things to remember

1 Larger surface .
area increases the reaction
2 .
Catalyst only changes the mechanism of a reaction
3 . Difference between pH and POH
4 half
.

pka is equivalence point

5 Eun timers .
are chiral carbon
notating isomers
G A standard . solution is one of known concentration

7.

& Boron an Beri liam form stable compounds

which dont follow the octet rule
Carbon and silicon form
10 .

giant covalent network covalent

bonding structures .

is 82
-

It .
Sulfide
/

Stochiome
AtomicStrue
Basics
How to Differentiate Isotopes
mass
spectrometry
Complex Ion

[complex ion
] salt anion

complexion is whatever is in the brackets

.
Calculating Ionisation Energy
Sgt : -

this is is in reference to

the wavelength
need to hit an
of
light you
electron on
hit to cause it to
escape .

All this asks is to find IE or

X If of
light for electron
to
escape atom
.

Use these equations

Calculating Energy For

switching between
X and f
frequency fingers
, chemists )
E -

- W VX
c =

/ t
T
'

IE int Planks speed y ,

of
constant light
Homo Hetero
ganus vs
genus
Periodicity
shell I
2,3 , 4 period
:
,

sub shell herd : 1,434 Spd f

orbital : D one box

Trends in Ionization Energy
stable
configurations
④ WE 0111/1411/11 full sub shell

half filled sub shell

octet rule
-

4
3ds 3d ' 3d 3p 3ps
'
45 4s
'
3p
'

why is there an increase ? difference ?

whey is there a

iiniiiaseiiseneiiiton -
electron
III.ns.mpiiYehrimssdiawmaeteorbiiui
repulsion is decreased

• in the same sub shell so

.

as more electrons
'

3pb closer to nucleus thus harder to remove

less shielded
are removed
,
the pull of nucleons holds onto
remainly electrons more
tightly .
Bonding
How do Lone Pairs effect Polarity

III
-

l
P E -
p -

E
' I ' ET ET
El
Electronegativity F) electuary P
←
t EE
→

middle pulls resolve to Zero

lone
pair means there is
a resultant polar free q gyu .

y
up and down 9150 resolve to zero .
 :::tr
8¥

Thermochemistry
 DHformation
exothermic reaction
rectal

! v¥÷÷
Ottman .
OH =
OH final -

OH initial
.

'¥ant
EH
atrium

-
From vectors
•

OH =
-

Gtf t DH pred
=
OH prod -

Otte
of
Endothermic Reactions
negative
adding
product before
possi k fof%dfm. i r

retail /
① H reaction
f
\
DH-DHfproam-DHfr.ci#

-
Bond
Enthalpy
DH -
-
bonds broken -

bonds formed
f 'T
'

ans
:p
endothermic exothermic
+ OH -

OH
Hess's law
to do these , flip
switch and

multiply the equations

so that natant
and call
products
to needed equation .

Nyt Oz -7 2 NO
/
xz

X 2

2N Its → Ny t
31¥ X3

3¥ t Zz Oz -7 3h20
2N Azt Zz Oz -72 Not 3Tto

Just look what

you need to make
all the coefficients
the same .
Gibbs Free Energy
Gibbs free to do
energy is the
energy audible
useful work ( boring definition)
DH =
energy released by reaction
D G = OH TDf t temperature
-

- -

OS energy released by reaction

=

dpmertounifisgrdwer.in
increase
J J KJKT .

my understanding the
.
① Must understand sign difference
energy out of molecule → into universe
ft : energy from universe → into molecule
T :
always positive
IOS energy released result of disorder created perk
:
as .

..

DS :
energy taken into molecule from universe by creating order in universe .

DG being
in from universe and more order is
+ energy is taken
.

created Against laws of thermodynamics and

"

. is thus non -

Spon

DG by adding
energy is released to universe either heat or
:
making it Yore
-

messy
impossible

Trae:%a§÷÷÷÷: I ORDERED
ordered COLD

gtttawtspontanietytel.E.EE
HA WT
+
VariousEnthalpy Changes DH
D Moomba enthalpy change
when substance
:
is burned in
oxygen
on
always negative and exothermic .

