Chapter 2 [Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics]

Chapter – 2
2. HYDROSTATICS
2.1 Introduction

Hydrostatics deals with the study of fluids at rest or moving with uniform velocity as a
solid body, so that there is no relative motion between fluid elements (or layers). There is
no shear stress in a fluid at rest. Hence, only normal pressure forces are present in
hydrostatics.

Engineering applications of hydrostatics principles include the study of forces acting on

submerged bodies such as dam faces, gates & others and the analysis of stability of
floating bodies.

2.2 Hydrostatics Pressure at a point :-

The pressure at a point is the limit of ratio of the normal force on infinitesimal area dA.

dF F
i. e P =  lim .......... .......... .......... .......... ....... (1)
dA A  0, A

No tangential stresses can exist in a fluid at rest. At a point a fluid at rest has the same
pressure in all directions. This is known as PASKAL’S LAW. This means that an
element having very small area (  A) in the fluid, free to rotate about its center when
submerged in a fluid at rest, will have a force of constant magnitude acting on either side
of it, regardless of its orientation.

Consider a small wedged- shaped fluid element at rest. The thickness of the element
perpendicular to the plane of the drawing is assume to be unity (  z=1)

Fl=Pl.
l
Fx

w
Fy

Fig.2.1 Small wedged- shaped fluid element

The weight of the fluid element is,

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= (area of triangular element *depth)*specific weight

  x .  y .1 
 w=  
 2 
Fx =Px* y*1
Fy = Py* x*1
 X = Y = very small number
Since there is no shear force, the only forces acting on the wedge are the normal surfaces
forces & gravitational force.
The fluid prism (element) is in equilibrium, i.e.

 . y * 1 
F  0  P X .  y * 1  Pl .  l . Sin      a x  0 .......... ... 2 . 2
x
x
2 
 
( ax  0)
 x . y . * 1  x .
F  0  P y . x * 1  P   l .1 cos    . .1  . a y  0
y
y

2 2
a y
 0

Using geometric relations:

.
 y    sin       y / Sin 

 x =  . . cos      x / cos 

We obtain:

Px.  y - P  .  y = 0 ------------------------------------------- 2.2a

 . y
PY. x - P   X   x.
 0 .......... .......... .......... ......... 2 . 2 b
2
As  x . y  is infinitesimal of higher order, it may be neglected.

 P X  P   0  Px  P 
PY  P  0  PY  P

 P X  Py  P   ( pascals equation ) .......... .......... .......... .......... . 2 . 3 ,

It can also be proved that PZ = P  , by considering a three dimensional case. The results
are independent of  hence the pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is the same in all
directions.

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2.3 Basic Equation of Hydrostatics

The basic equation of Hydrostatics may be derived by considering the infinitesimal fluid
parallepiped in a static fluid shown in fig. 2.2. below.

Fig 2.2 A rectangular fluid parallelepiped

Assuming the density of the fluid ρ in the infinitesimal cube to be constant, the mass of
the fluid is ρ.dx.dy.dz. Let the pressure variation in the x, y and z directions be
p p p
, and respectively and let the entire fluid mass be subjected to acceleration of
x y z
ax, ay, and az, in the x, y and z directions respectively.
Considering the equilibrium in the vertical (Z) direction:

which reduces to
p
   (a x  g )
z
Similarly it can be shown that

The total change in pressure is given by the total differential as follows:

…………………. 2.4
Equation 2.4 is the basic equation of fluid statics applicable for both compressible and
incompressible fluids.

2.4 Variation of Pressure with Elevation in a Static Incompressible Fluid

For a fluid at rest and subjected only to gravitational force, the accelerations ax, ay and az
are zero. Eqn2. 4 thus reduce to:
……………………. 2.5

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Equation 2.5 holds true for both compressible and incompressibile fluids. However for
homogeneous and incompressible fluids, ρ is constant and eqn 2.5 may be integrated to
give;
2. 6
where c is a constant of integration and is equal to the pressure at z = 0. In hydrostatics
the law of variation of pressure with depth is usually written as;
2.7
In Equation 2.7, h is measured vertically downward ( i . e. h =-z) from a free surface, p is
the pressure at a depth h below the free surface and po, is the pressure at the free surface.
Equation 2.7 shows that for a fluid at rest, the pressures at the same depth from the free
surface are equal. Hence in a homogeneous continuous fluid a surface of equal pressures
is a horizontal plane.

Fig 2.3
Consider two points (1) and (2) at a depth of h1 and h2 in a tank containing a liquid, with
density ρ, at rest as shown in Figure 2.3. The pressure at (1) is p1 = p0 + pgh1. The
pressure at (2) is p2 = p0 + pgh2. If h1 = h2, then p1 = p2.
For h1 > h2, the pressure difference between (1) and (2) is p1 - p2 = ΔP = ρghl - ρgh2 =
ρg(h1 - h2) = ρgΔz.
p
z  is the pressure difference between (1) and (2) expressed as a height of the
g
liquid. This difference is also refered to as the pressure head difference. Thus, by dividing
a pressure by the specific weight γ = ρg of a fluid, the pressure can be expressed as height
of fluid column.

