UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ

Summary L13

n Alpha Decay Q-value and Kinematics

n Regions of Alpha Emitters
n Sensitivity of Half-Life to Q-value
n Geiger-Nuttall Law
n Shell Effects and Behaviour of Qalpha
n One-body (Gamow) Theory of Alpha Decay
– Use experimental Qalpha to calculate T1/2
– Sensitivity to radius
n Angular Momentum and Parity Selection Rule
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Rasmussen Model
P H YS ICAL REVI E&W VOLUME 113, NUMBER 6 MARCH 15, 1959

Alpha-Decay Barrier Penetrabilities with an Exponential Nuclear

Potential: Even-Even Nuclei*
JOHN O. RASIKUSSENt
Radeation Laboratory and Department of Chemistry, Urtesersity of California, Berkeley, California
(Received October 27, 1958)

The real potential derived by optical-model analysis of data on elastic scattering of alpha particles is
used for calculation of barrier penetrabilities for all known alpha decay groups of even-even nuclei. The
barrier penetration factors were calculated by numerical integration in the %KB approximation taking
into account centrifugal barrier eRects, but ignoring noncentral interactions. Using these penetration factors
and the experimental alpha half-lives, the reduced level widths 5' are calculated. Ratios of 5' values for
ground and excited-state alpha groups are tabulated as a set of reduced hindrance factors.

INTRODUCTION where r is the distance in fermis (1 fermi— 10

1 cm)= "
and 3is the mass number. This expression gives a
(" 2m HEORETICAI
b " factors for2Z
%tion
calculations of barrier-penetra-
2
 2
alpha eemission have traditionally %+ 2 target elements from argon to lead and for
good fit for
G = − ∫ *$ been2 'made
$V (r) +
by assuming
D
2 (nuclear )
nuclear lcutoG
+ "eRective
an abrupt l +1to − Qα '- dr bombarding energies between 18 and 48 Mev.

 &"#although some4attempts
a # the Coulombic
) radius, πε 0 r have2mr
potential at some
been made to take &, METHOD OF CALCULATION

(
potential."/
into account the eQ'ects of a finite range to the nuclear
+3
1 the nuclear poten-
Uncertainties regarding
It
should
seems reasonable to expect that this potential
be nearly that experienced by alpha particles
1 r −1.17A 3 it dificult to gain
tial for alpha particles have made
V (r) = −1100 exp 0−** -1
much knowledge of the absolute probabilities of alpha-
Takes centrifugal barrier into account
(3nto 8 Mev) emitted in alpha decay. Accordingly, we
have used Igo's potential to calculate barrier penetra-
-4
particle formation by nuclei. It is important that one tion factors for most of the known alpha emitters. We
n Uses improved potential derived from
1 * 0.574 -,15
be able to separate the barrier penetrability from the have taken the natural logarithm of the penetration
2 )
intranuclear dynamic effects on alpha-decay rates. factor I' to be equal to twice the %KB integral,
alpha scattering data (surface)
By using a nuclear potential derived from alpha-
scattering information, we hope to have obtained such I."4 (2M) l 2Ze' pt2

p=e −2G
n Integral evaluated
V(r)+ —E dr,
numerically
+ 2mr2 l(l+1)
a fundamentally more significant treatment of alpha- ~z,
decay data.
Recently there have been careful optical-model n Combines experimental data with
evaluated between the inner and outer classical turning
analyses of alpha-particle scattering data, and these points, penetration
where the integrand factor
vanishes. Here M is the
analyses define the real potential in the nuclear surface reduced mass of the alpha particle, Ze is the charge on
region quite well. Originally, potentials of the Woods-
Saxon form were used in the optical-model analysis. '
Introduces
n daughter
the nucleus, l is thereduced
orbital angular decay
momentum
of the emitted alpha, and E is the total decay energy
width, δ2
There were some problems of nonuniqueness of fits that would be exhibited by the nucleus if stripped of
and some apparent dependence of potentials on the its orbital electrons, i.e., alpha-particle energy plus
alpha-particle bombarding energy (see discussion by recoil energy plus electron-screening corrections as
Rasmussen'). Calculations of barrier-penetration factors given in Eq. (25. 1) by Perlman and Rasmussen. '
for ground-state transitions of even-even alpha emitters The integrations were carried out numerically by the
have been made with the aforementioned nuclear use of an IBM-650 digital computer. The outer turning
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Decay Reduced Width
P H YS ICAL REVI E&W VOLUME 113, NUMBER 6 MARCH 15, 1959

Alpha-Decay Barrier Penetrabilities with an Exponential Nuclear

Potential: Even-Even Nuclei*
JOHN O. RASIKUSSENt
Radeation Laboratory and Department of Chemistry, Urtesersity of California, Berkeley, California
(Received October 27, 1958)

The real potential derived by optical-model analysis of data on elastic scattering of alpha particles is
used for calculation of barrier penetrabilities for all known alpha decay groups of even-even nuclei. The
barrier penetration factors were calculated by numerical integration in the %KB approximation taking
into account centrifugal barrier eRects, but ignoring noncentral interactions. Using these penetration factors
and the experimental alpha half-lives, the reduced level widths 5' are calculated. Ratios of 5' values for
ground and excited-state alpha groups are tabulated as a set of reduced hindrance factors.

INTRODUCTION where r is the distance in fermis (1 fermi— 10 cm) = "

HEORETICAI calculations of barrier-penetra- and 3 is the mass number. This expression gives a
tion factors Penetration factor p calculated from integral
n for alpha emission have traditionally good fit for target elements from argon to lead and for
been made by assuming an abrupt nuclear cutoG to bombarding energies between 18 and 48 Mev.
the Coulombic n Uses experimental half-lives
2 λh " potential at some "eRective nuclear
radius, although some attempts have been made to take
METHOD OF CALCULATION
of 212Po
δ = "
potential.
Values normalised to decay
into account theneQ'ects of a finite range to the nuclear
It seems reasonable
Uncertainties regarding the nuclear poten-
or given
to expect that thisinpotential
MeV
should be nearly that experienced by alpha particles

p n 212
tial for alpha particles Po, Q =8.95413(3 MeV,
have made italpha to 8 Mev)Temitted
dificult to gain
much knowledge of the absolute probabilities of alpha-
1/2=299ns, δ2=0.07037143
in alpha decay. Accordingly, we
have used Igo's potential to calculate barrier penetra-
MeV
particle formation Also used to define hindrance
n by nuclei. It is important that one factors
tion factors for most (see
of the known later)
alpha emitters. We
be able to separate the barrier penetrability from the have taken the natural logarithm of the penetration
intranuclear dynamic effects on alpha-decay rates. factor I' to be equal to twice the %KB integral,
By using a nuclear potential derived from alpha-
scattering information, we hope to have obtained such I."4 (2M) l 2Ze' pt2

a fundamentally more significant treatment of alpha- V(r)+ + 2mr2 l(l+1) —E dr,

~z,
decay data.
Recently there have been careful optical-model evaluated between the inner and outer classical turning
analyses of alpha-particle scattering data, and these points, where the integrand vanishes. Here M is the
analyses define the real potential in the nuclear surface reduced mass of the alpha particle, Ze is the charge on
region quite well. Originally, potentials of the Woods- the daughter nucleus, l is the orbital angular momentum
Saxon form were used in the optical-model analysis. ' of the emitted alpha, and E is the total decay energy
There were some problems of nonuniqueness of fits that would be exhibited by the nucleus if stripped of
and some apparent dependence of potentials on the its orbital electrons, i.e., alpha-particle energy plus
alpha-particle bombarding energy (see discussion by recoil energy plus electron-screening corrections as
Rasmussen'). Calculations of barrier-penetration factors given in Eq. (25. 1) by Perlman and Rasmussen. '
for ground-state transitions of even-even alpha emitters The integrations were carried out numerically by the
have been made with the aforementioned nuclear use of an IBM-650 digital computer. The outer turning
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Decay Reduced Width
n One-body models neglect the probability to form an alpha particle in the nucleus
n Formation probability depends on nuclear structure
n Need to consider nuclear wavefunctions in initial and final state
n How “similar” are the wavefunctions of the initial and final states?
n Define “overlap integral” or “alpha spectroscopic factor” or “alpha reduced width”
n Can be calculated from shell model wavefunctions

2
2
δ = ψi (A) ψ f (A − 4)⋅ ϕ (4)

PH YSI CAL REVIEW VOLUME 119, NUMBER 3 AU GUST 1, 1960

Calculation of e-Transition Probabilities

HaNs J. MaNot
Lawrence RadiationL, aboratory, University of California, Berkeley, Cabfornia
(Received February 15, 1960)

The decay rates for the ground-state transitions of all polonium isotopes and the odd-even astatine
isotopes are discussed on the basis of the nuclear shell model. Good agreement with experimental data is
obtained. In particular the behavior of the reduced width as a function of the neutron number around the
magic number /=126 is well reproduced.

INTRODUCTION tonian into several terms

'
'N an earlier paper' a theory of alpha decay was H=H (1234)+Htc(5 A)
&
developed whose aim was to take into account the
~
—(I't '/2M) h, .y+ W (n, E), (I.3)
inQuence of nuclear structure on alpha decay. The
where 1, 2, are protons, 3, 4, are neutrons.
theory was found successful in explaining the fine
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Decay Reduced Width
PH YSI CAL REVIEW VOLUME 119, NUMBER 3 AU GUST 1, 1960

Calculation of e-Transition Probabilities

HaNs J.
MaNot
Lawrence RadiationL, aboratory, University of California, Berkeley, Cabfornia
(Received February 15, 1960)

The decay rates for the ground-state transitions of all polonium isotopes and the odd-even astatine
isotopes are discussed on the basis of the nuclear shell model. Good agreement with experimental data is
obtained. In particular the behavior of the reduced width as a function of the neutron number around the
magic number /=126 is well reproduced.

INTRODUCTION tonian into several terms

'
'N an earlier paper' a theory of alpha decay was H=H (1234)+Htc(5 A)
&
developed whose aim was to take into account the
~
—(I't '/2M) h, .y+ W (n, E), (I.3)
inQuence of nuclear structure on alpha decay. The
where 1, 2, are protons, 3, 4, are neutrons.
theory was found successful in explaining the fine
structure of the Po"' alpha decay. The relative in- H describes the internal motion of a system con-
tensities of transitions leading to various states in the sisting of two protons and two neutrons. IIK describes
—
the internal motion of the remaining A 4 nucleons.
daughter nucleus and the coefficients of alpha-gamma
angular correlations were obtained in good agreement
R is the relative coordinate between the center of mass
with experimental values.
of particles 1; 2; 3; 4 and the center of mass of the
In this paper we shall erst outline again briefly the remaining particles 5; 6; . A; and —
(trt'/2M)L4, q is
derivation of some formulas which are then applied to the kinetic energy operator associated with the relative
discuss the ground-state
motion of the two groups of nucleons. 8'(crE) accounts
transitions of even-even,
even-odd, and odd-even alpha emitters in the region
for the interaction between the two groups of particles.
of Pb"'. The nuclear wave functions are approximated We should mention that the Hamiltonian H has not
lost its symmetry properties.
by shell-model wave functions and good agreement is
found with experimental data. ' For obvious reasons we shall refer from now on to
these two groups of nucleons as n particle and daughter
I. DERIVATION OF AN EXPRESSION FOR THE nucleus. Consequently, we call the solutions of the
DECAY CONSTANT equations
We consider a system of A nucleons (Z protons and
II ax a &ax a
(I.4)
E neutrons) and describe it by means of the time- IIK+K ~K+K
dependent Schrodinger equation the internal wave functions of the n particle and the
Bc(1 A; t)=ihtac(1 2; t)//at. daughter nucleus. In these equations 7. and 0- are
short-hand notations for those sets of quantum numbers
We assume for the Hamiltonian the following form: that are necessary to determine the solutions z and '
|a I&'+V(1,2 "~) (I.2)
O'K' completely.
Furthermore, if y ', X " '
and O'K, %K are bound-
*=~ E2rrt) state solutions of (I.4) the following relation holds:
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Particle Formation
0.299 µs
0+ 0
212
84Po ≈
Qα=8954.13