Dharma ..
: Troi:# fire:* Is: :
elements in their standard
state

DH atomization
: enthalpy change it turning
mole of atoms in their standon
one

slate into
gaseous atoms .

DH .
.
enthalpy to
completely
dissolve gas ions
diluted solution
in

hydration
.

① Ahaha ,is pion :

the enthalpy change when one

.
acid base solution neutralise
each other .

D H ionisation energy change Ireqaimg

the
:

to ionic one mole of atoms

change to add one
D H affinity
the
:
energy
electron to an atom .
 to break apart I
note of
enthalpy change
OH ,am,
: NaCl
are in
is ionic lattice
finely far
away
so that the molecules

wages , → Na trop ta
-

ray
t if break
-
if put together
DH Lattice ( physics)
to break 1 mole of
Def :
Energy required
lattice into in finely
crystal spaced gaseous ions
.

the DH depends on the charge density

And is a measure of how strong the
ionic forces of the molecules are to each other .

In this would be a math calculation

.

physics
to find the WD is separating ionic charges
.

would
hard thebewb
lim
WD -
- f d -
= kafir =

r → as
g hog

iii.Yagi:chis
.

arrangement .
Born Harbour Cycle on.ie,
purpose : the BH
Cycle is used to find the Dharmanon
solid salts ( e.g NaCl ) the BHC takes what you know
.

about OH and combines them together .

Born Habowcyde

÷ ÷ ÷i .f÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
-

Nya
'

te't 4

DH atomization Ch Tatooine ✓
auton
affinity ① Turn to
gaseous
Natta
-

rg) ions
Natron # zig
-

te t ,

atomizing and
|

:p
-

:
OH ionisation of Nara

""

cyst lattice structure

µ Himation
.

Nadel Nau 1st

#
 ft easws )
OH solution
's
DH for Salts Dissolved in Water
If I have a salt

- -

what is the when salt

enthalpy change
-
-

✓ '
S is di solved in water ?
this is known as the solubility of salts
HOH DO insoluble

DH re 0 perhaps solvable
DH KO definitely solvable .

Can we directly measure the solubility of salts ? Not well

thats why Hess 's things

we use a
Cycle to do .

sci is, Anion rant Cation ran

e)
endothermic
" """ exothermic
tf
Mg Ck
'

µ.
.

... .... . .
a'time:*: I'its:::: i

" "" ""

÷:÷÷÷÷÷÷÷
""

.
energy diagrams
②
200Mt
-

! i
ELTH
attic

Hydration
""
'att

( Etfydrta f
/Y
on
① ③

↳
out

f
energy

Hsa energy

# ③
exothermic reaction endothermic reaction

.
reactants are more soluble if → if purple arrow is small then reaction
purple arrow is
large enough .
is possible with some help.

→
reaction is not possible and reactants are

probably insoluble if purple is

really large
Ozone Equations
chemicalkineh.CI
Collision
theory which
Theory
determines whether a reaction will happen
or hot . In order for a reaction to
happen 3 conditions

must be met :

I .
Partials must COLLIDE

2. Correct Orientation / Geometry

need to hit so that reactants can combine

with each other .

3. Partials must hare enough activation

energy
Rate of Reaction
rate of = -
Of reactants ]
-

reaction Of

= Ocpoductsi
of
to
ways measure Rate of reaction

•
color
•
pH ( acid base reaction
•
concentration fuse spectrometry
•
P VT
,
( gas involved)

conductivity ( redox reaction )

•

mass ( gas is escaping)

graphs For reaction A TB → Ctb
concert have

|¥J"'÷
here, an reactants

.
turned to products
products Rto

→
¥¥" _ reactants htt B)
Measuring the rate of reaction
what is this actually asking for is determine
the
that shows how the different substances
graph
time these
are
changing over .

graphs can then give

you the rate at different times as Kee rate is

always changing .
For various diff experiments
unit should be chosen to be
an
appropriate
measured against time .

what effects the rate of a reaction

Faster / higher rate is due to :

I ÷÷÷÷÷
Increase in
→
temperature
→ decrease in sur phase area wool

p →
higher concentration
} SAY

#
.

-
Molecularity
this is the amount of molecules involved in
a reaction .

