Religion Compass 5/5 (2011): 166–179, 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2011.00271.

The Mah ay

ana Path of the Bodhisattva in the Ornament
for Clear Realization
James B. Apple*
University of Calgary

Abstract
Buddhists have articulated the central notion of the ‘path’ in a variety of different ways and in a
great number of texts throughout the history of their traditions. Among texts related to the path,
the Ornament for Clear Realization, a commentary on the Prajñaparamita Sutras, has had a significant
impact on Mahayana Buddhist notions of the path and became the dominant Indian text for the
study of the path in Tibetan traditions. This article focuses on two general descriptions of the
bodhisattva path found in the Ornament for Clear Realization. The first description centers upon
eight ‘clear realizations’ (abhisamaya) that constitute the knowledges and practices of Prajñaparamita
textual systems. The second description elucidates a system of five paths, shaped by Indian
Abhidharma and Yogacara texts, that is commonly used by Tibetan commentators. The article
demonstrates how the eight clear realizations and five paths are interrelated, yet distinct, modes of
envisioning the bodhisattva path in the Ornament. While these path structures do not provide
details of actual meditation experience, they do provide Tibetan Buddhists who follow the
Ornament a structured worldview where a narrative of spiritual progress is possible and where the
altruistic goal of Buddhahood can be attained.

Introduction
Buddhists have conceived of the prescriptive teachings attributed to the Buddha as analo-
gous to a ‘path’ (marga) from the very beginning of their traditions. In the wide variety of
Buddhist traditions that develop throughout history one of the central metaphors is that
of the path (marga). As Buswell and Gimello (1992, p. 6) suggest, the path
incorporates, underlies, or presupposes everything else in Buddhism, from the simplest act of
charity to the most refined meditative experience and the most rigorous philosophical argu-
ment. [It]… directs attention…to a general pattern of discipline encompassing both the whole
life of the individual and corporate life of the whole Buddhist community.
In conjunction with this focus and attention on what the Buddha prescribed, an abundant
amount of literature concerned with the path developed throughout the Buddhist world.
The historical conditions and interests of the Buddhist authors who composed the litera-
ture shaped the structures and ideals that underlie Buddhist conceptions of the path.
Among Theravada Buddhist traditions, Buddhaghosa’s Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga)
~ anamoli 2006) is a well-known example; similarly, an important example found in East
(N
Asia_ is The Great Calming and Contemplations (Mo-ho chih-kuan) by the Chinese Tiantai
master Zhiyi (538–597 CE) (Donner and Stevenson 1993). In India, a number of exegeti-
cal texts provided accounts of how the path could be conceived and practiced. These
_
included Asanga’s (c. fourth century CE) Mahayanasutralamkara (Ornament of the Mahayana
Scriptures) (Thurman et al. 2004) and Bodhisattvabhu_mi (Stages for the Bodhisattva),

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 The Mahayana Path of the Bodhisattva 167

Candrakırti’s (c. seventh century) Madhyamakavatara (Introduction to the Middle Way)

(Huntington & Wangchen 1989), and Śantideva’s (c. eighth century) Bodhicaryavatara
(Introduction to the Practices of a Bodhisattva) (Crosby & Skilton 1996). Among such texts,
the Ornament for Clear Realization ðAbhisamayalamkaraÞ (Conze 1954; Sparham 2006,
2008, 2009), attributed to Maitreyanatha (c. third_ century), had a great impact on the
Mahayana Buddhist notions of the path and became the dominant text for the study of
the path in Tibetan traditions.
The Ornament for Clear Realization (hereafter Ornament) is a commentary on the Pra-
jñaparamita Sutras, discourses attributed to the Buddha which outline the attainment of
Buddhahood through cognizing non-dual wisdom (advayajñana) and the practice of the
perfections (paramitas). As a technical treatise (śastra), the Ornament consists of an encyclo-
pedic table of contents, communicating in an abridged form the subject matter of the
entire Large Prajñaparamita Sutra corpus. The treatise presents a condensed summary of all
the instructions, practices, paths, and stages of realization to Buddhahood that are men-
tioned in the Prajñaparamita Sutras. The primary focus of the Ornament is to describe the
stages of the Mahayana path, which are thought by Indian and Tibetan scholars to be
implicitly stated in the Prajñaparamita Sutras. Indian and Tibetan scholars describe the con-
tent of the Ornament as stages of realization that are the hidden meaning (Tib. sbas don) of
these Sutras. The Ornament provides an outline of the realizations and practices for bodhi-
sattvas (‘Buddhas-in-training’) in order to achieve Buddhahood.
While soteriologically significant, the objectified, codified, and detailed scholastic
descriptions of path structures and stages mentioned in Buddhist accounts of the path do
not serve as practical guides to Buddhist practice, nor do they provide details of actual
meditation experience. Rather, descriptions of the path in Buddhist texts such as the
Ornament serve as an archetypal pattern of the worldview in which liberation is possible
for the individual practitioner. Buddhist scholastic accounts of the path are constructs or
‘prescriptive systemizations of scriptural material’ (Williams 2009, p. 356n27), that were
‘‘compiled by monks of formidable learning who were attempting to systematize and
schematize the confused and often conflicting descriptions of practices and stages found
scattered throughout the canon’’ (Sharf 1995, pp. 261–2). As Dreyfus (2003, p. 173)
articulates, the path serves as a structure through which a Buddhist tradition will formu-
late their practices, doctrines, and narratives. In the case of Tibetan Buddhist traditions,
‘‘[t]he discussion of the path is central…because it habituates students to the universe in
which these narratives make sense, and thus strengthens their religious commitment’’
(Dreyfus 2003, pp. 179–80). Although the descriptions of the path must appear as con-
crete relations to Buddhist practices for followers of a tradition, Dreyfus argues that this
concreteness is itself a reification. The model of the path outlined by texts such as the
Ornament are mental constructs which serve as representational forces to influence and
support people in their practices (Dreyfus 2003, p. 181). In this manner, the Ornament
constructs a soteriological worldview that outlines a narrative of progress to Buddhahood
but does not describe meditative experiences or provide practical guidelines of how to
cultivate such experiences. The Ornament ‘‘provides the Tibetan tradition with the frame-
work that makes a narrative of spiritual progress possible and introduces an element of
closure without which the commitment required by Buddhist practices cannot be sus-
tained’’ (Dreyfus 1997, p. 62).
In terms of general content and structure, the Ornament is comprised of 273 Sanskrit
stanzas within nine chapters that present the hidden meaning of the Prajñaparamita Sutras.
The Ornament lays out the same subject matter numerous times, yet with each repetition
of the presentation, the subject matter is covered in successively greater detail (Apple

