narration thus own words.

A pilot study will be conducted to determine the psychometric properties of the questionnaire
specifically the reliability and construct validity. Face validity has been determined by means
of inputs received from five HPCSA board certified psychologists. Thereafter, it is envisioned
that the main study will be implemented in three provinces notably North-West, Free State and
Western Cape.

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