Molecularity

① ① →
@ bimolecular 2

C → C) unimolealuntg I
Rate Expression
the Rate
determining step is derived from the concentrations
of the molecules which are
part of the rate detouring
step .

the expression experimentally

Finding rate can

help us determine the mechanism of a reaction .

However it does not mechanism to be

prove
a

true as

I other mechanisms could

-

give same result

2. mechanisms can only be false
proven .

3 . Does not
give information after rate determining
step .
 Kinetic Equations Explanation
rate
constant Constant for
each
reaction

\ [ ← activation
energy
ph temp
- ✓ 8.3 )
between
"
°

temperature ? the
difference
based
rates s
change in rate after
temperature
←
two,
constant . Shows how
it is only effected
Regression transformation
by temperature .

CI
Ink
-

=
tha
k

y to
.

m x

plot ran A
En
-

m .

me:::*:ten .

temperatures
different
the grad can find the
activation
energy .
Molecularity
this explains it all
Equilibrium
Q vs K
 RT Inka
!¥eg. s u #aar a auai n ons ) g I s . . i t m : : : o te r : g i : b nr i u m
= -

the amount of energy

negative because
06 must be negative
perk degrees per
Whole of
to be spontaneous gas molecules
.

Comes from

06=6 final -

Ginitul
= 6 -

Rtluk
'

I
At equilibrium
6=0 .
:
06 = -

Rthk
Acids&B
Definitions
① B. rousted
Lawry
-

Ac iBase
d

Goon
for bases its the OA
'

accepts Ht
,

donate Ht which accepts the Itt

"t
"" """"

r
-
t't
#
i' " "

n
→ .

Nat H2O

② Lewis

actepidaearonp.ir#eaInai
Ht
facial
Complexions
lewis acids .
are ligands are lewis

f)
bases

"
:÷i ÷÷÷÷÷÷÷:÷÷m .
Weak strong vs

strong will fully dissociate

:
when dissolved
in water .

Acid l Base

ftp.t it -n#iNaCHzC00
Hzsoy Itt +5042 Natt OH
-

NaOH
-

→ →

all ions separate . all ions dissociate fully in solution .

Weak only partially disassociates

:

city:# teats H'

:p
-

Nhut is a

strong base strong acid .

Strong Acid weak

conjugate base
"
weak conjugate acid
strong Base
 (
Amphoteric acid
Amphiphilic
can react as an can accept and donate
or a base .
a
proton -

Only apply s to
B L -

Dif¥
hot specific to Be specific to BL .
Only
can include Lewis BL , hot Lewis

Ampk : can act as two things

:::::::i::÷:÷÷:::÷
in

amphoteric
The Essential Interaction .

2h20 F Hz Ot OH
-

N hydroni am ion

⑦ ①
t →
① Ojai: in

the most important reaction in understanding

Acid Base reactions is when a hydrogen
-

1proton off the water molecule onto

pops
another water to form the hydro
him ion
and the hydroxide ion .

Htt OH
-

H2O
① → o t O,
this is generally simplified as a proton
popping off a water molecule .
① ⑤ this reaction
a stable
is in
→ 0, equilibrium
at any given moment
there
2h20
-
Hzot age
-

OH 7
-
lo pH 7
-

water sits at an
equilibrium ①
-
7

O,
'
"
of Kw = ( Hook OH -1=10
this constant represents how the concentrations of these
ions are
proportional to each other . As one
goes up ,
the other
goes down .

It so d
kwo¥
neutral substance ? A this is is when and OH
-

Hzo
hare equal concentrations .

'
"
Kw = ( Hook OH -1=10

}
10-7×10-7 '
Yongownipbearsugorunear
neutral =

acidic =
toe , or .

but
they
will alway
'"
-

basic 10-2 equate to

10 at
"
=
10 x

STP
How do Strong Acids & Bases Effect pH ?
2 Hz Of Hzo =*¥%9
"
no
OH ku
-

HCl + H2o →
Hyo ta

0.00000001 Wwl
O 00000001 mob
.

to be chats principal
according
has to
this stay as a constant
kw=HY¥og
"
in water If one gets bigger
.
-
-
hi

then the other must get smaller .