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2008, p. 50; Sparham 1987). The main subject matter of the text is presented five sepa-
rate times. The (1) homage encapsulates the main principles that flow throughout the
whole text. The homage is followed by a restatement of these main principles in (2) a
versified table of contents (Ornament 1.3–4). These main principles or topics are then
slightly expanded and contained in (3) an elucidation of the ‘body of the text’ (Ornament
1.5–17). The fourth repetition is the most expansive and consists of (4) a detailed articula-
tion (Ornament, 1.18-penultimate) of the paths and stages. Finally, (5) summation verses
(Ornament 9.1–2) are given which condense the subject matter of the text into three cate-
gories (aims, practices, and result; see Table 1). The Ornament presents its subject matter
in terse verses that are often vague in meaning and difficult to understand without the
assistance of a commentary. The text presumes that the reader has a background in Bud-
dhist scholasticism, including a knowledge of Abhidharma path structures, categories of
mental defilements, meditational attainments, analytical procedures, and cosmology,
among other topics. Along these lines, the path systems presented in the Ornament are
quite complex with multiple divisions and subdivisions pertaining to each aspect of the
path from several different angles.
For the purposes of this article, we may focus on two general descriptions of the
bodhisattva path found in the Ornament. The first description of the bodhisattva path
found in the Ornament centers upon eight ‘clear realizations’ (abhisamaya) that constitute
the subject matter of the whole text. The terms and concepts used in the Ornament to
describe and outline these clear realizations, such as Total Omniscience (sarvakarajñata) or
Path Omniscience (margajñata), are unique to the Ornament and rarely appear in other
texts of Buddhist scholasticism. The second description of the bodhisattva path found in
the Ornament is the system of the five paths (lam lnga, *pañcamarga). The description of
the bodhisattva path within the Ornament in terms of five paths is one that is commonly
used by Tibetan commentators and is influenced by Indian Abhidharma and Yogacara lit-
erature, particularly texts like Vasubandu’s Abhidharmakośa (Pruden 1988) and Asanga’s _
Abhidharmasamuccaya (Rahula and Boin-Webb 2000). In the description of these two
models of the path for bodhisattvas as found in the Ornament, we will present a general
outline of the material that conforms to the expectations of most Indian and Tibetan
commentators. At the same time, we will bracket controversial exegetical points related
to the Ornament and will not explore specific doctrinal points subject to debate.

Eight Clear Realizations of Prajñaparamita

The Ornament is a summary of the Prajñaparamita Sutras, the discourses on the ‘Perfection
of Wisdom’. Prajñaparamita or ‘Perfect Wisdom’, in addition to referring to a genre of

Table 1 Eight Subjects in the Ornament for Clear Realization

A. Aim (vis aya) 1. Total omniscience (sarvakarajñata)

2. Path omniscience (margajñata)
3. Empirical omniscience (sarvajñata)
B. Practice (prayoga) 4. Full realization of all aspects (sarvakarabhisam· bodha)
5. Realization that has attained the summit (murdhabhisamaya)
6. Progressive realization (anupurvabhisamaya)
7. Instantaneous realization (ekaks· an·abhisam · bodha)
C. Result (phala) 8. Dharma-body (dharmakaya)

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 The Mahayana Path of the Bodhisattva 169

Buddhist literature, is synonymous with the perfect non-dual wisdom (advayajñana) of a