2.5 Variation of Pressure with Elevation in Static Compressible Fluids

Since density varies with pressure in compressible fluids, the relation between density
and pressure must be known in order to integrate the basic equation of fluid statics and
obtain expressions for the variation of pressure with elevation in compressible fluids. The
relation between pressure and density is dependent on the prevailing conditions. These
conditions are; constant temperature (i.e. isothermal), adiabatic and constant temperature
gradient conditions.
Isothermal Condition: The relation between pressure, density and temperature for
P
constant temperature condition is given by the perfect gas law: PV = mRT,  RT .

Nm J
Where R is characteristics gas constant, the unit of R is or
kgK kgK

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Substituting this in the basic equation of hydrostatics i.e. Equation 2.5

Integrating from p = p1 where z =z1 to p = p2 where z = z2

Or 2.8
Adiabatic Condition: Under adiabatic condition the relationship between pressure and
density is given by p/ρk = constant = p1/ρ1k,
So that,

Substitution of the above in the basic equation 2.7 gives:

1

dp pk
 (1g 1
)
dz
k
p 1

Integrating from p = p1 when z = z1 to p = p2 when z = z2,

The above may be written as:

2.9
In the above equation, T is absolute temperature in ok, R = 288J kg-1 k-1 = 288 m2/s2 0c,
and k = 1.4 for adiabatic condition.
The temperature lapse rate
- the rate of change of temperature with altitude
- can be found for adiabatic conditions as follows:
Substituting the characteristic equation, ρ = p/RT in Equation 2.2 and rearranging,

Substitution and rearranging gives:

Differentiating the above,

Substituting the values of p and dp in the equation for dz,

Therefore, the temperature gradient is given by:

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Constant Temperature Gradient Condition: Assuming that there is a constant

temperature lapse rate (i.e. dT/dZ = constant) with elevation in a gas, so that its
temperature drops by an amount δT for a unit change in elevation, then if T1 =
temperature at elevation Z1, then T = temperature at elevation Z is given by:

Putting this in Equation 2.7 and noting that p/ρ = R T,

Substituting the above value of T,

On the average, there is a temperature gradient of about 6.50C per 1000 m in the
atmosphere i. e. δT = 6.5 0c per 1000 m = 0.00650c.m-l.

2.6 Absolute & Gage Pressure

Pressure values may be expressed with reference to any arbitrary datum (level) it is
usually expressed w. r .t absolute zero (perfect vacuum & local atmospheric pressure).
When the reference is absolute zero, the pressure is called Absolute pressure; if the
pressure is measured w. r .t local atmospheric pressure it is called Gage pressure.

Fig 2.4 Pressure and Pressure datum

Absolute pressure is always positive, but gage pressure is positive if the prevailing is
greater than patm & negative if prevailing pressure is less than patm

Pabs = Patm + P gag ……………. 2.10

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Atmospheric pressure is also called Barometric pressure simple Barometer (mercury

barometer) consists of an inverted tube closed at one end& immersed in a liquid with
the open and down

If the air is completely exhausted from the tube, the atmospheric pressure on the
surface of the liquid in the container forces the liquid to rise in the tube to a height y
& the only pressure on the liquid surfaces in the tube is vapor pressure of the liquid,
Pv

P0 = PA = Patm (from Pascal’s law)

From the condition of static equilibrium of the liquid above O is the tube of cross-
sectional area A

P atm A – Pvapors* A -  A y = 0

 P atm =  y + Pvap

But vapor is very small compared to Patm & it can be neglected ,Pv – for mercury is
0.173 Pa at 20c0 but for water it shouldn’t be neglected because Pv – for water is 2.447
K Pa at 2002

Thus P atm =  y ……………………………………………….. 2. 11a

Y = P atm /  ………….. 2.11b

(Pressure head)

If the liquids with low specific weight are used, Y – shall be excess very high. For
example for water barometer, Y = 10 .33 m at sea level and for mercury barometer, y
= 0.76 m = 760 mm at s. e

2.5. Measurement of pressure:-

In practice, pressure is always measured by the determination of a pressure difference

More usually the difference determined is that between the pressure of the filed
concerned & the prevailing atmospheric pressure. This is the difference normally
recorded by the pressure page & is known as gage pressure.
There are so May ways which pressure in a fluid may be measured

I. Bourdon gage

There is a typical devices used for measuring gage pressures. Where high precision is
no required a pressure difference may be indicated by the deformation of an elastic
solid. It consists of a curved tube of elliptical cross- section at one end. The closed
end is free to move while the open end through which the fluid enters is rigdely fixed
to frame.