When knot of Aso is added the reaction

,
for this
makes
of OH OH reads
-

.
up -
by
with
decreasing
other Hzo
the cone
to turn
back into water , there by conserving th
constant
equilibrium .

\ Wwl Hz O
-

and 0 .
00000000000001 Mob OH
M
so Kw Constant
-

I x (O = = .
pkw POH pH strong Abida:&
ku =L H 'T LOH ]
-

log k log [ H 'T log [ OH I

-

= t
w

log hw log Ht t
log [OH ]
-
-

= -

log to
""
=
pH t
p
OH

14 =p H t
p OH

at stand temperatures pH and POH add up to 14

 Ionic Product of Water
water is
slightly ionic
,
in that it splits
up into hydrogen and oxygen .

H2O Ht OH
-

⇐ t OH -
- s 7kt

thus it sits at
equilibrium
( I concentration

[Ht][OH#
=

Insentient
equilibrium
,

of water
t [ Hz O )
In a one molar solution ,
( H2O ] 21

ku =L H 'T LOH ]
-

i.

Kw
"
At standard
temperature and
-

IHO M
-

prea sure
-

Variations with temperature

=

:÷:÷÷÷÷÷÷÷:÷
Kw

⇐ ÷ .

temp
strong Acids and Bases
pH of photic and Dipntic Atoms .

Def pH log ( Ht ]
-
-
-

stony photic acids HCl dissociates

in water
completely
HCl Ht ta the concentration of
-
i
-7 .

It will just be the

volume of acid their

pH = -

log ( HCl ) s
logged .

Strong Dipotic Acid eraipaiicsowenb

Hz 504 → 2 Htt Soy you multiply the air
of the acid
by 2

because you get

pH =

log 2 ( Hz SOD
-

twice as many protons .

Kg Ky Kw
X = derivation and explanation

weak acid
HA H2O FA Hz Ot
-

t t

acid water conjugal base

-

hydro nium ion

ka =CA7CHso#
CHAT

weak base
Bt H2O f HB t
OH
-

base water conjugate

acid
hydroxide

kb=CHBXO#
( ] B
conjugate acid base
Derivation for pairs

kaxhyeXHBICOHT-XATCH.ci#
IB CHAT
×

A- -

-
B FOH ][ HOT
HB = HA = kw
example :
weak acid CHgcooltwnjuntbae.CI/-zC0O-
acid base

Hz0JCHzC0oHtOHka=k"zE¥%f}
CHzcootttttzo-CHzcoo-tttzocttzl.CO
-

.=Cats¥%H a
L

kaxkye.tt#HzotHCCHsCoo-H-oHI
/ @ ] [CHz#
×
Hzcoo
=[ Hs LOH ]
kw
kw -_ka×kb
-
-

pkw
pkatpkbkw-kaxkblogab-loyatlogblogkw-logka.hn
-

logki-logk.at/ogkb ×
-
i

logkw logkat logkb

-

= -
-

:
pku pkatpkb
-

-
.

i. at STP 14 pkatpkb
-

-
Calculations with Weak Acids / Base
weak acids do not completely disassociate
in water so their pH wont be so easy
to
calculate For acids. we use :

equilibrium

K
constant

HA T Ht
-
a

t A
conjugate
&:gI
wealth Protons
's:p 9
of acid→

( Ht ) ( Any
ka = -

[ HAT

these can be used to find the Itt ane and thus

pH
finding pH 22
Ht = A
-

=3 ka =

Initial cone Ci solve quadratic

-
. -

HA =
Ci -

x
pH =
-109K
For Acid Find pott then use 14 =
pH t
POH .
pH-hppOHWWeeaakttoidsambase.se
QuickEquah
ACID BASE
Ht A base
-

HA t OH
-

t cation
E →

f- ( Ht ]=[ A ] Fone OH the Coat'oD=[ OH ]

'

potiche
'

ha that ↳ ::r÷÷
=

htt
ka
-
-

[acid # ] kb=COHI
[ base]
pH=kaCHAT poH=IkbCbaseT
pH ftp.CHAT poH=/lo-Mb[baseT
-
-