Buddha, and the teachings of the path leading to this wisdom (Apple 2008, p. 48). The
Ornament (1.3–4) states that ‘‘the perfection of wisdom is proclaimed through eight sub-
jects: (1) Total Omniscience, (2) Path Omniscience, (3) Empirical Omniscience, (4) Full
Realization of All Aspects, (5) Realization that has attained the Summit, (6) Progressive
realization, (7) Instantaneous Realization, and (8) the Dharma-body’’ (see Table 1). The
Ornament contains nine chapters, eight of which address each subject in turn. The eight
subjects (padartha) that comprise these eight chapters (adhikara) of the Ornament
correspond to eight clear realizations (abhisamaya) that explain the multiple meanings of
Prajñaparamita.
The eight subjects found in the Ornament are usually understood in terms of three cate-
gories that are mentioned in the final verses of the text’s ninth chapter. The first three
clear realizations (1–3) are aims or objects (visaya) to be known by bodhisattvas. The next
four realizations (4–7) are practices (prayoga) to be cultivated by bodhisattvas in order cog-
nize the first three realizations. Finally, the dharma-body (phala) occurs as a result of the
practices that actualize the clear realizations (see Table 1).
An initial distinction in the Ornament describes prajñaparamita or the ‘perfection of wis-
dom’ in terms of three types of omniscience (i.e., sarvakarajñata, margajñata, sarvajñata).
The Ornament’s main purport and path structure is for the training of bodhisattvas to
attain unsurpassable complete awakening (bla na med pa’i yang dag par rdzogs pa’i sangs
rgyas) through cognizing Total Omniscience (sarvakarajñata). Total Omniscience or the
wisdom of all aspects (sarvakarajñata, rnam pa thams cad mkhyen pa nyid) is regarded as the
fundamental wisdom and the central concept of the Prajñaparamita sutras (Obermiller
1932, pp. 72–4, 1933, pp. 3–4; Sparham 2006, pp. 4–5, 188–90). Total Omniscience is
direct unmediated knowledge which understands exactly the manner of reality (ji lta ba
bzhin yod pa, yathavadbhavika) to its fullest possible extent (ji snyed yod pa, yavadbhavikata)
in all its aspects (Yeh 1984). Only fully enlightened Buddhas attain this knowledge.
Understanding the manner of reality relates to a Buddha’s cognition of emptiness (śunyata)
and the fullest possible extent refers to any and all possible objects of knowledge. In order
for bodhisattvas to accomplish the goal of attaining Buddhahood, as well as to facilitate
their ability to teach various levels of future disciples, they must train in acquiring an
understanding of all Buddhist path systems, both Hınayana and Mahayana. This under-
standing of all paths is called path-omniscience (margajñata, lam shes nyid) (Obermiller
1932, pp. 74–5, 1933, pp. 192–6; Sparham 2006, pp.191–3, 2008). In the Ornament three
types of path systems are mastered by bodhisattvas: the paths of śravakas, the paths of prat-
yekabuddhas, and the paths of bodhisattvas. A śravaka (Tib. nyan thos pa, ‘Listener’) is a
type of individual who has heard or studied the Buddha’s teachings and who seeks the
peace of nirvana through cultivating a direct realization of the Nobles’ Four Truths.
A pratyekabuddha _ (Tib. rang sang gyas, ‘Solitary Buddha’) is an ‘individually awakened one’
who cognizes the emptiness of external objects through realizing dependent arising but
does not thereby attain the full omniscience of a Buddha. Pratyekabuddhas do not have
much compassion and attain their awakening in solitude. A bodhisattva (Tib. byang chub
sems dpa’, ‘Buddha-to-be’) is an individual who is intent on achieving full Buddhahood
for the welfare of beings through cultivating wisdom and compassion. The third chapter
or third clear realization is Omniscience (sarvajñata) or Empirical Omniscience (vastujñana,
gzhi shes; lit. ‘knowledge of bases’) (Obermiller 1932, pp. 75–7; Sparham 2008, pp. 51–
67, 299–328). This clear realization cognizes empirical objects which are to be abandoned
in conditioned existence. Such realization correlates to knowledge that is comprehended
by śravakas and pratyekabuddhas. Empirical Omniscience is mastered by bodhisattvas as