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The reading zero (0) implies the is no difference in pressure in the atmosphere &
liquid
- pressure greater than atmospheric straighten the tube for pressure less than
atmospheric, the tube tends to coil again

Fig. 2.5 Bourdon gage

The internal pressure intensity of the fluid tends to straighten the curved tube by an
amount proportional to the pressure intensity. The deflection of the tube cause a pointer
moving over a scale to undergo a corresponding angular displacement by menas of a
suitable gear and linkage arrangement. Zero reading is calibrated to correspond to local
atmospheric pressure. All such gages required calibration.
II. Piezometer column

- It is used to measure moderate positive pressure of liquids it consists of a simple

transparent tube open to atmosphere, in which the liquid can freely rises without
over flowing. The height of the liquid will rises in the tube indicates the pressure
head. To reduce capillary effect the diameter of the tube should be greater than 12
mm
- it the pressure of a flowing fluid is to be measured, the hole must be drilled
absolutely normal to the interior surface of the wail, and the piezometer tube or
the connection for any other pressure measuring device must not project beyond
the surface Also, the hole should be small, preferably not larger than 3 mm
diameter it r is the sp. Wt of the liquid , then pressure at A gage pressure is

PA = + γ h (gage reading)

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Fig. 2.6 A simple piezometer

III. MANOMETERS: -

Manometers are devices in which columns of a suitable liquid are used to measure the
difference of pressure between certain point& the atmosphere, or between two points
neither of which is necessarily at atmospheric pressure. They are suitable of measuring
high pressure differences, both positive and negative in liquids & gases.

Simple Manometer
The simple manometer consists of a transparent U – tube connected to a pipe or other
container containing fluid N (figure 2.7). The lower part of the U - tube contains liquid M
which should be immiscible with N and is of greater specific gravity. The most
frequently used manometer liquids are mercury (specific gravity 13.6) and Alcohol
(speific gravity 0.9).

Fig 2.7 The Simple manometer

Since in a continuous homogeneous fluid the pressure is the same at any two points of
equal level, the pressure at K & L are equal
When equilibrium condition is achieved: PK = PL

Pk = Patm + γM y1 , PL = PA + γN y2
PA = Patm + γM y1 - γN y2

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Differential Manometers:-
A differential manometer (U – the manometer) determines the difference in pressures at
two points A & B when the actual pressure at any point in the system can’t be determined

Fig 2.8 Differential manometer

At aquarium on K-L (horizontal plane)

PK = P L

PA + γN y3 + γN y1 = PB + γO (y1-y2) + γ m y2

PA – PB = γO (y1-y2) + γ m y2 – (γN y3 + γN y1)

Micromanometers
Micromanometers are used for measuring very small differences in pressure or precise
determination of large pressure differences. A typical arrangement shown in Fig. 2.8,
consists of two immiscible gage liquids A and B which are also immiscible with the fluid
C to be measured. Prior to connection to the two containers m and n, the heavier gauge
liquid A fills the lower portion of the U-tube to the level 1-1 and liquid B is at level 0-0.
Fig. 2.8 shows the equilibrium situation when the pressure at m is higher than at n.

Fig 2.9 micromanometer

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Writing the manometric equation starting from m:


Pm   K 1   y  c  K 2   y  h
2
 B
 h A

 K2  h
2

 y  B
  K 1   y  c  Pn
The above simplifies to:
Pm  2  y  c  2  y  B
 h B
 h A
 Pn
h a
but  y . A  a or 2  y  h
2 A
Substituting and rearranging;
  a  a
Pm  Pn  h   A
  B 1     c 
  A A
The term in brackets is constant for a specific gauge and fluids and hence the pressure
difference is directly proportional to h.

Example 2.1
A closed tank is partly filled with water and connected to the manometer containing
mercury (S = 13.6) as shown in the figure below. A gauge is connected to the tank at a
depth of 4 m below the water surface. If the manometer reading is 20 cm, determine the
gauge reading in N/ m2. What will be the gauge reading when expressed as head of water
in m?

Solution
Using the letter designation in the figure, PA=P’A

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Therefore, the gauge reading is 12556.8 N/m2

When expressed as head of water, the gauge reading will be

Example 2.2
A manometer is mounted in a city water supply main pipe to monitor the water pressure
in the pipe as shown below. Determine the water pressure in the pipe.

Solution

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Example 2.3
Calculate the pressure difference between points A and B in the differential manometer
shown in Figure below.

Solution

Example 2.4
In the two compartments closed tank shown in Fig below, the pressure in the air in the
left compartment is 26.7 kN/m2 while that in the air in the right compartment is 19.62
kN/m2. Determine the difference h in the levels of the legs of the mercury manometer.
Specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.

Solution
Since the pressure in a static fluid is the same in a horizontal plane, PA = PB

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2.6 Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces

Plane and curved surfaces, immersed fully or partly in liquids, are subjected to
hydrostatic pressure forces. It is, therefore, essential to determine the magnitudes,
directions and locations of the hydrostatic pressure forces on surfaces as a first step in the
analysis of the stability of a body fully or partly immersed in a liquid and in the design of
hydraulic structures such as dams and gates.