Henderson Hasselbach Equation

HAT Htt A- BtHzO- BHT
-

t OH
[HCHI
ka CHAT=
µy=lBHtXO CBT

CHAI COAT kb
-

ka
( Ht] logCOHT-i-logkbbz.it
[ A- ]
-

=
logkb log :*
-
-

togcttt]= togha
-

pkbtlogBBIwniacidrmtulpH-pkatlogf.IT#YaYiiaib
POH
-

=
'
:÷ C) basernttsl
pH Weah Acid Base
simple

IkaCacia3@Ht3-fkbCbaseTpH-YogioCHtD-l4-flog.o
[ Ht 's =

COAT )
 what will happen when

the salt is mixed with water?

Salty
from
salts bases together
come
mixing acids and
and then boiling the solution so
only the salt is
left.

① How salts are created

NaOH

Acid mixed with base

/ Forms salt and water

t i
Ii :
-
a
ami →

solution is heated water evaporates asnddtisbotttfedm

 ② Reaction with water
when the salt is repeat into a liquid solution
how it reacts with water depends on what acid)base
it came from .

Acids and Bases

weak vs
strong
# Partial Dissociation
full dissociation
0% 100% 1%
99%

H④ → t
④ CHI OOH TCHzoot H
Cat OH
Na④ ④ →

-
+
④ wants to stick
wants to together
breakup
acids /
th strong base there is In weak acids / bases
no interaction with water the salt animation reacts
ions want to be on with water H or OH
as a
ripping
their own There are no
.
off in order to form the
initial acid This results in
pH changes due to strong
.

salts .
pH changes .
example Cfb COO Na
:

→what does it from ?

come

Comes from GHz COOH a weak acid and NaOH

a
strong base
NaOH Nat OH Nat will stay
-

→ +
as ion

CHEO will rip Ht ions off

the water leaving

-

OH

CHZCOOH # HzCOO't Ht around i.

making thee
solution somewhat
←

¥id
basi
acidic
Na
CHIYO V HP
me.
Buffered
Buffer solutions resist a
change in pH when ,
a small
amount of acid or base is added .

Types of Buffers
-
L l v
acidic buffer
alkaline buffer
WA t Salt IWA SB) salt IWBSA )
• .
WB t
" ""

fit scout & CHzoo Na N Hz & NH Cl

y

HzCOs & Na Hoz

Hs PQ, & Na Ha Poo ,

Acid Buffer Preparation WA

Buffer solution can be made by mixing with SB
example :

( HZCOOH t
NaOH →
CAHOON at H2O
I mot O Sind
-

res : ( Az OH t
( Hs COO Na

O . Smuts O 5 mots
.
Acidic Buffer
made from a WA and the salt of the WA and SB

whats in the water ?

994 .
1%
In the water weak acid
(HzCOOH CHEOO Ht
-

t
awe wasB salt is added .

lo lo 99%
dissociatebut
00 t Nat YI faggot
-

him:÷i÷÷÷¥ ..

And CH zCOO
-

How does it
respond to small additions of base /acid
Adding→ OH
-

t '

÷:*
C Hz COOH t H
C
Hz COO
-

i.:÷÷÷¥¥÷:
"sort
it ,

effectively
removed
 Basic Buffer
Made from WB and salt of WB and SA .

Whats in the water ?

994 .
1%
In water WB and WBSH sat
N Azt H2O N Hut OH
-

t
is added f head is

¥t
.

lo lo 99%
NHS and N Hut
N Hy Cl t
-

→ NH , + CI

tim:e÷:*: :*
'm
µ
.

and NH ht

How does it
respond to small additions of base -

facial
Adding OH
-

OH t N Hut N Hz t Hz O
-

t.to#.a:sHt
→

H t
Adding
'

ti: :*: . ÷:: effectively removed

What does Neutral pH mean ?
'
"
Htt OH kilo
HzOF
-

HC in !is¥
Neutral [ Ht ] LOHJ
-

Acidic [ Ht ] > LOHJ

Basic [ Ht ] HI
Lots of
things happen in a reaction at , equilibrium
everything is stable Because the split
.
is even
the concentration of Ht and OH the
-

is same .