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170 James B. Apple

well, but bodhisattvas do not cling to the pacifying results of this realization’s cognition.
This knowledge leads śravakas, pratyekabuddhas, as well as bodhisattvas, to comprehend the
entirety of unconditioned and conditioned things (dharmas) in Buddhist classification,
including the five aggregates (skandha), the twelve sense spheres (ayatana), and the eigh-
teen sense objects (dhatu).
The path to Buddhahood itself and the detailed means of its application are covered in
the Ornament by the fourth through seventh clear realizations. The fourth chapter of the
Ornament, devoted to the realization of wisdom of all aspects (sarvakarabhisambodha, rnam
_
rdzogs sbyor ba), is a yogic practice which enables a bodhisattva to gain a cognition of all
the aspects of the three types of omniscience (Obermiller 1932, pp. 77–9, 1933, pp. 318–
404; Sparham 2009). This realization is comprised of twenty methods for meditative
training (prayoga) and 173 aspects (akara) that relate to the three forms of omniscience.
The Ornament’s chapter five pertains to the summit of full understanding (murdhabhisa-
maya, rtse sbyor) or ‘culminating insight’ (Obermiller 1932, pp. 79–80). This abhisamaya is
comprised of eight factors and refers to phases of yogic practices which reach culmination
while cognizing emptiness. Among the five paths (which will be described below), this
clear realization begins in the Path of Training (prayogamarga, sbyor lam) and the Path of
Meditation (bhavanamarga, sgom lam) and extends until the instant before the attainment of
Buddhahood. The sixth chapter defines, by reference to thirteen topics in one verse, the
gradual full understanding (anupurvabhisamaya, mthar gyis sbyor ba) of the three forms of
omniscience (Obermiller 1932, p. 81). This clear realization of ‘gradual insight’ consists
of engaging in the six perfections of bodhisattva practice (paramitas), giving, moral virtue,
patience, diligence, concentration, and discernment, as well as concentrating upon six
forms of recollection (anusmrti), including recollection of the Buddha (‘teacher’), Dharma
_
(‘teaching’), and Samgha (‘community’). The gradual full understanding also involves cog-
_
nizing the lack of essence of all things. This realization is present, beginning in the path
of accumulation, and slowly increases until the final moment before Buddhahood. The
seventh abhisamaya clarifies the ‘instantaneous realization’ (ekaksanabhisamaya, skad cig gcig
_ _
pa’i mngon par rdzogs par byang chub pa) through four modes (Galloway 1988; Obermiller
1932, pp. 81–3). ‘Instantaneous realization’ occurs at the final moment right before Bud-
dhahood. Abhisamayas four through seven are known as ‘the four methods of realization’
of the three types of knowledge.
The last subject in the Ornament, the result of the path, is the realization of the
Dharma-body (dharmakayabhisamaya, chos sku mngon rtogs pa) in its four aspects. Indian
and Tibetan commentators debate about what exactly is the correct interpretation of
these four aspects (Makransky 1997). A number of Tibetan scholars, following the
Indian scholar Haribhadra, will understand these four as (1) the body of dharma (dhar-
makaya), (2) the embodiment of Buddhahood in its essence (svabhavikakaya), (3) the
embodiment of communal enjoyment (sambhogakaya), and (4) the limitless forms of
awakened manifestation (nairmanikakaya). The _ realization of the Dharmakaya is brought
_
about as a natural result of the preceding practices found in the fourth through seventh
clear realizations.
In this way, the eight subjects of the Ornament articulate a worldview in which bodhi-
sattvas may actualize Omniscient Buddhahood. The eight subjects in terms of three cate-
gories are given in Table 1. The eight subjects found in the Ornament are further
expanded into seventy topics (arthasaptatih, don bdun cu) that outline the individual topics
to be mastered within each subject. The _eight subjects and seventy topics often serve as a
topical outline of the Ornament and develops into a genre of literature in Tibet to facili-
tate the study of paths and stages (Obermiller 1932, pp. 61–85).

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 The Mahayana Path of the Bodhisattva 171

The Fivefold Path of the Bodhisattva

As mentioned above, the Ornament documents a highly complex schema of ‘classical
Mahayana path-systems’ that has an intimate relationship with the contents of the Pra-
jñaparamita Sutras. The Ornament standing on its own, without close scrutiny, may appear
as no more than a list of topics summarized from these sutras. However, beginning in the
sixth century CE with Arya  Vimuktisena and in the eighth century CE with Haribhadra,
we begin to see commentaries to the Ornament which provide detailed definitions on par-
ticular subjects supported by the testament of doctrinal digests, such as the Abhidhar-
makośa, Mahay anasutralamkara, and Pramanavarttika (Sparham 2006, 2008, 2009). This
trend found among Indian _ commentaries extends
_ into Tibet and Tibetan-based commen-
taries beginning in the early eleventh century up until the present day. By the time the
Ornament commentarial tradition had reached its apex in mid-fifteenth century Tibet, an
all-inclusive method of exegesis allowed for Tibetan Ornament commentaries to evolve
into a tour de force of encyclopedic Buddhist doctrinal knowledge where even minor top-
ics could be expanded into hundreds of pages and for specific topics to even develop into
separate books and genre categories of Tibetan literature (Apple 2008, pp. 21–46).
The Ornament commentarial tradition in its exegesis of path systems began to utilize a
model of five paths to describe practices and stages of attainment. The system of ‘five
paths’ is one the best known among path schemes found in Buddhist literature (Buswell
and Gimello 1992, pp. 7–9). The system is associated with Abhidharma traditions,
although its exact historial beginnings are not clear (Watanabe 2000, pp. 38–48). One of
the most influential formulations is found in Asa_nga’s Abhidharmasamuccaya (Rahula and
Boin-Webb 2000, p. 141). The path system of the Ornament and its commentaries incor-
porates a generally accepted Mahayana soteriological system of five paths that was most
likely influenced by the Abhidharmakośa and the Abhidharmasamuccaya. The list of five
paths correlated to the path systems of the Ornament is as follows:

(1) The path acquiring the provisions (sambharamarga).

of
(2) The path preparation (prayogamarga).
of
(3) The path seeing (darśanamarga).
of
(4) The path meditation (bhavanamarga).
of
(5) The path no more training (asaiksamarga).
of
_
Indian and Tibetan scholars present these five paths for each of the three vehicles, i.e.,
śravaka, pratyekabuddha, and bodhisattva, that are alluded to in the Ornament. In general,
the first two paths are considered mundane paths (laukika) and the latter three are consid-
ered to be supramundane (lokottara) as they generate the attainments of Noble Beings
(arya) within each of the three vehicles. The paths of preparation, seeing, and meditation
are the most important for commentators as these paths represent the preparation phase
for abandoning mental afflictions that impede liberation and knowledge, as well as the
paths where such afflictions are actually considered to be abandoned (prahanamarga) (see
Table 2). _
Our focus here is on the fivefold path system of the bodhisattva in the Ornament. As
previously mentioned, a bodhisattva (Tib. byang chub sems dpa’, ‘Buddha-to-be’) is an
individual who is intent on achieving full Buddhahood for the welfare of beings. In order
to achieve this aim, a bodhisattva undertakes a long and arduous journey through innu-
merable lifetimes lasting three incalculable aeons, accumulating provisions of wisdom
(jñana) and merit (punya), while employing tactical skill (upaya) in the course of perfecting
_