2.6.1 Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces

a. Horizontal Plane surfaces
The pressure intensity in a static fluid is the same at any two points in a horizontal plane
surface. Therefore, a plane surface in a horizontal position at a depth h below the free
surface in a fluid at rest will be subjected to a constant pressure intensity equal to .h,
where  is the specific weight of the fluid. The total pressure force on a small differential
area is given by:

The total pressure force on the entire horizontal plane surface with area A will be

………………..2.12
The force Fp acts normal to the surface and towards the surface. Since the pressure
intensity is distributed uniformly over the plane surface, the total resultant force Fp acts
through the centroid of the area and h = where is the depth from the free surface to
the centroid. Thus, for horizontal plane surfaces, the centre of pressure C coincides with
the centroid G. The centre of pressure is the point on the immersed surface at which the
resultant pressure force on the entire area is assumed to act.
b. Vertical Plane Surface
Consider a plane vertical surface of area A immersed vertically in a liquid (Fig. 2.8).
Since the depth from the free surface to the various points on the surface varies, the
pressure intensity on the surface is not constant and varies directly with depth. Figure
2.8

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Fig 2.8
Consider also a narrow strip of horizontal area dA, shown shaded in Fig. 2.8, at a depth h
below the free surface. The pressure intensity on this area dA is .h and is uniform. The
total pressure force on one side of the strip is thus

Or
Where is the depth from the free surface to the centroid G of the area. Thus, as for a
horizontal plane area, the magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic pressure force on a
vertical plane area is obtained by multiplying the pressure intensity at the centroid G, i. e
 by the total area A.
If the vertical area is not of a regular shape, the area may be divided into a finite number
of small regular areas and the total hydrostatic pressure force determined as the sum of
the pressure forces acting on these small areas.
The total pressure force Fp acts normal to the vertical plane area and towards the area
through the centre of pressure C. Since the pressure distribution on the area is not
uniform, the centre of pressure and the centroid will not coincide. The depth hc to the
centre of pressure may be obtained from the principle of moments. The moment of the
elementary force dFP, acting on the area dA (Fig. 2.8) about axis 0-0 on the free surface
is

The total moment of all elementary forces on the whole area is:

………………………2.13
From the principle of moments, the sum of the moments of a number of forces about an
axis is equal to the moment of their resultant about the same axis. Thus:

The term may be recognized as the second moment of area about the free
surface i.e. .

……………..…………………..2.14
i.e, using the parallel axis theorem of second moment of area,

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Where IG is the second moment of area about the axis parallel to 0-0 and passing through
the centroid G. Therefore,


IG
Or hc  
h ………………………………….2.15
Ah
Thus, the centre of pressure C for vertical plane area is below the centroid by an amount
equal to:

The moment of Fp about the centroid is:


IC
F P * GC   g h A * 
  gI C , which is independent of depth of submergence.
hA

c. Inclined Plane Surface

The analysis of the hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface will be made by
considering a plane surface of arbitrary shape and total area A inclined at an arbitrary
angle θ to the free surface as shown in Fig. 2.9. AB is the trace of the inclined surface the
extension of which intersects with the free surface a 0. hc and hp are the depths from the
free surface to the centroid C and centre of pressure CP of the area respectively. yc and
yp are the corresponding distances from 0 to C and CP respectively, measured along the
inclined surface. It is required to determine the magnitude, direction and line of action of
the resultant hydrostatic force Fp acting on one side of the area.

Fig 2.9 Hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface

The magnitude of the force dFp acting on an elementary area dA at a depth h below the
free surface is given by
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The force dFp acts normal to the plane surface. The resultant hydrostatic force Fp is the
sum of all elementary forces dFP which are parallel to each other.

But is the first moment of area A about axis through 0 and is equal to yc.A and
since yc Sin θ =hc the above equation for Fp becomes:
………………………2.16
hc is the pressure intensity at the centroid of the inclined plane area. This shows that the
magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic force on an inclined plane area is equal to the
product of the area and the pressure intensity at the centroid of the area. The force Fp acts
normal to the plane surface and towards the surface.
The resultant force Fp acts through the centre of pressure CP of the submerged plane area.
The location of CP is determined using the principle of moments for a parallel force
system. In Fig. 2.9 let the axis through 0 coinciding with the free surface be the axis of
moments.
The moment of force dFp about this axis is equal to dMo which is given by

The moment of the resultant force Fp about the axis of moments will be equal to the sum
of all elemental moment dMo. i.e.

Where is the second moment of the plane area about axis 0-0.

Using the parallel axis theorem,

Where Ic is the second moment of area about an axis parallel to 0-0 and passing through
the centroid c.

Thus
This shows that the centre of pressure is always below the centroid of the area. The same
has been shown for vertical plane surfaces.
The depth of the centre of pressure below the free surface is hcp = ycp sinθ. Substituting
this and the value of yc = hc/Sinθ, the following equation is obtained for the depth to the
centre of pressure.

……………………..2.17
When the surface area is symmetrical about its vertical centroidal axis, the centre of
pressure CP always lies on this symmetrical axis but below the centroid of the area. If the

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area is not symmetrical, an additional coordinate, xcp, must be fixed to locate the centre of
pressure completely.
Referring to Figure 2.10, and using moments,

Or

Fig 2.10 Centre of pressure of an asymmetrical plane surface

d. Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces
The total hydrostatic force on a curved surface immersed in a liquid cannot be directly
determined by the methods developed for plane surfaces. For plane surfaces, the pressure
forces on elementary areas act perpendicular to the surface and hence are parallel to each
other. Consequently, it is easier to obtain the resultant force by a simple summation of
the elementary forces. In the case of a curved surface each elementary force acts
perpendicular to the tangent of the elementary area and because of the curvature of the
surface the direction of each elementary force is different.
As a result, the usual procedure is to determine the horizontal and vertical components of
the resultant force and then add them vectorially to obtain the magnitude, direction and
location of the line of action of the resultant hydrostatic force.
Consider the curved surface BC of unit width shown in Figure 2.11.

Fig 2.11 Hydrostatic force components on curved surfaces.

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The elementary force dF acting on the elementary area dA has a horizontal component
dFx and a vertical component dFy. The pressure intensity on dA is ρgh.
The total hydrostatic force on dA = dF = ρgh dA
The horizontal component of dF = dFx = ρgh dA Cosθ
The vertical component of dF = dFy = ρghdA Sinθ
But dA Cosθ = dAv = the projection of dA on the vertical plane and dA sinθ = dAh = The
projection of dA on the horizontal plane.
The components of the total hydrostatic force in the x and y directions are Fx and Fy
respectively and are given by:

Where: Av is the projection of the whole curved surface BC on the vertical plane, i.e. BD
dV is the volume of the water prism (real or virtual) extending over the area dA to
the free surface.

Thus :
The horizontal component, Fx, of the resultant hydrostatic force on a curved surface BC is
equal to the product of the vertically projected area of BD and the pressure intensity at
the centroid of the vertical area BD. The Force Fx passes through the centre of pressure of
the vertically projected area BD.
The vertical component, Fy, of the resultant hydrostatic force on a curved surface BC is
equal to the weight of the water (real or virtual) enclosed between the curved surface BC,
the vertical BD and the free surface CD. The force component Fy acts through the centre
of gravity of the volume.
The resultant force F is given by:

F acts normal to the tangent at the contact point on the surface at an angle a to the
horizontal, where

e. Tensile stress in a pipe

Pipes are conduits of circular cross-section that are used to transport fluids. During this
transport process, a certain amount of internal pressure is necessary to make the flow
possible. This pressure may be supplied by gravity flow or by an external input of energy
by means of a pump. The internal pressure produces tensile stresses in the pipe walls.
Both longitudinal and circurnferencial (or hoop) stresses exist in pipes. However, the
circumferential stresses are more important since they are twice the longitudinal stresses.
In pipe flows, the problem is to determine either the required wall thickness of the pipe
necessary to resist a certain pressure or the allowable pressure for a given wall thickness
of a given pipe material. A circular pipe with internal radius r, wall thickness t and having
a horizontal axis is in tension around its perihery as shown in Fig. 2.11. A 1 metre long
section of pipe, i.e. the ring between two planes normal to the axis and 1 metre apart, is
considered for the analysis of the problem. Considering one-half of this ring as a free
body, the tensile forces per metre length at the top and bottom are T, and T, respectively.

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Fig 2.11 Tensile stress in pipes

The horizontal component of the pressure force acts through the centre of pressure CP of
the projected area and is given by:
……………………2.18
Where p is the pressure intensity at the pipe centre and
r is the internal radius r.
Strictly speaking, T1 is smaller than T2. But for high internal pressure, the centre of
pressure CP may be taken to coincide with the pipe centre c and T1 may be approximated
to be equal T2 without serious error. Thus summing forces in the horizontal direction:

Where T is the tensile force per metre length of pipe. For wall thickness t, the
circumferential stress  in the pipe wall will be
T p .r
   ………………………….2.19
t 1 t
For an allowable tensile stress  all , the required wall thickness t will be:
p .r
t  …………………………………..2.20
 all
Where p is in N/m2,  all is in N / m2, r is in cm and t is in cm.
For large variations in pressure between top and bottom of pipe, i. e. when
Pc
Zc   10 r , the centre of pressure has to be computed for which the following two

equations are necessary:
From  F h  0 : T1  T 2  F  2 p .r
M 2
 0 : 2 rT 1  2 pr ( r  e )  0
From which:
T1  p ( r  e )
and T 2  2 pr  T1  2 pr  p ( r  e )  p ( r  e )

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Obviously, T2 > T1 and T2 must be used for further computations.

The eccentricity e may be obtained as follows:
3
I xc 1 .( 2 r )
e 
yc A 12 . y c .( 2 r . 1)
pc
But, y c  z c  , taking the area as a vertical area.

8r  r 
3 2

e  
12 . Pc . 2 r 3 . Pc
T2 p (r  e)
From    ,
t t
 r 
2


pr  

p (r  e)  3 Pc 
t  
 all  all
In a thin spherical shell subjected to an internal pressure the stress in its wall may be
found, neglecting the weight of the fluid in the sphere, by considering the forces on a free
body consisting of a hemisphere, cut from the sphere by a vertical plane as shown below.

If  l is the stress in the wall, then for equilibrium:

 l  2  r .t  p  r  0
2

pr
Or l 
2t
 l
is just half of the circumferential stress a given by Eqn.2.19. For a pipe closed at one
end,  l will be the longitudinal stress in the pipe wall.
2.7. Buoyancy and Stability of Submerged and Floating Bodies
Since the pressure in a fluid at rest increases with depth, the fluid exerts a resultant
upward force on any body which is fully or partially immersed in it. This force is known
as the
Buoyant Force.
The principles of buoyancy and floatation, established by
Archimedes (288-212 B.C), state that
i. A body immersed in a fluid in buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the body and
ii. A floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid in which it floats.
These principles can be easily proven using the principle of hydrostatic force on surfaces.
2.7.1 Buoyant Force

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Consider a body ABCD, shown in Fig. 3.18, submerged in a liquid of constant density
 .
Referring to Fig. 2.12, A’C’ is the projection of the body on a horizontal plane and B’D’
is its projection on a vertical plane.

Figure 2.12 Buoyant Force

Force Fx acting to the right is the horizontal component of the hydrostatic force on
surface BAD and force F’x acting to the left is the horizontal component of hydrostatic
force on surface BCD. Both Fx and F’x are equal to the force acting on vertical plane
surface B’D’ and since they are equal, opposite and collinear, they cancel each other.
Hence, the resultant horizontal hydrostatic force on a submerged body is zero.
Force Fz is the downward, vertical component of the hydrostatic force acting on surface
ABC. Fz is equal to the weight of the liquid volume A’A BC C’A’ i.e. F, =  g. Vol. A’A
BCC’A’.
Similarly, F’z is the upward vertical component of the hydrostatic force on surface ADC
and is equal to the weight of the liquid volume A’A DC C’A’, i.e. F’z =  g . Vol. A’A
DC C’A'.
The net upward force is the buoyant force FB, which is
FB = Fz’ -Fz. i.e.
FB = Fz’ - Fz =  g .Vo l. A’A DC C'A' -  g . Vol A'A BC C’A’
or FB =  g. Vol. ABCD
Thus, the buoyant force FB is the weight of the liquid displaced by the body and acts
vertically upwards through the centre of buoyancy which is coincident with the centroid
of the volume of the displaced liquid. Similar considerations show that for a body
partially immersed in a liquid, the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the displaced
liquid.
Considering the vertical equilibrium of a body submerged in a fluid, the condition of
floatation of the body depends upon the relative magnitude of the weight of the body and
the buoyant force. If the body is heavier than the weight of the fluid it can displace, it will
sink to the bottom unless it is prevented from doing so by the application of an upward
supporting force.

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If the weight of the body is lighter than the weight of the liquid it can displace when
completely submerged in the fluid, it will rise above the surface to a position such that
the weight of the displaced liquid is equal to the weight of the body.
The principle of buoyancy can be used to determine the weight, volume and consequently
the specific weight and specific gravity of an object by weighing the object in two
different fluids of known specific weights. Consider an object suspended and weighed in
two fluids with specific weights  1 and  2 as shown in Fig. 3.19. Let the weight of the
object be W and its volume V.
Vertical equilibrium of forces in Figure 3.19(a) gives:
F1 +  1V  W
Vertical equilibrium of forces in Figure 3.19(b) gives:
F1 +  2V  W

Fig 2.13
Equating the above two equations and rearranging:
V ( 2   1 )  F1  F 2
F1  F 2
From which F 
 2  1
Substituting the value of V from the above equation in any of the two equilibrium
equations, the following equation for the weight of the body may be obtained.
F1  2  F 2  1
W 
 2  1
W
The specific weight of the body will be   . It should be noted that the body should
V
not be weighed in a liquid in which it dissolves.
The hydrometer, which is an instrument used to determine the specific gravity of liquids,
is constructed on the basis of the principle of buoyancy. It consists of a closed glass tube
with an enlarged bulb shape at the bottom in which lead shots are kept to allow it to float
vertically when immersed in a liquid.
The hydrometer sinks to different depth when immersed in liquids of different specific
gravities, sinking deeper in lighter liquids than in heavier liquids. The graduations on the
stem, from which the specific gravities are read directly at the meniscus, are obtained by
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 Chapter 2 [Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics]

calibration in liquids of known specific gravities. The reading 1.00 corresponds to that of
distilled water.
2.7.2 Stability of Submerged Bodies
A submerged or a floating body is said to be stable if it comes back to its original position
after a slight disturbance. The stability of a submerged body depends upon the relative
position of its centre of gravity and its centre of buoyancy both of which have fixed
positions.
Consider the three possible relative positions of centre of buoyancy B and centre of
gravity G of submerged bodies shown in Figure 2.13.
Fig. 2.13 (a) shows a balloon where the centre of buoyancy is always above the centre of
gravity. A small angular displacement generates a restoring couple, between the buoyant
force FB and the weight W, which brings the balloon back to its original position. This is
an example of a stable equilibrium of a submerged body. In Fig. 2.13 (b) is shown a
submerged body where the centre of buoyancy is below the centre of gravity. In this case,
a small angular displacement generates a couple which further increases the
displacement. This is a situation of unstable equilibrium. For a submerged, homogeneous
spherical object shown in Fig 2.13( c) the centre of gravity and the centre of buoyancy
coincide and any angular displacement does not result in development of a couple. In this
case neutral equilibrium is said to occur.

Fig 2.13
The above considerations show that for completely submerged bodies the requirements
for stability are:
I. The centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity must lie on the same vertical line
in the undisturbed position and
II. The centre of buoyancy must be located above the centre of gravity for stable
equilibrium
2.7.3 Stability of Floating Bodies
For a floating body, the centre of buoyancy need not be located above the centre of
gravity for stability. When a floating body which is partially submerged in a liquid is
given a small angular displacement about a horizontal axis, the shape of the displaced
volume of liquid changes and consequently the centre of buoyancy moves relative to the
body. As a result, restoring couple can be generated and stable equilibrium achieved even
when the centre of gravity G of the body is above the centre of buoyancy B.
Figure 2.14 may be used to illustrate the situation. Position

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(a) is the undisturbed position where the centre of buoyancy and the centre of gravity
are on the same vertical. The weight W of the boat and the buoyant force F, are
equal, opposite and collinear. Hence the boat is in equilibrium.

Fig 2.14 Stability of a floating body

Position (b) shows the boat just as it has undergone through a small angular displacement
 . It is here assumed that the location of the centre of gravity G remains unchanged (this
is true only for situation of unshifting cargo). In this position, the displaced volume on
the right hand side increases and that on the left hand side decreases as a result of the
displacement and the centre of bouyancy shifts to the right to a new position B’. The
buoyant force F, (still equal to W) now acts vertically upwards through B’ and the weight
W acts downwards through G. FB and W now constitute a restoring counter-clockwise
couple which brings the boat back to its original position. The line of action of F, now
intersects the axis BG at M. This point M is known as the Metacentre. Thus, as long as M
is above G, a restoring couple will be generated and the floating object is in stable
equilibrium. If M falls below G, the generated couple will be an overturning couple and
the equilibrium would be unstable.
Thus, for floating objects, stability would be achieved even when B is below G as long as
the metacentre M is above G. The special case where G and B coincide constitutes a
situation of neutral equilibrium.
The distance of the metacentre M above G i.e. MG, is known as the metacentric height. It
must be positive (i.e. M must be above G) for stable equilibrium. For small values of heel
angle  , the metacentric height is practically constant. The concept of metacentre and
metacentric height is very useful in the design of ship profiles, barrages and caissons and
the estimation of the metacentric height under various conditions of loading is important
to ensure stability of the floating body.
Metacentric Height: An expression for the metacentric height may be obtained by
considering the cross-section of a ship through its centre of gravity as shown Figure 2.15.
The plan view at the water line is also shown.
In Figure 2.15, AB is the original water line when the floating object was in the
undisturbed, upright position with the centre of buoyancy B and the centre of gravity G in
the same vertical axis of symmetry BG. CD is the new water line after the floating object
has experienced a small rotation through an angle  . As a result of the rotation, the
triangular wedge BOD on the right side has come out of the liquid while an identical
wedge AOC has gone inside. The total displaced volume does not change but its shape
has changed and consequently the position of the centre of buoyancy shifts from B to B ‘.
The triangular wedges AOC and BOD correspond to a gain and a loss respectively in
buoyant forces  FB.

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The moment caused by these two forces is  FB.S and has a clockwise sense. This must
be equal to the opposite moment resulting from the shifting of the total buoyant force FB
to B '. This moment is counterclockwise and is equal to  g .V . ,where V is the total
volume displaced by the floating object and  is the liquid density.

Fig 2.15 Centre of buoyancy and metacentre of a floating body.

Thus  F B .S   g .V .
FB.S
Therefore  
 g .V
Since   MB .Sin  ,
(  F B .S )
MB 
(  gV .Sin  )
The buoyancy force produced by wedge AOC (see Figure 2.15) can be estimated by
considering a small prism of the wedge. Assume that the prism has a horizontal area dA
and is located at a distance x from the axis of rotation 0. The height of the prism is
x.(tan  ). For small angle  it may be approximated by x.  . Thus the buoyancy force
produced by the small prism is  g.x  .dS. The bouyancy force  FB of the wedge AOC
will be the sum of all these forces i.e.
FB    gx . .dA
The moment produced by the couple is:
b b

 F B .S    gx . .dA . x   g  2b x dA
2 2
b
2 2

Or  F B .S   g  . I yy
Where Iyy is the second moment of area about axis y-y.
I YY .
Substituting, MB   g  . I yy  /  gV .Sin  
V .Sin 
But limit  / sin   1,
  0
I yy
Therefore, MB 
V

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The metacentric height MG  MB  GB

I yy
Or MG  GB
V
Since the position of G and B is known from the sectional geometry or design data of the
vessel, the distance GB can be determined. In Eqn. 3.22, the (+) sign is used when G is
below B and the (-) sign used when G falls above B. If the value of as determined above
is positive, then the floating object is in stable equilibrium. If MG is negative, the floating
object is unstable and if MG is zero, the object is in neutral equilibrium.

2.8. Relative Equilibrium of Liquids

If a liquid is contained in a vessel which is at rest, or moving with constant linear
velocity, it is not affected by the motion of the vessel and the pressure distribution is
hydrostatic. But if the container is given a continuous and constant linear acceleration or
is rotated about a vertical axis with uniform angular velocity (resulting in a constant,
inward acceleration), the liquid will eventually reach an equilibrium situation and move
as a solid body with no relative motion between the fluid particles and the container.
Such equilibrium of liquids is referred to as relative equilibrium of liquids. The two cases
of practical interest are:
i) Uniform linear acceleration
ii) Uniform rotation about a vertical axis.
In both cases, since there is no relative motion between fluid particles, shear stress does
not exist and the laws of fluid statics still apply, but in a modified form to allow for the
effect of acceleration.
Uniform Linear Acceleration:
Consider the fluid element, shown in Fig. 3.23, in a vessel containing a liquid with
density  . Let the vessel be given a uniform linear acceleration with components ax, ay,
and az along the x, y, and z directions respectively. Let the pressure at the centre of the
p p p
element be P and pressure gradients , , are assumed to exist in the x, y and z
x y z
directions respectively. The forces acting on the fluid element are shown.

Forces on fluid element under linear acceleration

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Applying Newton's Second Law, the net force in the x-direction is:

which reduces to:

p
  a x
x
In the y-direction, considering the weight of the fluid element, the net force will be

Which reduced to:

p
   g  a y 
y
Similar considerations in the Z direction lead to:
p
  a z
z
Consider a vessel shown in Fig. 3.24 having uniform linear acceleration in the x-y plane
with components a, and a, in the x and y directions respectively.

A vessel under uniform linear acceleration

The total pressure differential is given by:

On lines of constant pressure, the total pressure differential will be zero.

p p
Thus: dx  dy  0
x y

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 Chapter 2 [Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics]

dy p / x a x ax
From which:        tan 
dx p / y  g  a y  a y
 g
This shows that the lines of constant pressure have a constant slope of tan  = -ax/(ay + g).
Since the free surface is a line of constant pressure, the above conclusion also shows that
lines of constant pressure are parallel to the free surface.
Once the position of the free surface is determined for a given acceleration, then the
hydrostatic variation of pressure with depth applies as in fluid statics.
Horizontal Acceleration:
If a vessel containing a liquid moves with a constant linear horizontal acceleration ax, say
in the positive x direction, then ay = 0. Then the slope of the line of constant pressure i.e.
the slope of the free surface will be
dy ax
   tan 
dx g
The variation of pressure with depth will be given by eqn.3.24 with ay = 0, as:
dp
  g
dy
Integrating,
p    gy  C
Measuring the depth h from the free surface vertically down, y will be replaced by (-h).
Taking the free surface pressure as zero, the pressure p at a depth h from the free surface
and at any section will be, as in hydrostatics,
P   gh

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Exercise
1. A vertical rectangular gate AB shown in Figure below has a width of 1.5 m. The
gate is hinged on its upper edge at A.
Determine the moment M at A required to just hold the gate from opening.

2. The 2 m wide and inclined rectangular gate AB shown in Figure below is hinged
at B. The gate is unifrom and weighs 24 kN.
Determine
a) The magnitude and location of the hydrostatic forces on each side of the gate.
b) The resultant of the hydrostatic forces.
c) The force F required to just open the gate.

3. A triangular opening in the form of an.isosceles triangle, with dimensions shown

in Figure below and with its axis of symmetry horizontal, is closed by a plate.
Water stands at 9 m from the axis of symmetry. Determine the resultant
hydrostatic force on the plate and its centre of pressure.

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4. A vertical, symmetrical trapezoidal gate with its upper edge located 5 m below the
free surface is shown in Figure below,
Determine the total hydrostatic force and its centre of pressure.

5. An inverted semicircular plane gate shown in Figure below is installed at 450

inclination as shown. The top edge of the gate is at 3 m below the water surface.
Determine the total hydrostatic force and the centre of pressure.

5. A log hods water as shown in Figure below. Determine

a) The force pushing against the obstruction (dam) per metre length of log.
b) The weight of the log per metre length
c) The specific gravity of the log.

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6.

7.

8.

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