Fi
-7
(H 'T to
Pptt tf
= =

(Ht ]z
""
10 =
-7
[ OH J A to
-

= =
 pH curves

this part is where acid

to water this is the same
is
being added ,

accelerates alot at first but

thing but for an
slows down as it is
increasing bad
acid added to a

by powers of ten .

of 7- here is where thus it slats at a

pH
all the base has been high ph to how pH
neutralised so there is no extra
H OH so pH is just heated DBT

I
or

iiiistisuiiii place when

the base added isall

going into neutralising •

the acid .

I 1

normal fast process

as strong is added without

dela

equivalence point is closest to

strong substance weak as BBB
doesnt break up .

Buffer zone •
slow process takes *

longer for it to be

neutralised
• half equivalence -

when
pointpoint
'

half the solution

was neutralised

logkttkOOTCHT-k-CCHscoo-JCHTIC.CH
.

pka = -

,
COOH) ( GHz COOH]
÷÷÷÷÷÷±iCHsuoo:÷¥
99% I%

→ Nat t

① Wy ②
"
: :*
so

n .

rats coated-79717
→
.

w It
⑧ CB
acid t base = Salt t water

(conj acid )
ka = -
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good -0 tee
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Red④
 Definition of Oxid Numbers
Otdsystan
gain in
oxygen
Reactions with

Oxygen loss in oxygen

loss in Hydrogen
Reactions with

Hydrogen gain in
Hydrogen .

Newsystah Now we
assign oxidation numbers to determine whether

somethings been oxidised or reduced .

①
Assign oxidation numbers ( how many extra electrons do atoms had
②

loss of electrons ok
any oxidation is loss

relegation gain
of electrons !! !
. gain
 Electroplating
anode jato
oxidation reduction
Mob of metal electroplated

mots =
g
MT
Farradays Constant

Farradays constant is the amount at

charged carried by 1h01 of electrons .

guestamite
Fc
-

( charge one electron ) ( Avogadro's Constant

on x
)
ft 6×10 9) (6.022×1023)
-
'
=
.

=
96352 Charge on element
actualvalue amount of mils of electrons
"

F. =
96500 ( mot that went around circuit can

e- Mols around the Circuit be compared to mob that fell

> coulombs
-
around circuit off electrode If .

h
3. mob feet off (atom)
=

ombsfef.fm
"'

bunts round circuit relation

charge atom = Es =
zt
,
for every l moi of
It
as

atom 2 electrons fed off

=
n
9650J
=

.
the atom .
F- III Estoy -

-
mots -

ft
✓ 2h
n
=

=
nuts

9/2 Mr
=
In

⇐ =I÷
change in mass

g
=ZI¥# g
constant

9ft )
constant
= minima t (2¥11 t

graph !
,

f-
has why data I achieved was a near

Jk .

'

E'Duets
L
-

\
 constant
j

9ft )
constant
= Minin" t (2¥11 t.

←
OM
-

0.003 QI tot
Electrodes
Inert Electrodes
Def :
electrodes which clout effect the reaction .
f they wont

melt into the aqueous solution ) .

Effect of won inert electrodes

meet into the solution
they might aqueous .

So concentration of solution wont change .

Products of electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
Anode Cathod
→
Oxidation →
Reduction
dilute dilute

¥!:3 it:÷5÷÷i
is 's
.si
oxidised reduced

concentrated concentrated

always Ht only
dont get
anion group 1- metals
oxidised
molten molten
always always
amnion cation
L
example
① Dilute sodium chloride

14
÷÷¥ a.o.im
Ions present
.

,
in
solution data booklet

Nat CI
-

More likely to more likely to

H+ OH
-

be reduced be oxidised

Therefore :

Htt 2e → HI 91
OH
-
OXldationofOH-freah.gg
Ye
,
oxygen
) ,
fqo 00

2h20
/
4 OH
- -

ran →
Oz t t
oooo Oo

i n"÷÷÷÷i ÷ ÷÷÷
oxygen gas which anode 00

¥
.

FOH FOH
.

