Research Article

Advances in Mechanical Engineering

2017, Vol. 9(8) 1–12
Ó The Author(s) 2017
Additive manufacturing by means of DOI: 10.1177/1687814017714982
journals.sagepub.com/home/ade
laser-aided directed metal deposition
of 2024 aluminium powder:
Investigation and optimization

Fabrizia Caiazzo, Vittorio Alfieri, Paolo Argenio and Vincenzo Sergi

Abstract
Directed metal deposition by means of laser beam is investigated in this article. The process is receiving increasingly
interest in the frame of additive manufacturing to the purpose of maintenance, repair and overhaul of condemned
products when severe conditions hindering the working order have been experienced. Minimal distortion, reduced heat-
affected zones and better surface quality are benefited in comparison with conventional techniques. Namely, metal feed-
ing of 2024 aluminium powder is considered to produce clad traces on 2024 aluminium plates, aiming to give grounds
for repairing damaged real components using materials with same or similar features with respect to the parent metal. A
fibre-delivered disc laser and a three-way feeding nozzle are used. The responses are discussed in terms of geometry,
microstructure and microhardness both in the fusion zone and in the heat-affected zone; the optimization is conducted
via desirability functions, based on proper technical constraints upon numerical modelling. Reparation of real parts,
where cracks are machined to produce V-grooves to be filled, is aimed.

Keywords
Directed metal deposition, aluminium alloy, additive manufacturing, optimization, microstructures

Date received: 29 November 2016; accepted: 20 May 2017

Academic Editor: Min Zhang

Introduction focused heat source to scan the surface, thus creating a

melting pool over an existing substrate. Since metal
A number of innovative technologies are offered in the impinging the pool is fed concurrently (i.e. in single-
literature to the purpose of additive manufacturing to stage processing) in the form of wire or loose powder,5
keep parts and devices in working order when local a deposited metal trace results, with metallurgical bond-
manufacturing imperfections or demanding conditions ing to the substrate thanks to fusion and diffusion. Side
of temperature, wear and mechanical stresses have been overlapping of the individual laser traces is required to
experienced.1 Since part replacement would result in process wider surfaces on 3D complex geometries.
increased costs for any component of complex geome- Namely, the final profile depends on the overlapping
try, mainly in aerospace and automotive,2,3 proper
actions are required to the purpose of cost saving.
Among possible technologies, laser-aided directed metal Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy
deposition (DMD) is thought to be capable of produc-
Corresponding author:
ing near-net-shape and sound clads to successfully per- Fabrizia Caiazzo, Department of Industrial Engineering, University of
form coating for maintenance, repair and overhaul4 of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084 Fisciano, Italy.
condemned products. Namely, a laser beam is used as Email: f.caiazzo@unisa.it

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open-access-at-sage).
2 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

ratio (i.e. the fraction of the clad trace overlapping its noting that the stress–strain curves are significantly
forerunner).6 affected by the deposition strategy of feeding and scan-
Minimal distortion of the workpiece, reduced heat- ning. Nevertheless, optimum processing parameters on
affected zones (HAZs) and better surface quality are worn components result in similar fatigue life with
benefited in laser-aided DMD in comparison with con- respect to casted and machined parts;8 anisotropy is
ventional coating and repairing techniques such as arc reported to occur.21
welding and plasma spraying.7,8 Adherence of the coat- As regarding the materials, interest is growing for
ing and tribological behaviour are reported to be repairing22 and coating23 of 2024 aluminium compo-
higher.9 Enhanced productivity is achieved and grounds nents. Indeed, among all of the commercial high-
are given for automation and reduction of the overall strength heat-treatable and age-hardenable aluminium
processing time, as required in adaptive and flexible alloys, 2024 is widely diffused in a wide range of appli-
manufacturing environments and factories of the cations and manufacturing areas, especially in automo-
future.10 In this frame, a wider processing window is tive, military and aerospace industries, thanks to
offered in terms of speed range when using new genera- excellent plasticity, corrosion resistance, electric con-
tion high-brightness lasers, thanks to better beam qual- ductivity and strength-to-weight ratio.24 Nevertheless,
ity; nevertheless, the eventual width of the clad is specific issues must be addressed: it has been
reported to be narrower; hence, this could not fit to the reported25,26 that the response to the laser beam is hin-
purpose of large coatings.11 dered by reflectivity, high thermal conductivity and
At present, supplying the cladding metal in form of excessive fluidity, as well as affected by significant ten-
wire has been reported to produce low surface quality, dency to pore formation. It is widely accepted that
low bonding strength, porosity and cracks, although micropores in processing 2024 aluminium are mainly
being cheaper and wasting less material compared with ascribed to hydrogen: as high temperatures are experi-
powder feeding. The latter has been proven to be flex- enced in the melting pool, a large amount of hydrogen
ible in materials, robust and effective. Given these rea- is absorbed; hydrogen exceeding the solubility limit at
sons, laser-based DMD with injection of powder has room temperature and not escaping from the solidify-
been given increasing interest;1,12,13 then several studies ing clad results in pores.24 In addition, vaporization
in the literature have discussed the outcome as a func- and loss of low-melting-point alloying elements may
tion of the processing parameters. result in reduced strength as a consequence of rapid
Among major concerns, possible contamination of heating and cooling thermal cycles.26
the parent metal must be restrained. To this purpose, Aiming to give grounds for repairing of real compo-
dilution is considered,4 indexing the result of mixing nents using materials with same or similar features with
with the substrate, hence the bonding quality. A quali- respect to the parent metal, 2024 aluminium powder
tative meaning can be given: high dilution is typical of has been considered in this study to produce clad traces
processing conditions where high laser power resulted in the form of single deposition for an overall scanning
in overmelting of the substrate with reduced net deposi- length of 100 mm on 5-mm-thick 2024 aluminium plates
tion; on the other hand, low dilution would lead to in T3 state. The outcome has been discussed in terms of
poor bonding with possible lack of fusion,14 although a geometry, microstructure and microhardness as a func-
quantitative optimal threshold depends on the material. tion of the processing parameters. Optical and electron
Additionally, control of possible formation of pores microscopy observations, Vickers microhardness tests
is crucial, as inter- and intra-layer porosity can result and energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) inspections
from improper processing, the former due to oxidation have been conducted as well, so to discuss the evolution
and incomplete fusion of powder, the latter due to
of microstructure resulting from melting of parent metal
imperfect side overlapping among traces; the stress
with addition of powder. An optimum condition has
intensity factor is increased as a consequence. Non uni-
been suggested based on proper technical goals combin-
form microstructure can result as well, depending on
ing into an overall desirability function,27 the approach
the thermal history as a function of the distance from
being one of the most widely used in the industry for
the laser beam and the cooling rate.15
optimization of processes with multiple responses.
To the purpose of improving the understanding of
the process, a number of models have been developed
to.16–18 Finite element analysis has been proven to be Experimental procedure
reliable in predicting the mechanical behaviour of the
parts,19 as for any process with localized heat source. A A laser deposition line to perform additive manufactur-
quantitative thermal damage model for static and fati- ing is a complex system where a number of base compo-
gue tensile properties upon laser cladding has also been nents are required (Figure 1). To the purpose of this
proposed as a function of microhardness, residual stress work, a fibre-delivered Yb:YAG disc laser source, oper-
and material discontinuity:20 in particular, it is worth ating in continuous wave emission (Table 1), has been
Caiazzo et al. 3

Figure 1. Main components in typical laser deposition line.

Table 1. Main technical features of the laser system. environment. A tilting angle of 4° has been used for the
laser head, in agreement with common practice to pro-
Parameter Value cess highly reflective metals such as aluminium and
Operating nominal wavelength (nm) 1030
copper to prevent back-reflections from entering the
Beam parameter product (mm 3 mrad) 8.0 optics train.26 Particle size of the powder, spherical
Maximum output power (kW) 4.0 shaped, ranges from 20 to 60 mm, as provided and cer-
Core diameter of the delivering fibre (mm) 300 tified by the manufacturer; the chemical composition
Focused spot diameter (mm) 300 has been measured via EDS (Table 2). Since a steady
feeding rate must be provided consistently, the powder
has been preliminary dried, in furnace, 180°C, 2 h, so
to flow properly via the conveyor.
Since many variables are involved in DMD, a sys-
tematic approach has been taken. The main inputs have
been selected based on the referred literature: the effects
of laser power P and laser scanning speed s have been
discussed for given powder feeding rate of 3 g min21
and given positive defocusing providing a processing
laser beam diameter of 3 mm on the substrate. A full-
factorial, two-factor, two-level experimental plan has
Figure 2. Powder feeding and metal shielding via a three-way
been considered, with the addition of the central point
nozzle; the scheme is not to scale. (Figure 3), the choice being consistent with the litera-
ture on the same subject1,2 for work planning; five pro-
cessing conditions resulted.
considered. The movement of the laser head is accom- The processing levels of the experimental plan have
plished by a six-axis industrial robot with dedicated been adjusted based on preliminary trials, so to result in
controller; an in-built feeding nozzle is moved with the valuable outcomes (i.e., preventing detachment, balling,
laser head. lack of clad or excessive dilution). With specific respect
A three-way feeding nozzle, receiving the base metal to power and speed, it has been taken into account that
from a powder feeder with oscillating conveyor, has part of the laser irradiation for diffusion bonding and
been used to supply the powder:wider and thicker surface melting is lost in reflections, whereas the scan-
traces are produced with respect to single co- or off- ning speed must be taken below a threshold value so to
axial feeding, to the purpose of shifting the optimiza- promote homogenization of the interface between trace
tion to real application where throughput is crucial. and substrate;4 technical constraints on maximum deli-
Namely, three stream cones of metal powder enclosing verable power to the nozzle and allowed flow rate have
the laser beam are provided (Figure 2); each stream is been considered as well to position the processing
injected by its separate argon conveying flow. Argon window.
as well, flowing coaxially to the laser beam, has been Defocusing of the laser beam has been accomplished
considered to shield the melting pool from the by means of automatic movable lens focusing system,
4 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Table 2. AA 2024 powder, nominal chemical composition (wt%), as resulted from EDS inspections.

Al Cu Mg Mn Fe Si Zn Ti

Bal. 4.20 1.75 0.51 0.45 0.35 0.20 0.12

Figure 4. Scheme of the main geometrical responses to be

measured in the cross-section.

metallic materials. Eventually, areal and punctual

Figure 3. Full-factorial plan, resulting processing conditions. inspections have been conducted via EDS in backscat-
tered electron imaging, with 15 kV accelerating tension.
to the purpose of increasing the size of the melting pool Numerical modelling and optimization of the responses
so to match the powder stream cones, thus improving have been conducted via a commercial statistical
catchment; lower irradiance has been benefited as well, software.
to the purpose of reduced penetration depth and dilu-
tion in turn. The flow rate for both carrier and shielding Results and discussion
argon has been taken as a constant, 3 and 10 L min21,
respectively. The aspect and the corresponding macrographs in the
Three runs have been planned for each processing transverse cross-section have been discussed for each
condition; a random test procedure has been arranged.28 processing condition (Table 3). Successful cladding
The geometry has been evaluated upon cross-cutting, resulted, based on visual inspections; shielding is
namely, three samples from each trace have been consid- deemed to be effective, no cracks neither macropores
ered; the results have been averaged among them to resulted on the surface.
assess the statistical significance. Polishing to mirror fin- Nevertheless, a number of micropores, ranging in
ish and chemical etching with a solution consisting of size from 10 to 75 mm on average, have been found
10% hydrofluoric acid, 15% nitric acid and water at (Figure 5). One may assume this would not result in
room temperature24 has been performed. rejection of parts at quality checks. Usual international
In agreement with common practice in DMD, a or customer standards for quality in laser welding30 are
number of geometrical responses in the cross-section borrowed, since no specific regulations are available at
(Figure 4) have been measured as a function of the gov- present for DMD. Namely, the highest level (Class A)
erning parameters: width w, depth d, height h, shape of the standard is matched in terms of both maximum
angle a at both sides of the trace, the extent of the allowed size (0.75 mm at surface, 1.5 subsurface) and
fusion zone FZ. Measurements have been conducted accumulated length (3 mm at surface, 6 mm subsur-
by means of conventional optical microscopy. Dilution face). Based on this, all of the conditions of the plan
d has been measured as the ratio of penetration depth are hence deemed to be valuable to feed the numerical
to total transverse size of the trace4 models and the optimization.

d Geometry
d=
h+d
Usual geometrical responses in the cross-section have
Moreover, Vickers microhardness testing has been been measured (Table 4) to infer general dependences
performed; an indenting load of 0.100 kg has been used to drive the numerical regression. Dilution is found to
for a dwell period of 10 s; a step of 165 mm has been be higher than 50%: although this would not be suit-
allowed between consecutive indentations, in compli- able for fabrication of parts, the investigating domain
ance with ISO standard29 for hardness testing on is intended to fit the need for part repairing.
Caiazzo et al. 5

Table 3. Trace aspects and corresponding samples of transverse cross-section for each processing condition.

Trace aspect Transverse cross-section

2.0 kW power,
300 mm min21 speed

2.0 kW power,
500 mm min21 speed

2.5 kW power,
400 mm min21 speed

3.0 kW power,
300 mm min21 speed

3.0 kW power,
500 mm min21 speed

As concerning the main effect plots (Figure 6), width otherwise, as a reduced heat input is provided.
is found to increase for increasing power, as expected; Consistently with similar findings in the literature on
the same is found to decrease for increasing speed DMD of aluminium powder,17 an increase of power
6 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Table 4. Average geometrical responses for each processing condition.

P (kW) s (mm min21) w (mm) h (mm) d (mm) Left a (°) Right a (°) FZ (mm2) d (%)

2.0 300 5.33 1.38 1.81 55.3 50.6 11.3 57

2.0 500 4.31 1.11 1.22 49.6 48.9 6.6 52
2.5 400 5.30 1.10 2.13 39.9 38.8 11.3 66
3.0 300 7.04 1.07 3.23 39.8 30.6 19.7 75
3.0 500 5.38 0.96 2.25 35.3 28.4 11.3 70

the best model for each response, have been selected by

means of analysis of variance (ANOVA) via sequential
statistical tests in a step-wise regression approach. As
expected from the main effect and the interaction plots,
linear trends resulted with no interactions between
power, as expressed in kilowatts, and speed as expressed
in millimetres per minute

w = 4:7 + 1:4  P  7  103  s

h = 2:1  0:2  P  103  s
d = 0:7 + 1:2  P  4  103  s
a = 92:5  17:5  P  1:8  102  s

Figure 5. Micropores in the fusion zone; central condition of FZ = 8:77 + 6:6  P  3:3  102  s
the plan (2.5 kW laser power, 400 mm min21 speed). d = 28:3 + 18:2  P  2:3  102  s

As a consequence of these, the response surfaces are

also yields an increase in penetration depth since the planar in the domain. The statistical significance of
energy to melt the substrate is increased; therefore, each model has been assessed28 in terms of both p-val-
width and depth are found to show the same trends, ues and R-squared factors (Table 5), the former being a
which is inherited by the extent of the fusion zone, as a measure of probability of noise occurrence, hence
consequence. As regarding the clad height, it is worth expected to be lower than 0.05, the latter assessing the
noting that although the effect appears to be less signif- capability of the model in reproducing the variation of
icant, increasing power results in decreasing height as a the dependent variable, hence expected to be close to 1.
larger pool is induced; hence, the powder is laid on a Good reliability has been shown when comparing pre-
larger trace. Increasing processing speed results in dicted and actual values for each response.
decreasing height as less powder is laid per unit length,
since the in-built feeding nozzle is moved with the laser
head. The same trend is found for the average shape
Microstructure and microhardness
angle; the same reasons apply, accordingly. The trend Before moving to the optimization of the process, the
for dilution results from concurrent effects of the gov- microstructure has been investigated in order to discuss
erning factors on depth and height, the former ruling possible affection beyond the fusion zone, hence possi-
the outcome, since any increase in power or speed ble specific constraints to be laid. Indeed, the parent
yields a decrease on height. Smaller shape angle is metal is expected to follow different mechanical
found in conditions of higher dilution, in the investigat- responses based on the experienced thermal cycle as in
ing domain for the alloy in exam. thermal aging, hence depending on the distance from
As concerning the interaction plots, data lines have the laser beam. Since hardness is intended to be a mea-
been found to be nearly parallel when referred either to sure of strength as a consequence of thermal affection,
power or speed; therefore, only weak interactions are its trend in the cross-section has been discussed as a
inferred to be in place within the investigating domain; function of the distance from trace centre (Figure 7).
similar findings are reported in the literature;2 hence, Common trends and values have been found, irre-
setting a two-level experimental plan has been proven spective of the processing conditions. Namely, average
to be valid. base hardness is 145 HV0.1 in the parent metal in T3
The regression models for the responses have been state, whose strength is improved by means of solution
drawn: the significant terms to be included, therefore treating and room temperature aging upon cold
Caiazzo et al. 7

Figure 6. Main effect plots for mean responses as a function of the governing factors.
8 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Table 5. Resulting p-values and R-squared factors for each regression model.

Response P p-value s p-value Model p-value R-squared

W \0.0001 \0.0001 \0.0001 0.93

h 0.0032 0.0090 0.0022 0.73
d \0.0001 \0.0001 \0.0001 0.96
a 0.0028 0.0184 0.0034 0.83
FZ 0.0017 0.0120 \0.0001 0.96
d \0.0001 0.0104 \0.0001 0.95

Figure 7. Vickers microhardness trend in the cross-section, 1 mm from the nominal surface of the plate; central condition of the
plan (2.5 kW laser power, 400 mm min21 speed).

Figure 8. Micrograph, parent metal; elongated grains in Figure 9. Micrograph, core of the fusion zone; central
longitudinal and long-transverse direction. condition of the plan (2.5 kW laser power, 400 mm min21
speed).

working, with elongated grains in both the longitudinal 115 HV0.1 where fine grains are produces in the core
and long-transverse direction (Figure 8). Steep soften- (Figure 9). A pronounced columnar structure, which is
ing is experienced in the fusion zone, to average usually referred to as feather crystals31 and is driven by
Caiazzo et al. 9

Figure 12. SEM inspections, feather crystals at FZ boundary;

Figure 10. Micrograph, feather crystals at FZ boundary; central condition of the plan (2.5 kW laser power,
central condition of the plan (2.5 kW laser power, 400 mm min21 speed).
400 mm min21 speed).

quantitative analyses are provided (Table 6), in com-

parison with the average values as obtained in the par-
ent metal. The chemical composition in punctual
inspection at grain boundaries depends on the site of
interest, thus suggesting that a compound of intermetal-
lics is formed. Post-processing heat treating is suggested
to recover base hardness in the fusion zone and the
HAZ, as usual practice upon welding, irrespective of
the heat source.24

Optimization
Figure 11. SEM inspections, core of the fusion zone; central Since a number of responses are involved in DMD,
condition of the plan (2.5 kW laser power, 400 mm min21 some constraints must be defined to find the optimum;
speed). moreover, different importance can be awarded to each
constraint, based on proper technical goals. Aiming to
the direction of the thermal gradient (Figure 10), is reparation of real parts, where cracks are machined to
found towards the boundary. An intermediate produce V-grooves to be filled, minimization has been
130 HV0.1 is measured between the parent metal and required for clad height and dilution, whereas maximi-
the fusion zone instead, where a HAZ is produced. zation has been preferred for depth. A relative weight
Given the step between consecutive indentations, one has been awarded to each technical constraint, accord-
can assume the HAZ to range from 100 to 250 mm at ing to common industrial needs, to fit the purpose of
most, which is roughly 7% of average clad width and part repairing. Namely, maximum importance (50%)
12% of total transverse size. The original grain size is has been awarded to the constraint involving dilution
not affected in the HAZ; nevertheless, overaging is aiming to reduce the affection of the parent metal,
deemed to be experienced; coalescence of dispersoids although the same material is used; medium impor-
gives reason for lower hardness with respect to finer tance (30%) has been awarded to depth and low impor-
precipitation in the parent metal. tance (20%) to height, since post processing on the
To further support these assumptions, the results of surface is expected to be performed upon repairing to
SEM inspections are given. Bright original phase con- restore nominal dimensions. Constraints for the HAZ
stituents are found at grain boundaries in the fusion can be neglected, being it limited in size, irrespective of
zone, both in the core (Figure 11) and towards its the processing conditions, as resulting from Vickers
boundary, where elongated grains are produced testing.
(Figure 12): clusters of typical intermetallics such as The individual desirability D(y) for each response
S-phase, u-phase and a-phase are thought to surround has been given a value ranging between 0 and 1 repre-
dark aluminium clad matrix grains. senting either a completely undesirable outcome or the
Areal and punctual inspections have been conducted ideal one, respectively; linear individual desirability has
indeed for the aluminium matrix and the grain bound- been considered in this article. Based on the idea that a
aries, respectively (Figure 13). The corresponding product or a process with several features and responses
10 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Figure 13. EDS inspection: sites of interest in the fusion zone; central condition of the plan (2.5 kW laser power, 400 mm min21
speed).

Table 6. Average weight percentages of the main elements, as resulted from EDS inspections in the corresponding sites of interest.

Site of interest Cu Mg Mn Si Fe Al

Clad matrix 0.93 1.17 0.30 0.02 97.45

Grain boundary – site 1 26.42 2.16 0.25 0.17 0.14 70.33
Grain boundary – site 2 23.57 1.71 0.29 0.22 0.32 73.88
Grain boundary – site 3 18.20 1.60 1.81 0.56 3.68 74.15
Grain boundary – site 4 27.03 1.51 0.10 0.20 0.12 70.29
Grain boundary – site 5 30.82 2.09 0.12 0.49 0.20 66.27
Parent metal 3.35 1.85 0.35 0.22 0.10 94.01

is completely unacceptable if even only one of them

drops outside of some desired limits,27 the overall desir-
ability function D* has been evaluated
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
D =
3
D0:2 0:3
1 ðhÞ  D2 ðd Þ  D3 ðdÞ
0:5

Importance is expressed by each exponent to each

individual desirability. A response surface has been
drawn (Figure 14) for the overall desirability, as a func-
tion of the governing factors. The condition with the
maximum possible desirability has been selected as
optimum, 2.5 kW laser power, 420 mm min21 process-
ing speed, resulting in an overall desirability of 51%.
Although higher desirability is usually expected and
suggested, the response surface is found to be flat about
this optimum; hence, robustness is benefited and pro-
cessing is deemed to be stable in case of possible devia- Figure 14. Response surface of the overall desirability, as a
tions of the governing parameters with respect to the function of the governing factors.
nominal optimum condition.

powder. It is worth noting that although all of the pro-

Conclusion cessing conditions of the experimental plan resulted in
Grounds have been given in the frame of repairing of effective cladding along the scanning direction (i.e. pre-
real aluminium parts by means of DMD with metal venting balling and macropores according to usual
Caiazzo et al. 11

standards for quality in laser welding), some constraints 5. Steen WM and Mazumder J. Laser material processing.
must be considered for the responses so to find an opti- London: Springer-Verlag, 2010.
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Acknowledgements
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