Vol 54 No 2, May 2020

Phased Array Antenna

Patterns—Part 1: Linear
Array Beam Characteristics
and Array Factor
Peter Delos, Technical Lead, Bob Broughton, Director of Engineering,
and Jon Kraft, Senior Staff Field Applications Engineer

Introduction Beam Direction

With the proliferation of digital phased arrays in commercial and aerospace and First, let’s look at an intuitive example of steering a phased array beam. Figure 1
defense applications, there are many engineers working on various aspects of the provides a simple illustration of a wavefront striking four antenna elements from
design who have limited phased array antenna familiarity. Phased array antenna two different directions. A time delay is applied in the receive path after each
design is not new, as the theory has been well developed over decades; however, antenna element, and then all four signals are summed together. In Figure 1a, that
most of the literature is intended for antenna engineers well versed in the elec- time delay matches the time difference of the wavefront striking each element.
tromagnetic mathematics. As phased arrays begin to include more mixed-signal And in this case, that applied delay causes the four signals to arrive in phase at
and digital content, there are many engineers who could benefit from a much the point of combination. This coherent combining results in a larger signal at the
more intuitive explanation of phased array antenna patterns. As it turns out, output of the combiner. In Figure 1b, that same delay is applied; however, in this
there are many analogies between the behavior of phased array antennas and case, the wavefront is perpendicular to the antenna elements. That applied delay
the discrete time sampled systems that the mixed-signal and digital engineers now misaligns the phase of the four signals, and the output of the combiner is
work with every day. significantly reduced.
These articles are not intended to create antenna design engineers, but rather to
help the engineer working on a subsystem or component used in a phased array
to visualize how their effort may impact a phased array antenna pattern.

Electrical Beam Angle Electrical Beam Angle

Wave Front
Wave Front

3∆t 2∆t ∆t 0 3∆t 2∆t ∆t 0

+ +
Signals Delayed Matching Time Delay Blocks Signals Delayed Differently than
the Time of Arrival at the Configured for a 45° Beam the Time of Arrival at the Element
Element and in Phase at and Are No Longer in Phase at the
the Point of Combining Point of Combining

(a) (b)
Figure 1. Understanding steering angle.

          VISIT ANALOG.COM
 In a phased array, time delay is the quantifiable delta needed for beam steering. Mechanical
Boresight
But time delay can also be emulated with a phase shift, which is common and
Electrical
practical in many implementations. We will discuss the impact of time delay vs. Boresight
phase shift in the section on beam squint, but for now let’s look at a phase shift
implementation, and then derive the calculation for beam steering with that W
av What Phase Shift, ∆Φ,
eF Is Required to Steer the
phase shift. θ ro
nt Beam to an Angle θ?
L

Figure 2 shows this phased array arrangement using phase shifters rather than
time delay. Note that we define the boresight direction (θ = 0°) as perpendicular
d
to the face of the antenna. A positive angle θ is defined to the right of boresight,
and a negative angle is defined to the left of boresight. ∆Φ
Boresight
(a)

Electrical
Boresight
adjacent L
Equiphase Array cosφ = =
hypotenous d
Wavefront Wa
Wavefront ve
per Element θ Fr
L on θ + φ = 90°
t
cosφ = cos (90° – θ) = sinθ
L
l = dsinθ, ∆t = , c = 3 × 108 m/s
d c

d (b)

Mechanical
Φ1 Φ2 Φ3 ΦN Boresight

Electrical
RF Distribution Boresight

Figure 2. Phased array concept using RF phase shifters. L Wa

ve
Fr 2πL 2πdsinθ
θ on ∆Φ = dsinθ, ∆t = =
t
To visualize the phase shift needed for beam steering, a set of right triangles λ λ
φ λ
can be drawn between adjacent elements, as shown in Figure 3. Where ΔΦ is the If d =
2
, ∆Φ = πsinθ

phase shift between those adjacent elements.

(c)

Figure 3. Derivation of phase shift ΔΦ vs. beam steering angle.

Figure 3a defines the trigonometry between those elements, with each element
separated by a distance (d). The beam is pointed in a direction off boresight, θ,
which is an angle, φ, from the horizon. In Figure 3b, we see that the sum of
θ + φ = 90°. This allows us to compute L, the delta distance of wave propaga-
tion, as L = dsin(θ). The time delay to steer our beam is equal to the time it will
take for the wavefront to traverse that distance, L. If we think of L as a fraction
of the wavelength, then a phase delay could be substituted in for that time delay.
The equations for ΔΦ can then be defined relative to θ, as shown in Figure 3c
and repeated in Equation 1.
2�dsinθ
∆Φ = (1)
λ

2 Phased Array Antenna Patterns—Part 1: Linear Array Beam Characteristics and Array Factor
If the spacing between elements is exactly one half of the signal wavelength, A Uniformly Spaced Linear Array
then this can further be simplified to:
The equations developed above have applied to just two elements. Yet a real
λ phased array can be thousands of elements spaced across two dimensions. But
∆Φ = � sinθ, for d = (2)
2 for our purposes here, let’s just consider one dimension: a linear array.
Let’s work out an example with these equations. Consider two antenna elements
spaced 15 mm apart. If a 10.6 GHz wavefront is arriving at 30° from mechanical A linear array is a single element wide with N number of elements across. The
boresight, then what is the optimal phase shift between the two elements? spacing may vary, but often it is uniform. Therefore, in this paper, we will set
the spacing between each element to a uniform distance, d, (Figure 5). Although
X θ = 30° = 0.52 rad
simplified, this uniformly spaced linear array model provides the foundation for
X λ = c/f = (3 × 108 m/s)/10.6 GHz = 0.0283 m insight into how the antenna pattern is formed vs. a variety of conditions. We
X ∆Φ = (2π × d × sinθ)/λ = 2π × 0.015 × sin(0.52)/0.0283 m = 1.67 rad = 95° can further apply the principles of the linear array to understand two-dimen-
So, if our wavefront is arriving at θ = 30°, then if we shift the phase of the neighbor- sional arrays.
ing element by 95°, we will cause the individual signals of both elements to add
coherently. This will maximize the antenna gain in that direction.
d d d
For a better appreciation of how the phase shift varies with the beam direction (θ),
these equations are plotted for a variety of conditions in Figure 4. Some interesting Figure 5. A uniformly spaced linear array (N = 4).
observations can be made from these graphs. For the case of d = λ/2, there is an
approximate 3 to 1 slope near boresight, which is the π multiplier in Equation 2. This Near Field vs. Far Field
case also shows a full 180° shift between elements provides a theoretical 90° shift So how can we take the equations previously developed for an N = 2 linear
in beam direction. In practice, with real element patterns, this is not realizable, array and apply them to an N = 10,000 linear array? Right now, it seems that
yet the equations do show the theoretical ideal. Note that for d > λ/2, no amount each antenna element has a slightly different angle pointing to the spherical
of phase shift provides a full beam shift. Later, we will see this case can lead to wavefront, shown in Figure 6.
grating lobes in the antenna pattern, and this graph provides a first indicator that
With the RF source near, the incident angle varies for each element. This situa-
something is different with the d > λ/2 case.
tion is called the near field. We can work out all these angles, and sometimes we
180
need to do this for antenna testing and calibration as our test setup can only be
150
so large. But, if we instead just assumed that the RF source was far away, then
120
we’d have the case in Figure 7.
Phase Shift Between Elements

90

60 With the RF source far away, the large radius of the spherical wavefront results
30 in wave propagation paths that are approximately parallel. Therefore, all our
0 beam angles are equal, and each adjacent element has a path length that is L =
–30 d × sinθ) longer than its neighbor. This simplifies the math and means that the
–60 two element equations we derived can be applied to thousands of elements,
–90 provided they have uniform spacing.
–120 0.4
d
λ
0.5 But when can we make the far field assumption? How far is far? It’s a little
–150 0.6
subjective, but in general, far field is considered anything greater than:
–180
–80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80
Far Field > 2 D2/λ (3)
Beam Direction (°)

Figure 4. Phase shift ΔΦ between elements vs. beam direction (θ) for three cases of d/λ. where D is the diameter of the antenna ((N-1) × d for our uniform linear array)
ea ce
(N our
r)
S
RF

Path Length = r1 r2 r3 r4

d d d

Figure 6. An RF source near the linear array.

VISIT ANALOG.COM 3
 Aw ce
)
ay
ar our
S
RF
(F

r1 r2 r3 r4

L θ L θ L θ

d d d

Figure 7. An RF source far from the linear array.

For a small array (small D) or a low frequency (large λ), the far field distance is
small. But for a large array (or high frequency), the far field distance could be
many kilometers! That makes it hard to test and calibrate the array. For those
conditions, a more detailed near model may be used, and then bridge this back Beamwidth (Steradians) = ΩA ≈ θ1θ2
θ2 ΩA
to the far field, real-world use of the array.
Sphere Area (Steradians) = 4π
θ1
Antenna Gain, Directivity, and Aperture D=
4π 4π
≈
ΩA θ1θ2

Before we go too far, it is helpful to define antenna gain, directivity, and aper-
ture. Let’s start with a clarification on gain vs. directivity, as the two are often
interchanged. Antenna gain and directivity are in comparison to an isotropic
antenna—which is an ideal antenna that radiates evenly in all directions. Directivity
is a comparison of the maximum power measured, Pmax, in a particular direction to
the average power radiated across all directions, Pav. When no direction is defined,
directivity is determined by Equation 4. Figure 8. A three-dimensional view of an area projected onto a sphere.
Pmax
D= P (4) The total surface area of a sphere is 4π2, and an area on a sphere is defined in
av
Directivity is a useful metric when comparing antennas as it defines the ability units of steradians with 4π steradians in a sphere. Therefore, the power density
to focus radiated energy. Gain has the same pattern of directivity, but gain from an isotropic radiator is
includes the antenna losses. Prad (6)
Prad 4�r2
Gain = G = kD, where k = P (5) and has units of (W/m2).
in
Prad is the total power radiated, Pin is the input power to the antenna, and k There are two angular directions for an area of a sphere. In radar systems,
accounts for losses in the antenna radiation process. these are commonly referred to as azimuth and elevation. Beamwidths can be
Next, let’s consider an antenna pattern as a function of a three-dimensional described as a function of each angular direction as θ1 and θ2: the combination
direction and directivity as a function of beamwidth. creates an area on the sphere of ΩA.
ΩA is the beamwidth in steradians and can be approximated as ΩA ≈ θ1 × θ2.

4 Phased Array Antenna Patterns—Part 1: Linear Array Beam Characteristics and Array Factor
Recognizing ΩA as an area on the sphere, directivity can then be expressed as The focus then is on the array factor, GA. The array factor is calculated based on
4� 4� array geometry (d for our uniform linear array) and beam weights (amplitude and
D= ≈ (7)
ΩA θ1θ2 phase). Deriving the array factor for a uniform linear array is straightforward,
The third antenna term we’ll consider is aperture. Antenna aperture represents but the details are best covered in the references cited at the end of this article.
an effective area for receiving electromagnetic waves and includes a function
There are some variations in equations used across literature depending on how
relative to wavelength. The aperture of an isotropic antenna is
parameters were defined in the linear array. We use the equations from this
λ2 article, which results in consistency with our definitions in Figure 2 and Figure 3.
A_isotropic = 4� (8)
Since our primary concern is how the gain changes, it is often more instructive
Gain is relative to isotropic radiation, making the effective aperture of an antenna
to plot the normalized array factor relative to unity gain. That normalized array
Gλ2 (9)
Ae = factor can be written as Equation 11.
4�
Pulling these three terms together, we can see that gain can be considered a N�d
sin [sin(θ) – sin (θ0)]
function of angle that defines a radiation pattern and accounts for efficiency (or λ
AF[θ] = (11)
losses) in the antenna. �d
Nsin [sin(θ) – sin (θ0)]
λ
Array Factor for a Linear Array
At this point, we’re able to predict the optimal time (or phase) delta between ele- θ0 = beam angle
ments to achieve maximum antenna directivity. But we’d really like to understand
and manipulate the complete antenna gain pattern. There are two main parts to
this. First, there is the gain of each individual element of our array (perhaps one
patch), called the element factor (GE). Secondly, there is the impact that we can
exert through beamforming the array, called the array factor (GA). The full
array antenna gain pattern is the combination of the two factors, as shown We have already defined beam angle θ0 as a function of phase shift between
in Equation 10. elements ΔΦ; therefore, we can also write the normalized antenna factor as
Equation 12.
G(θ) = GE(θ) + GA(θ), in dB (10)
�d ∆Φ
sin(θ) – sin N
λ 2
AF [θ, ∆Φ] = (12)
�d ∆Φ
Nsin sin(θ) –
λ 2
The conditions assumed in the array factor equation include:
X The elements are equally spaced.
X There is an equal phase shift between elements.
X The elements are all at equal amplitude.
Next, using these equations, we plot the array factor for several array sizes.
0
8
–5 N 16
32

–10

–15
Amplitude (dB)

–20

–25

–30
Element Factor
–35

Array Factor
–40
–80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80
Figure 9. Element and array factor.
Angle (°)
The element factor, GE, is the radiating pattern of a single element in the array. Figure 10. Normalized array factor at boresight of a linear array with an element spacing of
This is defined by the geometry and construction of the antenna, and not d = λ/2 and an element count of 8, 16, and 32.
something that is varied in operation. It is important to know, as it will limit the
gain of our total array—particularly near the horizon. But since we can’t control
it electrically, we’ll leave it as a fixed influencer to our total phased array gain
equation. For this article, we’ll assume that all the individual elements have the
same element factor.

VISIT ANALOG.COM 5
 0 2�λ sinθ
0.35 = → θ = 0.11 rad = 6.4° (14)
Beam Angle 2λ
–5 0
30 That θ is the peak to 3 dB point, which is half of our HPBW. Therefore, we simply
–10 60 double it to arrive at the angular distance between the 3 dB points. This results
in an HPBW of 12.8°.
–15
Amplitude (dB)

We could repeat this for an array factor equal to 0 and obtain the first null-to-
–20
null spacing angle of FNBW = 28.5°, for the previously mentioned conditions.
–25
For uniform linear arrays, an approximation for HPBW [1,2] is given as Equation 15.

θB ~ 0.886λ
–30
(15)
Ndcosθ
–35
Figure 13 plots beamwidth vs. beam angle for several element counts in the
–40 condition of a λ/2 element spacing.
–80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80
Angle (°) 10
9
Figure 11. Normalized array factor of a 32-element linear array at several beam angles with an 8
element spacing of d = λ/2. 7
6
Some observations from these figures include: 5

Beamwidth (°)
4
X The first sidelobe is at –13 dBc regardless of the element count. This is due to
the sinc function in the array factor equation. The sidelobes can be improved 3

with tapering the gain across elements and will be the subject of an upcom- 16
2
ing section in this series. N 32
100
X The beamwidth reduces with the number of elements.
X The beamwidth widens as the beam is scanned away from boresight.
1
X The number of nulls increases as the number of elements increases.
–80 –60 –20 0 20 40 60

Beamwidth Beam Direction (°)

Figure 13. Beamwidth vs. beam angle at an element spacing of λ/2 for an element count of 16,
Beamwidth provides a metric of angular resolution for antennas. Most com- 32, and 100 elements.
monly, beamwidth is defined by either the half-power beamwidth (HPBW) or the
null-to-null spacing of the main lobe (FNBW). To find the HPBW, we move 3 dB From this graph, it is worth noting some observations relative to array sizes
down from the peak and measure the angular distance, as shown in Figure 12. under development in the industry.
20 X A 1° beam accuracy requires 100 elements. If this is desired in both azimuth
and elevation, this results in a 10,000 element array. The 1° accuracy is only
10 3 dB at boresight under near ideal conditions. Maintaining 1° accuracy in a fielded
array across a variety of scan angles will increase the element count further.
HPBW
0 This observation then sets a practical limit for beamwidth with very large arrays.
Amplitude (dB)

X A 1000-element array is common in the industry. 32 elements in each direc-

–10
tion provides an element count of 1024, and can yield a beam accuracy less
than 4° near boresight.
–20
X A 256-element array, which can be mass produced at low cost, can still have
FNBW
a beam pointing accuracy less than 10°. This may be perfectly acceptable for
–30
many applications.
–40
X Also note that for any of these cases, the beamwidth doubles at 60° offsets.
–80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80 This is from the cosθ in the denominator and is due to the foreshortening
Angle (°) of the array; that is, the array appears to be a smaller cross section when
Figure 12. Definition of antenna beamwidth (linear array of N = 8, d = λ/2, θ = 30° shown). viewed from an angle.
Using our normalized array factor equation, we can solve for this HPBW by
Combining Element and Array Factors
setting Equation 3 equal to the half-power level (3 dB or 1/√2). We’ll assume
mechanical boresight (θ = 0°), N = 8, and d = λ/2. The previous section only considered the array factor. But to find the total
antenna gain, we also require the element factor. Figure 14 illustrates an example.
�λ ∆Φ In this example, we use a simple cosine shape as the element factor, or normal-
sin 8
sin(θ) –
2λ 2
1/√2 = (13) ized element gain, GE(θ). The cosine roll-off is common in phased array analysis
�λ ∆Φ and can be visualized if considering a flat surface. At broadside, there is a
8 sin sin(θ) –
2λ 2
maximum area. As the angle moves away from broadside, the area visible
Then solving for ∆Φ gives 0.35 rad. Use Equation 1, and solve for θ: reduces following a cosine function.

6 Phased Array Antenna Patterns—Part 1: Linear Array Beam Characteristics and Array Factor
The array factor, GA(θ), was used for a 16-element linear array, with a λ/2 spac- Array Reciprocity
ing, and a uniform radiation pattern. The total pattern is a linear multiplication of
Up until this point, all the diagrams and text have described a signal that the
the element factor and array factor, so in a dB scale, they can be added together.
array is receiving. But how would this change for a transmit array? Fortunately,
0
most antenna arrays are reciprocal. Therefore all of the diagrams, equations,
–5
and terminology are the same for transmit as they are for receive. Sometimes
Element Factor (GE)
(Cosine Shape Shown)
it is easier to think of the beam as being received by the array. And sometimes,
–10 Array Factor (GA) perhaps in the case of grating lobes, you may find it more intuitive to think of
(16 Elements at 60°)
–15 Total Pattern (G) the array as transmitting a beam. In this article, we generally describe the array
Amplitude (°)

as receiving a signal. But if this is harder to visualize for you, then you can
–20
equally think of the same concepts on the transmit side.
–25
Summary
–30
This concludes Part 1 of the series. The concept of beam steering with a phased
–35 array was introduced. The equations to calculate phase shift across the array for
beam steering were derived and shown graphically. Then array factor and element
–40
–80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80 factor were defined with observations of how the number of elements, the spacing
Angle (°) between elements, and the beam angle impacts the antenna response. Finally, a
Figure 14. Element factor and array factor combine to form the total antenna pattern. comparison of antenna patterns in cartesian vs. polar coordinates was shown.

A few observations as the beam moves off boresight: Upcoming articles in this series will further explore phased array antenna pat-
terns and impairments. We’ll study how antenna tapering reduces sidelobes, how
X The main beam loses amplitude at the rate of the element factor. grating lobes are formed, and the impact of phase shift vs. time delay in wideband
X The sidelobes on boresight have no amplitude loss. systems. The series will finish with an analysis of the finite resolution of the delay
X The result is the sidelobe performance of the overall array degraded block and how it can create quantization sidelobes and degrade beam resolution.
off boresight.
References
Antenna Plots: Cartesian vs. Polar Balanis, Constantine A. Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design. Third edition,
The antenna pattern plots used so far have been in cartesian coordinates. But it Wiley, 2005.
is common to plot antenna patterns in polar coordinates as they are more Mailloux, Robert J. Phased Array Antenna Handbook. Second edition, Artech
representative of energy radiating spatially outwards from the antenna. Figure 15 House, 2005.
is a redrawn version of Figure 12, but using polar coordinates. Note that this is the
exact same data, point for point—it’s just redrawn with a polar coordinate system. O’Donnell, Robert M. “Radar Systems Engineering: Introduction.” IEEE, June 2012.
It is worthwhile to be able to visualize the antenna pattern in either representa- Skolnik, Merrill. Radar Handbook. Third edition, McGraw-Hill, 2008.
tion as both are used in literature. For most of this text, we will use cartesian
coordinates as in this representation it can be easier to compare beamwidth and
sidelobe performance.

Angle (˚) 0
HP
3d BW
–30 B 30

FN
BW
–60 60

10 0 –10 –20 –30

Amplitude (dB)

Figure 15. Polar coordinate antenna directivity plot for N = 8, d = λ/2, θ = 30°.

VISIT ANALOG.COM 7
About the Author
Peter Delos is a technical lead in the Aerospace and Defense Group at Analog Devices in Greensboro, NC. He received his B.S.E.E.
from Virginia Tech in 1990 and M.S.E.E. from NJIT in 2004. Peter has over 25 years of industry experience. Most of his career has
been spent designing advanced RF/analog systems at the architecture level, PWB level, and IC level. He is currently focused on
miniaturizing high performance receiver, waveform generator, and synthesizer designs for phased array applications. He can be
reached at peter.delos@analog.com.

About the Author

Bob Broughton started at Analog Devices in 1993 and has held positions as a product engineer and an IC design engineer, and is
currently the director of engineering in the Aerospace and Defense Business Unit. Prior to ADI, Bob worked at Raytheon as an RF
design engineer and at Peregrine Semiconductor as an RFIC designer. Bob graduated with a B.S.E.E. from West Virginia University
in 1984. He can be reached at bob.broughton@analog.com.

About the Author

Jon Kraft is a senior staff FAE in Colorado and has been with ADI for 13 years. His focus is software-defined radio and aerospace
phased array radar. He received his B.S.E.E. from Rose-Hulman and his M.S.E.E. from Arizona State University. He has nine patents
issued, six with ADI, and one currently pending. He can be reached at jon.kraft@analog.com.

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