Q -

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→ '
I
H tt
O
H
'
-
free electrons

(liquid ) H get absorbed

by the anode
whathappe.us
Thots dm
-

-3
IO
In water there present conc
-

are OH ions
-
-

OH -
is attracted positive anode gives up its electrons
to and then
creates and water as a
oxygen gas product .

Happens if :s÷i÷÷:: Doesn't happen if :

anion >
-

OH
anion ( OH
-

diluteconcentrate
dilute
anion
C. OH
-

limal
-

significance concentrated
this is
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way
"

÷÷¥¥i÷±:¥±i÷÷÷ .
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:{im
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'
'

Hz••
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-

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•
→
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!nsiI
out:&:.se:7.nu .

¥÷¥h÷m÷:÷÷÷÷:*:*
fate
.
"a%÷:nh¥qrgg÷÷ .

turning into hydrogen gas and

[ H' Ho 'm.am
'

.
bubble to the top of the surface
.

Happens if Doesnt happen if :

Titi::
Ig
gii " > OH
'

:X
:

:: KOH
 D G- = hFE°
-

÷t:÷:÷÷÷÷÷÷:
h
← l l
✓
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.

of
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.
v
cell
in Farraday's
.

electrons
+ OG non
spontaneous
. .

ii:::÷
"÷÷÷÷
.

n
'
. .

↳ what does the negative sign mean ?

•

For voltaic cells made out of chemicals

and a salt
bridge the voltage created
must be positive in order for the
cell to function .

what is Gibbs free

energy
Organisms
Basic organisation names

Function
group organic Chem
attaching molecule
:

Homologous series : differ by CHg

Isomers : same
/
empirical formula dif structure .
 ¥
.

÷:
÷

§
I
÷i⇐÷A÷ .
Alkene to Alcohol
n *
Hy
.

1H l l

( = C t H2O -7 H -
c -

c -
OH
'
I H l l
H H H
+ sulfuric
Acid
to explain
analogy why SA in needed
the H2O
Domain this
1.
happen we must ptit
the SA does this

HIGH HZSQ ,
off thot
pans
* you
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it
I ✓
HI it
→
I
c
-
C OH -

[ =L If l
l thus
l
'
H creating an

H Hattan H H
alcohol
spit
the Sithdonp.IM#ffa,tnheeoeH
and
conclusion :
.
Alcohol →
Aldehyde
turned into an aldehyde through oxidation with
alcohol is reaction

acidified potassium dichromate .

if:*
" '
'

at c

q
it →
it -
-

→ it .

alcohol
aldehyde carboxylic acid .

but where do the come from ? ? ?

oxygens
this is done
through oxidation reaction with sulfuric acid and

potassium dichromate .

In solution kzcrzo ,
is used the
.

possum
be other element
part does not matter , it could
any
as it just breaks up into the
aqueous solution .

kzcrzozrsl → 2kt CRE t

7
irreverent
 I Ea
'

I o 't
-

q
-
- - -

"

half equations
① Enema .
"
ti : ÷÷÷÷ .

main
ha bat
Cz Hoo → ( z Hyo
Z
tf z
-

z I t4
-
-
-

half CZHGO Cz Hy Ot t2Ht

-

→ e

② Oxidation dichromate
7h20
"
14 Htt Cr, Of 2C r
- -

t
t
3e →

③ Balance Electrons
2 Ht
-

3. Catto O → 3CzHyOt3e t

④ Put equations together

"
Croft Hoot 3.e t7HzOt3CzHyOt3c SHI
-

14 Htt 35 → Ur +
-

"

⑤ Simplify
2 ( r 't 7h20 +31 zap if
'
8 Ht tcrzoz t3CzHo0
-

÷
:*
.
:÷÷:¥m.in?mairo: s:i: Eissom::in: :t:o:aIeoiiet
What happens in English
l . Chromium steals electrons from ethanol and gives
up its oxygen atoms to Ht from sulfuric acid
2 .
ethan al needs to make the most out of its elements so
it goes for a double bond oxy; creating an aldehyde
'
--

.
BenzeneRingReacti
Chlorination of Benzene .