+
stable 0 0 100% 1.00
208
82Pb

n “Model” decay
n Two protons outside Z=82
n Two neutrons outside N=126
n Decays to doubly magic 208Pb
n Spherical nuclei
n Used as a reference
n Aside – 104Te also much sought
after decay
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Particle Formation
 UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Particle Formation
Page -10-
241
Am (432.2 yr.) Decay Scheme
Part 4 of 4 432.2 yr.
5/2- 0.0
241
Q!=5637.81 95 Am

13.81
100% ! decay
1/2- 281.35

3/2- 267.54 0.0005

11/2- 225.96 0.015

13/2+ 191.46

67.45
9/2- 123.01 158.51 1.6

61.46

43.423
11/2+ 130.00 "0.01

55.56

27.03
164.69
150.04

115.54
208.01

7/2- 102.96 13.0

26.3448
54.0
98.97
9/2+ 125.30 75.92 <0.04

69.76

33.196
5/2- 59.5412 84.5 (67 ns)
234.33

42.73
96.7
0.22 #$ 4 ns)

59.5412
7/2+ 33.1964
221.80

267.58

102.98

75.8
5/2+ 0.0 0.34
Based on 9/1/1999 NNDC/BNL Data 237 2.144x106 yr.
93 Np
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Decay Hindrance Factors
n Hindrance factors defined in many different ways
n Can be confusing
n Again, often given relative to 212Po
n Ground-state to ground-state (0+ to 0+) decay in even-even
defined as 1 (e.g. in Table of Isotopes)
n For odd-A nuclei, can define HF relative to neighbouring even-
even case

2 exp
δg.s. t1/2
HF = 2 HF = the
δexc. t1/2
n For decays to n Ratio of experimental and
excited states theoretical partial half life
 UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Decay Hindrance Factors

!
!
!
! n Decays from odd-A uranium
! isotopes hindered
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
! !
!
! Figure!7@9.! The!α@decay!half@lives!of!the!e@e!(squares)!and!odd!A!(circles)!isotopes!
! of!uranium.!!The!measured!values!are!connected!by!the!solid!line;!the!
! estimates!from!the!one!body!theory!are!shown!by!the!dashed!line.!
! !
!
! n W. Loveland, http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ch374/ch418518/
!
!
n Chapter 7
!
!
!
!
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Decay Hindrance Factors
n Hindrances for odd A nuclei may be divided into five classes:

n If the hindrance factor is between 1 and 4, the transition is called

a “favored” transition. In such decays, the emitted alpha particle is
assembled from two low lying pairs of nucleons in the parent
nucleus, leaving the odd nucleon in its initial orbital.
n A hindrance factor of 4-10 indicates a mixing or favorable overlap
between the initial and final nuclear states involved in the
transition.
n Factors of 10-100 indicate that spin projections of the initial and
final states are parallel, but the wave function overlap is not
favorable.
n Factors of 100-1000 indicate transitions with a change in parity
but with spin projections of initial and final states being parallel.
n Hindrance factors of >1000 indicate that the transition involves a
parity change and a spin flip, that is, the spin projections of the
initial and final states are antiparallel, which requires substantial
reorganization of the nucleon in the parent when the α is emitted.

n N.B. – Calculated HF can be used to determine structure of populated state

UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Decay Hindrance Factors
7.038×108 y

2)
7/2– 0

+E
235

1
≈
92U

(+M
E0
8.7 9
428.33 Qα=4678.7
1
44

7/2– 634.044 ~0.001% 70

3
0 94.
2.4 2
14.033
~0

(11/2–) 530.4 ~0.02% 35

350.29
296.03
246.45
216.84
645.28
261.2

.37
41

9/2– 452.18 0.9% 3.7

1
133.3 1 M
152.521
347.82
295.90
201.65
182.11
140.93
34 7.0
28 9.56
283.5
171.44
606.55

E2
7/2– 387.827 5.7% 2.0
38

.5

E2
955.122 M 1
(11/2+)

1+
385.69 0.017% 707

277.06 5 M
76.7 9 M1
(7/2)+

1+
377.577 ~0.9% 16

34.1 7 M1 2)
)
18 .3470 M1

E2
809.791 M

549.299 M1(+E
222.92
31 8.78
(13/2–) 334 ~0.4% 85

1(+
30 .198
94

)
(9/2)+ 1×103

M1(+E2
324.913 0.033%

251.74
28

173.468 M
5/2+ 317.082 ~0.1% ~200

725.45
(5/2)+

1
112.1
301.744 ~0.009% 6500

235.42

19 .92 M
7
27 .4
.

.7
(11/2–) 277.8 4.4% 21

41

103.359 (E 1
5
8

165.30 9 M
199.168 1)
7/2+

190.87
275.425 0.21% 450

14 .94
740.76
31 2
22 .60
5/2+

8
240.881 0.24% 740

20 1.39
8
2
24

64 E1
E1
.
.
51
9/2– 236.893 17% 11

18 .595
3/2+

3.7 2
221.398 <0.31% >820

14 .71
7/2– 205.309 55% 6.2

5
– 228
0.77 ns 5/2 185.714 2.1%

0.3
11/2+

12
161.94 ~0.7% 1000

54.09
.25
9/2+

96
96.129 1.7% 1300

.95
7/2+

41
41.952 4.2% 1400

+
25.52 h 5/2 0 5.0% 2400
231
90Th
 UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
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UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ

Variety of Shapes in 186Pb

2p−2h 4p−4h
π ν π ν
126 126 126 126
p1/2 p1/2 p1/2 p1/2
f5/2 f5/2 f5/2 f5/2
p 3/2 p 3/2 p 3/2 p 3/2
i13/2 i13/2 i13/2 i13/2
h 9/2 h 9/2 h 9/2 h 9/2
f 7/2 f 7/2 f 7/2 f 7/2

82 82 82 82
d 3/2 d 3/2 d 3/2 d 3/2
h 11/2 h 11/2 h 11/2 h 11/2
s1/2 s1/2 s1/2 s1/2
g 7/2 g 7/2 g 7/2 g 7/2

d 5/2 d 5/2 d 5/2 d 5/2

50 50 50 50

oblate prolate
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Decay Spectroscopy
n Alpha decay is a relatively simple two-body process
n Consequently, alpha particle energies are discrete
n Combined with half-life, often alpha particle energy is
characteristic of a particular isotope
n Allows alpha 254
decay spectroscopy to be performed
γ
n Can also be used to identify particular nuclides

2000

254
250 No
Fm
Counts/5keV

246
Cf
1000

254
Fm
0
6000 7000 8000 9000
Alpha energy [MeV]

254 250
α
246 254
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Example: Alpha Decay of 255No

n N.B. – Reaction used different to above: 12C + 248Cm -> 255No +5n
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Example: Alpha Decay of 255No
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Example: Alpha Decay of 255No
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Example: Alpha Decay of 255No

n M. Asai et al., Phys. Rev. C83, 014315 (2011)

UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Reminder: Nilsson
p2 Model
m(ωx
2 2
(x + y 2
) + ω 2 2
zz )
H = + + 2!ω0 κ
2m 2

ωy2 = ω02 (1 + 32 #2 ) ωz2 = ω02 (1 − 34 #2 ) #2

1.05#2 ω0 l
2
· κ µ

ΩΩπ=[N
Σ +n
Λ z Λ]
Σ Λ
π N
nz

K
Ω

Z ≥ 82 N ≥ 126

±Ω

N ≥ 126
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Decay and the Mass Surface
n As we have seen, the atomic mass has a very important
position in nuclear physics
n Mass measurements of nuclei far from stability are extremely
important to test nuclear models
n Also needed to calculate reaction/decay Q-values
n Multitude of other important uses
n Measurement of alpha decay Q values essentially a
measurement of mass
n Example: Direct mass measurement of No isotopes

A A−4
Z XN → Y
Z−2 N−2 + 24 He2
Qα = ( mX − mY − mα ) c 2
 No 2.44(4) s 110(10) ms 400 nb
region comes from the fact that some decay chains end 253
No 1.62(15) min 715(30) µs 1 µb
by spontaneous fission and are not linked to any known 254
No 51(10) s 266(2) ms 1.8 µb
nuclide. This problem can be solved by directly addressing
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ the end-point nuclides using Penning trap mass spectrometry.
highest production rates were achieved by using the enriched
The Penning trap system SHIPTRAP [7] installed behind

Alpha Decay and the Mass Surface the velocity filter SHIP [8] at GSI allowed us so far to deter-
mine the masses of more than 60 radionuclides, many of them
for the first time [9–12]. Recently, direct mass measurements
target with the best-suited enriched lead isotope. The optimum
projectile energy was 4.55 MeV/u in all three cases, which
results in an excitation energy of the compound nucleus of
were extended to the three nobelium isotopes 252–254 No (Z = about 22 MeV.
Vol 463 | 11 February 2010 | doi:10.1038/nature08774
102), which are the first direct mass measurements above ura- The 48 Ca beam had an average intensity of about 6 ×
nium (Z = 92). The results of these investigations are reported 1012 particles per second. The production cross sections
in Ref. [13]. In this publication we describe the work in more ranged from 1.8 µb for the isotope 254 No to 400 nb for the

LETTERS
detail and compare our results with previous measurements.
In Sec. II, Sec. III, and Sec. IV the production of the no-
isotope 252 No (see Table I). The latter corresponds to about
0.4 particles per second entering the gas cell of SHIPTRAP.
The total efficiency of SHIPTRAP was on the order of a few
belium isotopes, the experimental setup, and the measurement
procedure are explained. In Sec. V and Sec. VI the results of percent, resulting in about one detected particle every minute.
the mass measurements are presented and compared with the
Direct mass measurements above uranium bridge the results of previous measurements. The influence of our mass
values on heavier nuclides is discussed in Sec. VII. An outlook III. THE SHIPTRAP SETUP
gap to the island of stability is given in Sec. VIII.
Figure 1 shows the SHIPTRAP setup [7] used for this
experiment. It consists of a gas cell, an RFQ cooler and
M. Block1, D. Ackermann1, K. Blaum2, C. Droese3, M. Dworschak1, S. Eliseev2, T. Fleckenstein4, E. Haettner4, buncher, and a double Penning trap system.
II. PRODUCTION OF THE NOBELIUM ISOTOPES
F. Herfurth1, F. P. Heßberger1, S. Hofmann1, J. Ketelaer5, J. Ketter2, H.-J. Kluge1,6, G. Marx3, M. Mazzocco7, The nobelium ions coming from SHIP with a kinetic energy
1,8 1,4
Yu. N. Novikov , W. R. Plaß , A. Popeko , S. RahamanThe 9 10
{, nobelium
D. Rodrı́guez 11
isotopes, C. 252–254 No were produced
Scheidenberger 1,4
by a 48 Ca 3,
, L. Schweikhard of around 22 MeV were stopped in the gas cell filled with
12 1
P. G. Thirolf , G. K. Vorobyev & C. Weber { 10
beam reacting with 12 different lead targets consisting of one of ultrahigh purity He (1 ppm) at a pressure of 50–60 mbar [14].
the enriched11isotopes 206 Pb, 207 Pb, and 208 Pb in the molecule The gas cell is separated from the 10−6 mbar vacuum of

SHIPThe mass of an atom incorporates all its constituents and their

interactions . The difference between the mass of an atom and9of
1
PbS. The target thickness was 0.5 mg/cm2 . Eight target
segments
the1125
10
were mounted
Accurate
turns
crucial forper
Gamma Detectors
on a wheel
nuclear binding
minute.Stop
understanding The
energiesrotating
beam
Detector
the structurewas
withabove
in the region a frequency
Z 5 100 are
deliveredelements.
of superheavy in 5.5-ms They
the transfer beam line by a titanium entrance window with a
thickness of about 2 mg/cm2 and an open diameter of 60 mm.
An additional set of mylar degraders (whose thickness could
sum of its building blocks (the binding energy)ris
e sa manifestation
pulsesprovide
at a repetition rate
TOFofSystem
important benchmarks 50for
Hz. The reaction
competing products
theoretical models6–8, be varied between 0.5 and 3.0 µm) is installed in the beam
of Einstein’s famous relation E 5 mc . The2 t
ebinding 8
energy deter- most of which
were separated fromdisagree in their predictions
the primary beam byofthe thevelocity
island of stability.
filter line in front of the entrance window to stop most ions in
mines the energy available for nuclear
i n mreactions
7 and decays (and
SHIP
Remarkably,
[8]. The
no
highest
Magnetical
binding energies
possible
in
cross
the region
sections
of superheavy ele-
were always the center of the gas cell. Inside the gas cell an electrode
nce of how
thus the creation of elements by stellar nucleosynthesis), and holds ments have ever been measured
Dipole 5 directly. Our knowledge comes
the key to the fundamental a question
6 obtained
heavy the elements can in fusion-evaporation
exclusively from measurements reactions via products
of the decay the 2n channel,
en route to system consisting of a DC voltage cage and an RF funnel is
be. Superheavy elements i t
s2–4 have 5 been observed in challenging whichMagnetical
were species.
lighter in all The
three cases about
reconstruction a factorenergies
of binding of 10fromlargerthese mounted to generate an electric field that drags the ions toward
production experimentsD 4 , but our present knowledge of than the the cross
decay sections
chains introducesof the other
significant reaction
uncertainties, channels. The
in particular for the exit nozzle within a few milliseconds [15]. Upon arriving
binding energy of these nuclides is based only on the detection Quadrupoles 4 - 6
odd-even nuclei where the a-decay often includes excited states.
of their decay products.
3 The reconstruction from extended decay Electrical
First, the already large statistical uncertainties rapidly accumulate
chains introduces uncertainties that render the interpretation Deflector 2
according to error propagation with increasing distance to the
2
difficult. Here we report direct mass measurements of trans-
Beam Stop well-known reference nuclides. Second, the uncertainties of the
uranium
1 nuclides. Located at the farthest tip of the actinide species population of the nuclear states, of their ordering, and of the transi-
0
on the proton number–neutron number diagram, Magnetical
these nuclides tion energies between them, all contribute to the total uncertainties of
represent the gateway to the predicted island Dipoles1of stability.
- 4 In the resulting masses and corresponding systematic errors cannot be
Rotating
particular, we have determined the mass values of 2522254No excluded. Therefore, direct mass measurements with high precision
Target Electrical
(atomic number 102) with the Penning trap mass spectrometer using Penning traps are of utmost importance to ensure that the mass
SHIPTRAP 5 Deflector
are of 1the order of 10 keV/c2
Beam . The uncertainties values are accurate.
(representing aMagnetical
relative precision of 0.05 p.p.m.), despite minute In contrast to the mass differences obtained from nuclear-decay
production Quadrupoles
rates of less than1-one
3 atom per second. Our experi- spectroscopy, Penning-trap mass measurements directly yield bind-
ments advance direct mass measurements by ten atomic numbers ing energies. Moreover, they provide outstanding accuracy, which is
with no loss in accuracy, and provide reliable anchor points en superior to that of other mass measurement techniques. Relative
route to the island of stability. mass uncertainties of dm/m < 10211 have been achieved for stable
Exotic nuclei at the limits of stability exhibit new features not nuclides9 and down to dm/m < 1029 for short-lived exotic species10.
present in stable nuclei and therefore provide deeper insight into In addition, Penning traps allow experiments on single particles at
the nature of the nuclear interaction. At the limit of very high proton rest under perturbation-free conditions. Thus, they have been used
and neutron numbers is the habitat of the superheavy elements. Far for high-precision measurements of fundamental constants, such as
from being simply large clusters of nucleons, these fascinating species FIG.the1.electron
Schematic
massoverview of the
and magnetic SHIPTRAP
moment and thesetup. It consists
fine-structure con-of a gas cell to stop the high energetic reaction products, an RFQ cooler
owe their very existence to subtle contributions to the nuclear bind- and buncher
stant11.toSeveral
cool and accumulatefacilities
Penning-trap the ions, andcome
have a double Penning
on-line trap system to perform high-precision mass measurements.
recently,
ing energy. As a consequence, an entire island of stability is predicted particularly for short-lived nuclides12,13. Owing to their accuracy
far above uranium, around proton number Z < 120 and neutron and very high resolving power they have also contributed to, for
064312-2
 UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Decay and the Mass Surface PENNING TRAP MASS MEASUREMENTS ON NOBELIUM . . . PHYSICAL REVIEW C 81, 064312 (2010)
PHYSICAL REVIEW C 81, 064312 (2010)

the nobelium
nty δr stat and
mns 3 and 4,

δr total

1.26 × 10−7
5.1 × 10−8
5.8 × 10−8

the reaction
taken, two
s. Since the
bout 400 nb,
minutes was
a detection
tained from
(see Fig. 3
d to be r =
ess of ME =
rtainties for

a,2n)253 No.
nances with
ed from the
eement with
quency ratio
ss excess of

Ca,2n)254 No
tigated. The
t one to two
this isotope,
= 900 ms.
o taken with
btained from
h each other
was found to FIG. 3. Results for the mass excesses of the individual measure-
FIG. 4. (Color online) Scheme of evaluated masses before (top) and after (bottom) implementing the SHIPTRAP data into the Atomic-Mass
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Superheavy Elements
n A long-standing question of
nuclear physics
n Are there more shell gaps
(magic numbers) beyond Z=82
and N=126?
n If so, what are they?
 Chemical studies of superheavy elements
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Superheavy Elements

n Another driving force of nuclear “physics”:

n Creation of new chemical elements beyond those naturally occuring
n Now 28 elements created in laboratory
n Nihonium (Nh - 113), Moscovium (Mc - 115), Tennessine (Ts – 117),
Oganesson (Og – 118) Named in November 2016
n Started with n irradiation of uranium to make neptunium in 1940
• Relativistic effects
Introduction Experiments Facilities
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
What is a Superheavy Element?Elements
Superheavy
Liquid Drop Model and Fission Barrier:

0 1 0 1
✓ ◆2 !
Z 2 @ EC (d) A (N Z) ES (d) A
E(d) = EC (d) + ES (d) = aC 1/3 + aS 1 S A2/3 @ (2)
A 0 A 0
EC ES

0 0
EC ,ES - spherical shape
Calculate for a sequence of nuclear shapes
e.g. Expansion of nuclear radius in spherical harmonics
2 3
Xmax
4
R (✓, ) = c ( ) R0 1 + Y 0 (✓, )5
=2

Paul Greenlees (JYFL, Finland) Spectroscopy of VHE EJC2012 7 / 49

UNIVERSITY
Introduction OF JYVÄSKYLÄ Experiments Facilities

Superheavy Elements
What is a Superheavy Element?
Fissility Parameter and Barrier Height
Competition of Coulomb repulsion and surface tension
0
EC
Fissility Parameter, x = 0
2ES
3 0
98 (1 x)
Barrier Height, Ebarrier = E
15 (1+2x)2 S
Superheavy Element - Ebarrier = 0, x > 1
Fuzzy definition - depends on parameterisation

Paul Greenlees (JYFL, Finland) Spectroscopy of VHE EJC2012 8 / 49

What is a Superheavy
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Element?
E=E +E LDM SHELL
X A
⇠
SuperheavyE Elements
= ✏( ) E SHELL
i=1
i SHELL

Back to the Fission Barrier Calculate Potential Energy Surface

n Nucleus not just a liquid drop

nPaulGaps in level
Greenlees (JYFL,energies
Finland) give extra stability
Spectroscopy of VHE
n Possibly stable (long-lived) superheavy
elements if new magic numbers?

Paul Greenlees (JYFL, Finland) Spectroscopy of VHE EJC2012

Introduction Experiments Facilities
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Superheavy Elements
The Island of Stability

The Seaborg Archive, LBL

UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Superheavy Elements

12

SHIP 9
10
11

Gamma Detectors
Stop Detector
t ers 8 TOF System
me 7 Magnetical
i n
nce 6 Dipole 5
i sta 5
D 4 Magnetical
Quadrupoles 4 - 6
3 Electrical
Deflector 2
2
Beam Stop
1

0
Magnetical
Rotating Dipoles1 - 4
Target Electrical
Deflector 1
Beam Magnetical
Quadrupoles 1- 3
 UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Superheavy Elements
Journal of the Physical Society of Japan 81 (2012) 103201 LETTERS
http://dx.doi.org/10.1143/JPSJ.81.103201

New Result in the Production and Decay of an Isotope, 278 113, of the 113th Element
Kosuke MORITA1 !, Kouji MORIMOTO1 , Daiya KAJI1 , Hiromitsu HABA1 , Kazutaka OZEKI1 , Yuki KUDOU1 ,
Takayuki SUMITA2;1 , Yasuo WAKABAYASHI1 , Akira YONEDA1 , Kengo TANAKA2;1 , Sayaka YAMAKI3;1 ,
Ryutaro SAKAI4;1 , Takahiro AKIYAMA3;1 , Shin-ichi GOTO5 , Hiroo HASEBE1 , Minghui HUANG1 ,
Tianheng HUANG6 , Eiji IDEGUCHI7 y, Yoshitaka KASAMATSU1 z, Kenji KATORI1 , Yoshiki KARIYA5 ,
Hidetoshi KIKUNAGA8 , Hiroyuki KOURA9 , Hisaaki KUDO5 , Akihiro MASHIKO10 , Keita MAYAMA
J. Phys. 10 81 (2012) 103201
,
Soc. Jpn. L ETTERS
Shin-ichi MITSUOKA , Toru MORIYA , Masashi MURAKAMI , Hirohumi MURAYAMA , Saori NAMAI10 ,
9 10 5 5

L ETTERS Akira OZAWA11 , Nozomi SATO9 , Keisuke SUEKI11 , MireiK.TAKEYAMA

MORITA 10et, Fuyuki
al. TOKANAI10 , Table I. Summary of beamtime used. events without si
Takayuki YAMAGUCHI3 , and Atsushi YOSHIDA1 were regarded as
Beam
Beamtime Irradiation time Number of The detection
1
RIKEN Nishina Center for Accelerator-Based Science, RIKEN, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan dose/sum
2
(days) (!1019 ) observed events measuring the "
Faculty of Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, Noda, Chiba 278-8510, year
Japan month/day
3
Department of Physics, Saitama University, Saitama 338-8570, Japan 2003 9/5–12/29 57.9 1.24/1.24 0
tions of the tra
4
Department of Chemistry, Saitama University, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
2004 7/8–8/2 21.9 0.51/1.75 1
0:0005 MeV), an
5
Department of Chemistry, Niigata University, Niigata 950-2181, Japan B! of GARIS
6 2005
Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Science, 730000 Lanzhou, P. R. China 1/20–1/23 3.0 0.07/1.82 0
7
Center for Nuclear Study, University of Tokyo, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan 2005 3/20–4/22 27.1 0.71/2.53 1
conditions the sa
8
Research Center for Electron Photon Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 982-0826, Japan
2005 5/19–5/21 2.0 0.05/2.58 0
The energy calibr
9
Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Tokai, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan 2005 8/7–8/25 16.1 0.45/3.03 0
was performed
10
Department of Physics, Yamagata University, Yamagata 990-8560, Japan
2005 9/7–10/20 39.0 1.17/4.20 0
"-decays used fo
11
University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8071, Japan transitions, no #-
2005 11/25–12/15 19.5 0.63/4.83 0
(Received August 29, 2012; accepted September 10, 2012; published online September 27, 2012)
2006 3/14–5/15 54.2 1.37/6.20 0
The "1 -, "2 -, "
An isotope of the 113th element, i.e., 278 113, was produced in a nuclear reaction with a 70 Zn beam on a 209
2008
Bi target.
1/9–3/31 70.9 2.28/8.48 0
only the PSD. Th
We observed six consecutive !-decays following the implantation of a heavy particle in nearly the same position in the
2010 9/7–10/18 30.9 0.52/9.00 0
the PSD was 5
semiconductor detector under an extremely low background condition. The fifth and sixth decays are fully consistent (FWHM). For "
262 258 2011 1/22–5/22 89.8 2.01/11.01 0
with the sequential decays of Db and Lr in both decay energies and decay times. This indicates that the present from the PSD an
decay chain consisted of 278 113, 274 Rg (Z ¼ 111), 270 Mt (Z ¼ 109), 266 Bh (Z ¼ 107), 262 Db (Z2011 12/2–12/19
¼ 105), and 258 Lr 14.4 0.33/11.34 0
energies of the de
2012
(Z ¼ 103) with firm connections. This result, together with previously reported results from 2004 and 2007, 1/15–2/9 25.0 0.56/11.90 0
the PSD and tho
conclusively leads to the unambiguous production and identification of the isotope 278 113 of the 2012 3/13–4/17
113th element. 33.7 0.79/12.69 0
2012 6/12–7/2 15.7 0.25/12.94 0
resolution in the
KEYWORDS: new element 113, gas-filled recoil ion separator, !-decay chain was measured by
2012 7/14–8/18 32.0 0.57/13.51 1
FWHM. The posi
Total 553 13.51 3
"-measurements
In the experimental program aiming at confirming the n Production cross section
This series of experiments at RIKEN22 fb!! Center for
Nishina The decay cha
existence of an isotope of the 113th element, i.e., 278 113, for theon
Accelerator Based Science was started thicker targets,
September two separate foils were used as one
5, 2003 consecutive "-dec
produced in the 209 Bi þ 70 Zn ! 278 113 þ n reaction, we n Higgs ~ pb
and tentatively terminated on August 18, 2012. The periods deposit in a single target. We
target to reduce the energy focal plane detec
previously observed two convincing candidate events, both mounted
of the beamtime are listed in Table 16 (32
I together withforthethe double target system) targets on a
beam "-particles were d
family originatingconsisting of four consecutive !-decays followed by a rotating wheel
doses in each period. The net irradiation 30 cm
time was 553 in diameter. The wheel was rotated
days time intervals fro
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Superheavy Elements
Selected for a Viewpoint in Physics
week ending
PRL 109, 162501 (2012) PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 19 OCTOBER 2012

Production and Decay of the Heaviest Nuclei 293;294 117 and 294 118
Yu. Ts. Oganessian,1,* F. Sh. Abdullin,1 C. Alexander,2 J. Binder,2 R. A. Boll,2 S. N. Dmitriev,1 J. Ezold,2 K. Felker,2
J. M. Gostic,3 R. K. Grzywacz,2,4 J. H. Hamilton,5 R. A. Henderson,3 M. G. Itkis,1 K. Miernik,2 D. Miller,4 K. J. Moody,3
A. N. Polyakov,1 A. V. Ramayya,5 J. B. Roberto,2 M. A. Ryabinin,6 K. P. Rykaczewski,2 R. N. Sagaidak,1
D. A. Shaughnessy,3 I. V. Shirokovsky,1 M. V. Shumeiko,1 M. A. Stoyer,3 N. J. Stoyer,3 V. G. Subbotin,1 A. M. Sukhov,1
Yu. S. Tsyganov,1 V. K. Utyonkov,1 A. A. Voinov,1 and G. K. Vostokin1
1
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, RU-141980 Dubna, Russian Federation
week ending
PRL 109, 162501 (2012) P H Y2Oak
S I CRidge
A L National
R E V ILaboratory,
E W L E OakT T ERidge,
R S Tennessee 37831, USA
19 OCTOBER 2012
3
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94551, USA
4
Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
5
Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, USA
6
Research Institute of Atomic Reactors, RU-433510 Dimitrovgrad, Russian Federation
(Received 16 August 2012; published 15 October 2012)
Two years after the discovery of element 117, we undertook a second campaign using the 249 Bk þ 48 Ca
reaction for further investigations of the production and decay properties of the isotopes of element 117 on
a larger number of events. The experiments were started in the end of April 2012 and are still under way.
This Letter presents the results obtained in 1200 hours of an experimental run with the beam dose of 48 Ca
of about 1:5 " 1019 particles. The 249 Bk target was irradiated at two energies of 48 Ca that correspond to
the maximum probability of the reaction channels with evaporation of three and four neutrons from the
excited 297 117. In this experiment, two decay chains of 294 117 (3n) and five decay chains of 293 117 (4n)
were detected. In the course of the long-term work, 249 Cf—the product of decay of 249 Bk (330 d)—is
being accumulated in the target. Consequently, in the present experiment, we also detected a single decay
of the known isotope 294 118 that was produced during 2002–2005 in the reaction 249 Cfð48 Ca; 3nÞ294 118.
The obtained results are compared with the data from previous experiments. The experiments are carried
out in the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions, Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, using the heavy-
ion cyclotron U400. n 249Bk target
DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.162501 PACSn T = 320 days
numbers:1/2
27.90.+b, 23.60.+e, 25.70.Gh

n About 13 mg
293
FIG. 1 (color). (a) Decay properties of the isotope 117 and its decay
The production and spectroscopic studies of the heaviest products observed in this work.
methods through the The first rowsofshow
determination ER
excitation functions,
energies and detector strip numbers. Subsequent rows provide !-particle and SF fragment energies n and Activity ?? Demo?
the time intervals between243 48
elements is one of the most rewarding and challenging as demonstrated in recent studies of the Am þ Ca
events. Bold events were registered during a beam-off period. The !-particle energy errors are shown by smaller italic numbers. Time
investigations in nuclear physics. The discoveries of new reaction [4,5].
intervals for events following a ‘‘missing !’’ were measured from preceding registered events and are shown in italics (superscript a, !
superheavy atoms expand simultaneously the periodic These goals motivated our new search for Z ¼ 117
particle registered by both focal-plane and side detectors; superscript b, escaped ! particle registered by side249
detector 48
only; superscript
table of elements and the Segrè chart of nuclei. New data isotopes
294 among the Bk þ Ca reaction products. The
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ

superheavy
118
118 294

117 117
117 293 294

116 116 116 116

116

elements
290 291 292 293

115 115 115 115

115 287 288 289 290

114 114
286
114
287
114
288
114
289

113 113 113 113 113 113

113 278 282 283 284 285 286

112 Cn277 Cn282 Cn283 Cn284 Cn285

254 111 Rg272 Rg274 Rg278 Rg279 Rg280 Rg281 Rg282

No 110
109
Ds267

Mt266
Ds269 Ds270 Ds271

Mt268 Mt270
Ds273

Mt274 Mt275 Mt276

Ds279

Mt278
Ds281

108 Hs264 Hs265 Hs267 Hs269 Hs270 Hs275

107 Bh261 Bh262 Bh264 Bh266 Bh267 Bh270 Bh271 Bh272 Bh274

106 Sg258 Sg259 Sg260 Sg261 Sg262 Sg263 Sg265 Sg266 Sg271

105 Db255 Db256 Db257 Db258 Db259 Db260 Db261 Db262 Db266 Db267 Db268 Db270

104 Rf253 Rf254 Rf255 Rf256 Rf257 Rf258 Rf259 Rf260 Rf261 Rf262 Rf263 Rf267 Rf268

103 Lr252 Lr253 Lr254 Lr255 Lr256 Lr257 Lr258 Lr259 Lr260 Lr261 Lr262 162
102 No250 No251 No252 No253 No254 No255 No256 No257 No258 No259 No260 No262

Z=102 Nobelium
proton number Z

101 Md249 Md250 Md251 Md252 Md253 Md254 Md255 Md256 Md257 Md258 Md259 Md260

100 Fm248 Fm249 Fm250 Fm251 Fm252 Fm253 Fm254 Fm255 Fm256 Fm257 Fm258 Fm259

99 Es247 Es248 Es249 Es250 Es251 Es252 Es253 Es254 Es255 Es256

98 Cf246 Cf247 Cf248 Cf249 Cf250 Cf251 Cf252 Cf253 Cf254 Cf255 Cf256

97 Bk245 Bk246 Bk247 Bk248 Bk249 Bk250 Bk251

96 Cm244 Cm245 Cm246 Cm247 Cm248 Cm249 Cm250 Cm251

95 Am243 Am244 Am245 Am246 Am247

94 Pu242 Pu243 Pu244 Pu245 Pu246 Pu247

Z=94 Plutonium
93 Np241 Np242 Np243 Np244

92 U240 U242

152

neutron number N
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Nuclear-Powered Pacemaker
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
GPHS-RTG
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Smoke Alarm
 67 ns

2.14×106 y 5/2
54 ps 7/2
5/2
~56 ps 9/2
80 ps 7/2
5.2 ns 3/2

–
–
9/2–
–
1/2–

+
+
+
+
5/2+
3/2+
9/2+
7/2+

<1.0 ns 1/2 –

11/2–
13/2–
15/2–

(7/2 )
(5/2–)

11/2+
13/2+
(11/2–)
3.6
2.4×10 -6
2.86×1 45
13 2×10 -5 49.68
2.4 5.3 0 -5 326.4
2.80×1 83 7
.81
.007×10 -6 4
0 0 -5 5
2
.00 13 4 6 .
1.201583 3 19.3
4.5 1×118 376.6 3
0 -
1.2 ×10 -6 6 222.55 (M
1.00×1 2
12 60.8 * ( 1)
6.61×10 -6 3 0.36 0* M1+
0 E2
12 ×10 -6-6 358.2 )
4.99.2 2704.25
2.9 × 10 -6 5 .771
0.00×1 10
00 0 -6 9.7
5.2
3 17 20
3 0
4.3 ×1 4 .
× 0 -5 16 06
9
38 10 -6 3
70 . 5 6
2.3.54 E2
(M 337. .94
0.0 1+ 7 M
0 E 2 ( 1
E2 +E
.00 02 ) ) 2
1.404917 3
1.4×106-60 368.5
2
30 ×1 30 5.3 3 9
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ

920.13 0 -5 29.1 8 M
.00 .1 92 1+
.77 E2
0.0014
0
2.6 01 39 0
3.1 ×104-55 632.3
9.0×10 -6 514.836 E
5.0×10 -6 29 .01 E12
4.2×10 -7 261.30 E1

237
2.34×1 244.89
56 2×10 -5 29.00*
<5 .8 0 -5 121.4

93Np
1.8 .0×1 65 6
.81
0.02×1 0 -8 3
0 0 -5 1 6
79 04
.1 61 175 8 .
22 14 .07
131.80 6.5
2.6 81 E2. 5
M E2
3
7.0 ×1 1+
× 0 -5 E 2
Part 1 of 2

0.0 10 -7 2
6.6007 2367.5
7.4 7× 91 4.4 4
0 10 -5 20 0 E1
0.0 ×1 +
168.00 M2 M2
0.00100 -5 1 4.6 M
11 0
00 1 50 1 1
5.5 42 23 .04 E2 +E2
0.0 67 .01
0
0.0 40 . 4 5 E
0.02038 12 (M 2
18 98 5.3 1+
96 E2
)
Smoke Alarm

1 .9 0
54.7 55 7
0.0 .1 .56 E2
M1
0.0195 +E
0
0.0 29 102 2
27 73 69. .98
~0 .03 43 76 E1
. .42 (E
0.0000 3 1)
36 0 6
55 75
M1
+E
5
2.4 9. 4 2.7. 8 2
0.1 1 37 5 3
26 26 E
.34 1
33 5
.19 E1
5
M1
+E
2
191.5
281.35
316.8
332.36
418
444.78
5/2–

158.51 1.4%

0 0.34%
33.192 0.20%
59.537 85.2%
102.96 12.8%
225.96 0.015%

75.89 <0.04%
130.00 ~0.01%
267.54 0.0005%
305.06 0.0024%
324.42 0.0013%
359.7 0.0006%
368.59 0.0009%
370.93 0.0003%
395.52 0.0007%
434.12 0.0004%
452.53 ~0.0004%
459.68 ~0.0004%
241
432.2 y

95Am

690
760
1.3
>2160
4.7
~4200
20
750
12700
1560
2180
2850
1670
4860
1460
1450
~1110
~1000
Qα=5637.81
0
≈