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Table 2 Bodhisattva Path Structure Overview [read from bottom to top]
172 James B. Apple

Individual Path type Path Path practices Cognition Result

Noble being Supramundane Path of no Total omniscience Buddha

(arya) (lokottara) more training 1. Dharma-body
2. Essential body

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3. Enjoyment body
4. Emanation body
Path of meditation Repeated Full realization of all Bodhisattva stages 2
uncontaminated aspects thru 10
awareness on Nobles’ Abandonment of
Four Truths 108 innate knowledge
obstacles
Path of seeing Sixteen moments on the Dissolution of Abandonment of 108
Nobles’ Four Truths subject ⁄ object imputed knowledge
dichotomization via obstacles
cognition of śunyat
a Abandonment of
112 defilements
Ordinary individual Mundane Path of Preparation Highest mundane Preparatory analytical Complete illumination
(pr
· thagjana) (laukika) dharma factors Expanded illumination
Forbearance Meaning of the Attained illumination
Peak doctrine Illumination of wisdom
Heat
Path of acquiring Factors conducive to Word of the doctrine Word of the doctrine
provisions liberation
Special instructions
Altruistic thought of
awakening

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 The Mahayana Path of the Bodhisattva 173

such practices as generosity (dana), moral virtue (śıla), patience (ksanti), diligence (vırya),
concentration (dhyana), and discernment (prajña). _
The basic structure of the Mahayana path as discussed in the Ornament is the same five-
fold division that is derived from Abhidharma texts and is applied to śravaka and pratyeka-
buddha vehicles. However, although the structures are the same for each of the vehicles,
the bodhisattva path is considered to be superior for a number of reasons. The bodhisattva
path in this system of interpretation is synonymous with Mahayana, the ‘Great (maha)
Vehicle (yana).’ The eighth century Ornament commentator Haribhadra (Sparham 2006,
p. 301), drawing from the Mahayanasutralamkarað19:59  60Þ and the
Abhidharmasamuccayabhasyam (Skilling 2004, p. 145), notes_ that Mahayana is called as such
_
on account of seven greatnesses (mahattvam): greatness of support (alambana), of practice
(pratipatti), of understanding (jñana), of energy (vırya), of skilled means _(upayakauśalya), of
attainment (prapti), and of deeds (karma). Another way that the Ornament and its com-
mentators speak of the fundamental difference of Mahayana from the other vehicles is
that Mahayana is considered to be superior in its aspiration, abandonment, and realization
(Ornament 1.42). Bodhisattvas, according to this view, are superior in that they aspire for
unsurpassable complete awakening (anuttarasamyaksambodhi), not only for themselves, but
also for the sake of all other beings. With emphasis _ _ the altruistic intention for the wel-
on
fare of all sentient beings, one primary distinction over other vehicles is that bodhisattvas
have great compassion (mahakaruna). Bodhisattvas abandon not only the afflictional ob-
scurations (klesavarana) but also the_ obstacles that impede omniscience (jn~eyavarana). The
_
understanding that actuates their abandonment, is not only cognizing the essencelessness _
of the person (pudgalanairatyma), but realizing the essencelessness of things (dharma-
nairatmya) through the apprehension of emptiness (śunyata).
In the course of cognizing the two types of essencelessness and abandoning the two
types of obscurations, a bodhisattva will travel through ten levels or stages (daśabhumi)
(Ornament 1.48–70). A bodhisattva is no longer bound to the cycle of rebirth and redeath
(samsara) through eradicating the afflictional obscurations. Through eradicating obstacles
that_ impede omniscience, bodhisattvas achieve Buddhahood, which enables them to help
all beings.
The individual who travels in the Mahayana path may be of two types: (1) the bodhi-
sattva who from the very beginning sets out on the Mahayana path lineage (rigs nges), and
(2) the Hınayana arhat, either śravaka or pratyekabuddha, who is not firm in the lineage (rigs
ma nges pa) and subsequently enters into the Mahayana path. The foundation of the
Mahayana path is the seed potential for enlightenment, the tathagatagarbha, which is con-
sidered to be latent in all sentient beings (Ornament 1.39). This seed potential must be
activated by means of special reflection concerning the nature of samsara, the realm of
repeated rebirth and redeath, such that this potential becomes engaged _ in the process of
spiritual development (Ruegg 1968–1969, 1969, 1977).
The special reflection that takes place according to the Ornament and its commentaries is
the altruistic aspiration to achieve full awakening for oneself and for the sake of other
beings. This is known as the generation of the thought for awakening (bodhicittotpada,
byang chub tu sems bskyed) (Sparham 1987). The bodhisattva produces the altruistic mind set
on achieving perfect awakening (samyaksambodhi), a mind having for its essence (garbha)
emptiness (śunyata) and compassion (karu_ na_) and consisting in the twofold stage of resolu-
_
tion (pranidhi) and engagement (prasthana). The Ornament (1.18-20) provides a list of 22
forms of_ this altruistic mind generation that increases throughout the bodhisattva path
leading to Buddhahood. Production of this altruistic mind is often referred to by Tibetan
commentators as the ‘gateway into the Mahayana’ (Tib. theg chen ’jug sgo) (Sparham 1987,

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p. 143), and marks the beginning of the Mahayana path phase called acquiring the provi-
sions (sambharamarga).
One who desires to sustain the qualities that are produced from this mind generation
must hear and place firmly into his or her mind (Ornament 1.22) special instructions
(avavada), the practices and applications (pratipatti) that develop his or her advancement in
the Mahayana path. A bodhisattva who wishes to sustain and expand the altruistic mind
generation is said to be able to travel to many world realms by means of meditative sta-
bilization, supernormal powers, or attainments for the purpose of serving and hearing
doctrinal teachings from Buddhas in other world realms. Ornament commentators outline
this mode of acquiring instructions based on a meditative absorption known as the stream
of the doctrine (srotanugatasamadhi). A bodhisattva is thought to acquire extensive qualities
of quiescence and wisdom through obtaining special instructions from other-world Bud-
dhas by means of this meditative stabilization. Then, having received the special instruc-
tions, a bodhisattva cultivates the roots of virtue (kuśalamula), which are characterized by
qualities such as faith (śraddha), and are obtained by excellence in learning (śruta). In the
Ornament, this is referred to as ‘factors conducive to liberation’ (moksabhagıya) and it is in
_
this stage of the path where a bodhisattva begins to collect the provisions necessary to
make the aim of the altruistic mind generation possible. A bodhisattva will acquire a
whole series of provisions, or equipment, throughout his or her career in order to attain
highest awakening and the Ornament (1.46–47) enumerates 17 types of provisions. The
bodhisattva develops virtuous qualities such as faith, enthusiastic perseverance in giving,
mindfulness, stabilization, and wisdom. At this phase of the path, a bodhisattva is repre-
sented as having acquired a basic understanding of the essencelessness of things and as
having initiated the unified path of calm abiding and special insight (śamathavipaśyanayuga-
naddha). A bodhisattva then enters into the Mahayana path of preparation (prayogamarga).
Proximate to the time that a bodhisattva enters the path of preparation, the Ornament
(1.6, 1.43–47, 1.72–73) specifies a series of practices (pratipatti) that develop and expand
as the bodhisattva journeys toward Buddhahood. These are the practices of donning the
armor (samnaha) of the perfections (paramita), the practice of setting out (prasthana)
_
through mastering concentrations and absorptions, gathering equipment (sambhara), and
going forth (niryana) to the victory of full Buddhahood. These practices assist_ the bodhi-
sattva to achieve the_ threefold Omniscience found in the first three chapters of the Orna-
ment. This achievement is based on the bodhisattva acquiring an immense amount of
wholesome and virtuous qualities through engaging in the six perfections while cultivat-
ing the four realizations found in chapters four through seven of the Ornament. According
to Haribhadra (Obermiller 1933, pp. 103–6; Sparham 2006, pp. 271–4), the practices of
armor and setting out occur at the path of acquiring the provisions, beginning equipment
practices are included in the path of preparation while advanced equipment practices are
found in the path of seeing and cultivation. The going forth practice correlates with the
path of cultivation.
The Mahayana path of preparation begins when a bodhisattva, who is still an ordinary
individual (prthagjana), obtains for the first time a forceful experience of special insight
directed at _the emptiness of all things (sarvadharmaśunyata). As with the paths of the
śravaka and pratyekabuddha, this stage of developing insight on the path of preparation
consists of the fourfold preparatory analytical factors (nirvedhabhagıya) (Ornament 1.25–26;
Sparham 2006, pp. 52–78, 221–60). These four factors of the nirvedhabhagıya are heat
(usmagata), peak (murdhagata), forbearance (ksanti), and highest mundane dharma (lau-
kik_ agradharma), and they constitute a mundane_ meditative realization (laukikabhavanamaya)
even though they focus on realizing truths for Noble Beings (caturaryasatya). Each of these

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 The Mahayana Path of the Bodhisattva 175

four preparatory analytical factors has a subdivision into small, medium, and great. They
are considered to be superior to the Hınayana preparatory analytical factors in five ways:
(1) distinctive in terms of objective support, (2) in terms of mode of cultivation, (3) of
causing realization of all three paths, (4) in terms of having a spiritual friend characterized
by skill-in-means, and (5) having divisions correlated with the stages of dissolving the
bifurcation of conceptualized subject and object.
Haribhadra (Apple 2008, pp. 85–6; Sparham 2006, pp. 248–50) provides the following
description of these four preparatory analytical factors and the meditative stabilizations
associated with each factor. When a bodhisattva is in meditation focusing on the essence-
lessness of all things, they begin to experientially understand that cognitive objects are
constructed by their own mind. Then, through a slight illumination of wisdom
(jñanaloka) that dispells imaginative entanglement in various external objects, the bodhi-
sattva sees merely the mind. At this time a bodhisattva is absorbed in the stage of heat
(usmagata). This meditative stabilization is called ‘attaining illumination’ (alokalabdha). At
_ point, a bodhisattva has begun to develop the fire of non-conceptual wisdom (nir-
this
vikalpajñana) which will penetrate the Nobles’ Four Truths. When that illumination of
the discernment of things expands through extensive effort in cultivating the meditative
object of essencelessness, there is some clarity and a moderate illumination of wisdom is
cultivated. At this point the bodhisattva is absorbed in the stage of peak (murdhagata).
A bodhisattva at this phase of the path has reached the peak or end of the roots of virtue
(kuśalamula) becoming unstable. This state is a meditative stabilization which is called
‘expanded illumination’ (vrddhaloka). Then, through absorption in merely the mental con-
tinuum, a particularly clear _ illumination of knowledge is generated because there is no
imaginative entanglement at all. The bodhisattva during this phases is absorbed in the
stage of forbearance (ksanti). A more pronounced cognition of emptiness is developed at
this point and a bodhisattva _ loses fear of the concept of emptiness. At this time, the
bodhisattva develops the meditative stabilization which understands suchness one-sidedly
(tattvarthaikadesapravista). This terminology draws attention to the assertion that the bodhi-
sattva has attained for the first time a cognition of the emptiness of objects but he or she
has not yet perceived the emptiness of subjects. The stabilization is considered one-sided
with respect to emptiness. After this stage, when a bodhisattva attains a complete illumi-
nation of wisdom in which there is no appearance at all that grasps at objects, then he or
she is in the stage known as the highest of mundane dharmas (laukikagradharma). A bodhi-
sattva now cultivates the uninterrupted meditative stabilization (anantarya samadhi). This
meditative stabilization is called uninterrupted because in the same session of meditation
the bodhisattva will proceed without interruption to the path of liberation on the
Mahayana path of seeing (darśanamarga).
It should be noted at this point that the Ornament (4.38–45; Sparham 2009, pp. 61–97,
287–362) specifies that as the bodhisattva progresses to full Buddhahood through the cog-
nitive attainments and mental purifications that occur on the paths of preparation, seeing,
and cultivation that they become irreversible (avaivartika) from full Buddhahood. The
term ‘irreversible’ in this instance generally signifies a point reached in the career of a
bodhisattva after which there can be no turning back from the attainment of full Buddha-
hood. The Ornament (Apple 2008, pp. 65–6) distinguishes three phases of a bodhisattva
becoming increasingly endowed with marks and signs of being irreversible: (1) while on
the path of preparation cultivating the preparatory analytical factors, (2) while on the path
of seeing cognizing eight moments of receptivity and eight moments of knowledge, and
(3) while on the path of meditation. As the bodhisattva progresses through these path
phases they increase their cognition of emptiness and thereby turn away from attachment

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176 James B. Apple

to sensory objects and gain a multitude of moral, ascetic, and even hygienic qualities.
The Ornament and its commentaries (4.40–43; Sparham 2009, pp. 289–90) specify, for
example, that the irreversible bodhisattva will abstain from taking life, engaging in theft,
or drinking liquor as well as have clean robes with no worms in their bodies.
Haribhadra notes (Sparham 2009, p. 317), drawing from the Mahayanasutralamkara
bhasya, that dichotomous conceptualization (vikalpa) is the fundamental affliction _ for
_
bodhisattvas. Dichotomous conceptualization in the Ornament consists of erroneously
reifying objects that are cognized as well as reifying the subject who cognizes. The Orna-
ment will outline, primarily in its chapter five, multiple types of vikalpa that a bodhisattva
eradicates on the paths of preparation, seeing, and meditation in order to reach Buddha-
hood. During the Mahayana path of preparation, the experience of the preparatory ana-
lytical factors begins to dissolve the bifurcation of conceptualized subjects and objects.
The conceptualization of objects (grahya), and the conceptualization of subjects (grahaka),
are each classified into two to make four kinds of concepts. The two kinds of objects
concern (1) the reification of things which are pursued (pravrttipaksadhist·hanagrahyavikalpa,
_
’jug gzung rtog) and (2) the reification of things to be relinquished _ _ (nivrttipaksadhistha
na:grahyavikalpa; ldog gzung rtog). The two kinds of subjects concern (3) _ _·
_ substantially
existing persons (pudgaladravya), which conceives the person to be substantially existent
(rdzas ’dzin rtog), and (4) nominally existing beings (prajn~aptipurusa), which conceives the
person to imputedly exist (btags ’dzin rtog). Comprehensions connected _ with these four
types of concepts, formative in the path of preparation, become the dominate focal point
on the Mahayana paths of seeing and cultivation.
The Mahayana path of seeing in the Ornament is similar to the paths of seeing in the
lower vehicles in that there are sixteen moments of consciousness directed at the Nobles’
Four Truths. However, the elements of existence within the context of these Truths are
directly cognized as not being merely selfless, and not merely unreal as external objects,
but as being dependently co-arisen and having no essence of their own. This occurs as a
meditative stabilization and comprehension consisting in the non-perception of the bifur-
cation of subjects and objects. This comprehension understands subjects and objects as
being completely the same or non-differentiated. In this instance, ‘non-perception’ means
the cessation of ordinary dualistic appearances and the manifestation of ultimate reality
(dharmadhatu).
Through this manner of comprehension a bodhisattva will abandon artificial defile-
ments and imputed knowledge obstacles on the path of seeing. In regards to artificial
defilements to be abandoned by the path of seeing, there are ten afflictions for each of
the four Nobles’ Truths in the desire realm. There are six fundamental afflictions consist-
ing of desire, anger, pride, ignorance, doubt, and wrong view. Wrong view is in turn
classified into five types: [false] view of the perishable aggregates (satkayad rst· i), extreme
view (antagrahad r st· i), false view (mithyad r st·i), holding a [wrong] view_ as supreme
_ _ holding [wrong] ethics
(d rs·tiparamarsa), and _ _ and rituals as supreme (śılavrataparamarśa).
_
These 10 afflictions separately occur with respect to each of the four truths such that
within the desire realm there are 40 artificial defilements. With the exception of anger
(pratigha), which does not arise in the form or formless realms, the remaining afflictions
likewise occur for each of the four truths in the form and formless realms allowing for 72
artificial defilements. The 40 artificial defilements of the desire realm and the 72 of the
form and formless realm make for 112 artificial defilements to be removed by the
Mahayana path of seeing (Obermiller 1932, pp. 51–2; Sparham 2006, pp. 289–90). Along
with these artificial defilements, there are 108 imputed knowledge obstacles which are
removed by the Mahayana path of seeing. This number of imputed knowledge obstacles

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 The Mahayana Path of the Bodhisattva 177

is calculated by multiplying the four types of conceptions times the nine aspects that
occur within each type of conception from among the divisions of desire, form, and
formless realms. The removal of these imputed obstacles to knowledge correlates with the
first bodhisattva stage (bhumi) known as ‘joyous’ (pramudita).
The Mahayana path of meditation is a continuation of the comprehensions that were
beheld during the preparatory analytical factors of the path of preparation and the 16
moments of the path of seeing. This path of meditation repeatedly considers, assesses, and
contemplates the four types of concepts which proliferate subject ⁄ object dichotomization
throughout the serviceable levels of meditative stabilization (Ornament 4.53). Similar to
the Hınayana paths of meditation, the most weak of the weak paths are antidotes to the
coarse of the coarse defilements and the most strong of the strong paths are antidotes to
the subtle of the subtle defilements (Sparham 2009, p. 316). By means of this repeated
practice or familiarization, the path of meditation abandons the instinctual or innate afflic-
tional obscurations and innate knowledge obstacles (see Table 2). There are 16 innate
defilements to be removed by the path of cultivation. Six fundamental afflictions are asso-
ciated with the desire realm: desire, anger, pride, ignorance, false view of the perishable
aggregates, and extreme view. Then, due to the lack of anger in the upper realms, there
are five each in the form and formless realm resulting in 16. There are 108 innate knowl-
edge obstacles in correlation with the concepts of subjects and objects, by divisions of the
desire, form, and formless realms, each with nine aspects for each of the four concepts.
These 16 innate afflictional obscurations and 108 innate obstructions to omniscience
are gradually abandoned by the path of meditation in nine stages consonant with the
bodhisattva stages two through ten (Ornament 5.26–31). When the bodhisattva, standing
firm on the tenth stage, attains the last of the uninterrupted paths, the innate afflictional
obscurations and innate obstructions to omniscience are simultaneously abandoned. This
is known as the simultaneous illumination (ekaksanabhisambodha) and the culmination of
the bodhisattva’s development. The bodhisattva at_ _this time _ reaches the Mahayana path of
no more training (asaiksamarga). In this moment, the cognitive differentiation into subject
and object ceases, the _latent subtle seeds of ignorance are totally removed, and the state
of highest enlightenment is attained (anuttarasamyaksambodhi).
_
Conclusion
The Ornament’s path systems for the bodhisattva as outlined in the eight clear realizations
and five paths are complex and interrelated. The eight clear realizations are explicitly
mentioned in the Ornament in relation to the Prajñaparamita Sutras. The eight clear real-
izations consist of four practices (prayoga) that aim at cognizing three modes of omni-
science (visaya) in order to achieve the result (phala) of multidimensional Buddhahood.
_
The five paths provide a complementary, yet alternative, structure to the bodhisattva path
in the Ornament. The five paths are a path structuring schema incorporated into Indian
and Tibetan commentarial exegesis on the Ornament from Abhidharma and Yogacara
texts. The five path system of the bodhisattva as articulated in the Ornament and its com-
mentaries replicates structures, terminology, and concepts found in the exegesis of śravaka
and pratyekabuddha path systems. At the same time, the cognitive attainments and mental
purifications attained by a bodhisattva are amplified and transvalued toward the aim of full
Buddhahood, rather than just the peace of lower nirvan a. The eight clear realizations and
five paths are therefore two interrelated, yet distinct, modes of envisioning the bodhi-
sattva path in the Ornament. While these path structures do not provide details of actual
meditation experience, they do provide Tibetan Buddhists who follow the Ornament a

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178 James B. Apple

structured worldview where a narrative of spiritual progress is possible and where the
altruistic goal of Buddhahood can be attained.

Short Biography
James B. Apple is an Assistant Professor of Buddhist Studies at the University of Calgary.
He received his doctorate in Buddhist Studies from the University of Wisconsin, Madison
focusing on Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Indian and Tibetan Buddhism. His most recent publica-
tions include Stairway to Nirvana (State University of New York Press, 2008) and ‘Atiśa’s
Open Basket of Jewels: A Middle _ Way Vision in Late Phase Indian Vajrayana’ in The
Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies (2010). His current research interests include
early Mahayana and topics within Indian and Tibetan Buddhist scholasticism.

Note
* Correspondence address: James B. Apple, Social Sciences #1306, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, AB,
Canada T2L 0Y2. E-mail: jbapple@ucalgary.ca

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