+At 43

simple

1) formation of chlorine cation

a → a
a * a

summary : Haz acts as a Lewis acid and accepts a as a base

and takes the chlorine from the diatomic chlorine
with the electrons
leaving positive chlorine cation
a
( Iz Clt
-

t fell 3 →
Clzfedz -7 t Feck,

Colts tcl → Cotta

( GHG Cl t Cl Feltz → Cgttgcl that Feltz

 NitrationofBenz.eu#0verall:
⑥ HNOz 't
t
N°2
H2O
-

t
Cotto ( GH g NOz

steps :

① creation of nitronium cation NOI

Hz Goe D HN03
Hz SQ HN Oz THz NO, HSQ
,
t t
-

, base , so
, stronger

Hz NO, F ↳
NOE H2O replacet
"

over an
in
HNOz acts as a base

unstable so
splits up into hitronium ion and water .

② Electrophilic substitution
Nozt is attraction in 6wappinyHfI
the benzene ring N Oz

"

④
"
no.
I Ht
→ →
no, +

forms intermediate
NOT attracted to negative
electron in benzene
molecule
Hydrogen donates its electrons back
ring
to the benzene and falls off
ring
.

③ Replenishment of Sulfuric Acid

Ht HSQ,
-

t →
Hz SQ ,
the Ht from the benzene returns to react with sulfurous acid
thereby replenishing Hzsou Hzsou, is an agent thats needed but is not in overall equation
'
.
. .
.
 Amines .

derived from
Organic compound ammonia

in which hydrogens are

replaced by
organic groups .

Classificationofamines amines are classified :

by
have been
how
many hydrogens replaced by
organic groups .

A A A
N N N N
-
H
'
I' H H
'
I' H H
'
I' R KI R
H R R R

basic awonia primary secondary tertiary

amine
amine amine

Creatiouofuuthylamines
methanol with amenia
amines are created
by mixing using
an
Ala, catalyst
Primary secondary Tertiary
9H3
" n it

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Amides
amides are
compounds similar to esters in that
they are formed from a condensation reaction between
a
carboxylic acid .
Instead of an alcohol , it reacts with an amine

'

r -
c Ii: →
n -
E -

fi
representations
Amine Reactions
Isomer Reactions
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 Index of HydrogentellsDeficiency
that
what is it ? a number
you how many
extra H H can be added to a
compound
-

what counts ?
nomen
::: " "

It
-1¥ ÷÷÷÷:÷÷
⇐ →
it "
.

I double bond = I point I I point

ring
=

specifics
→
only for carbon
→ not for replacing Halogens of extras .

equation ideal
alkane C
Hzhtz

sing:÷÷¥÷3÷n÷÷÷÷
:
n

formula

cyclo alkane Cu Azn } if you

: connect tails you minus one Hz
double bond strings ideal actual
=
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 H' NMR
Spectrum will :

'

1) measure number of H environment

2) the ratio of H
'

t 3

thin
spikes : no .
Hydrogen environments
the ratio of H in
proportional
'
Area : to
each environment .

where pears reheated to number

: corresponding
go in the data booklet
Tetra me thy silane Sikhs) y
explain the use :

Reason Used
-

f÷.÷÷÷÷ I
it -
H its

"÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷ .

2) unreactive
3) One peak only
-

4) solvable in organic solutions

s
) low boiling point , easily
Memorable .
Splitting
splitting patterns can tell
you
how
many hydrogens
there

lpeaks-adjaeentH.si#
formal

1splits.at#snP!it%eaPE+hs ,

names

in MM
singlet double triplet quartet
Fragment spectrum Analysis
① Breaking stage (Mt 12 )
O O

O
We
→
→
.
.

o o
.

shot with
electron gun splits up into in::Ye% .

less electron
..

(013 of different
peices

based the
determine
on
splitting
what the
pattern you
chunks
can

are as
molecule
he split will be based on
molecule chunks
that fall off .

fragments
15 loss CHE
OH
-

17 loss
CzHs CHO
29 loss or

31 loss CH 30

45 loss COOH
Infared Spectrum

00
°
the mot becan
detoured from the
a certain violent e data booklet
will vibrate after
absorbing a given
of infant
frequency what does it identify ?
radiation .

bonds between molecules

.

what does the range correspond to :

•
bond environment
what is 1400 1600
-

union
2500 safer: