Earth Science Thermal Expansion

Exogenic Processes  Occurs when rock is exposed to high

temperature such as forest fire; its
 Interconnected with the atmosphere,
outer layer expand due to baking.
hydrosphere, and biosphere.
 When it cools, the outer layer
 Include the processes of weathering
contracts, causing the surface to
erosion, transportation and
break-off into sheets.
deposition.
 Primary source is the energy coming Burrowing Animals
from the sun which drives the
 Can also push open cracks and move
weather.
rock fragments
Weathering
Human Activities
 On-site breakdown of rocks and its
 Such as digging and blasting
eventual transformation into
sediments Chemical Weathering
 Mechanical and Chemical
Weathering  Occurs when there are chemical
changes in at least some of the
Mechanical Weathering composition of the rock
1. Dissolution
 Physical breakdown of a rock into
 Happens in certain minerals which
unconnected grains or chunks
are dissolved in water. Halite (NaCl)
without changing its composition
dissolves rapidly in pure water, while
calcite (CaCO,) dissolves rapidly in
acidic water like rainwater.
 Limestone, which is composed of
calcite, is weathered through this
Exfoliation process and develops caves through
time.
 Natural cracks or joints are formed, 2. Hydrolysis
breaking the rock into rectangular  Occurs when water reacts which the
blocks or irregular chunks or onion- minerals and breaks them down. The
like sheets. process occurs faster in slightly
Frost Wedging acidic water.
 The common rock-forming minerals
 In temperate regions or high-altitude like amphibole, pyroxene, and
regions, water inside the fractures of feldspar all react with water and
rocks experience regular freezing form various types of clay minerals
and thawing. 3. Oxidation
 When it freezes, it causes the joints  Or the reaction of oxygen with
to expand and grow, causing pieces minerals in the rock, forms oxides.
of rocks to detach. Oxidation of iron-bearing minerals
Root Wedging like biotite and pyrite produce iron
oxide (hematite) and iron hydroxide
 Joints also expand when plants (goethite).
growing on its surface pry it open. 4. Hydration
Salt Wedging  Occurs when water is absorbed into
the crystal structure of the mineral,
 In deserts and coastal areas, salt
causing it to expand. Certain types of
solutions from groundwater or form
clay expand through this process.
the sea spray can accumulate in the
5. Biological Weathering
pore spaces and fractures of rocks.
 When the salt crystalizes, it pushes  Also occurs in roots of plants, when
apart the surrounding grains and fungi and lichens secrete organic
weakens the rock, causing it to acids that dissolve minerals and the
disintegrate when exposed to wind or nutrients are taken in by these
rain. organisms. There are also certain
 bacteria that consume certain 1. Relief -The difference in elevation
minerals between two places creates slopes;
gravity pulls materials at higher
Transport
elevations to lower elevations
 Involves processes by which 2. Slope stability -The balance
sediments are moved along from the between the downslope force caused
source to where they are deposited. by gravity and the resistance force
due to friction; slope failure occurs
Erosion
when the downslope force is greater
 The separation and removal of 3. Fragmentation and weathering -
weathered and unweather rocks and Intact rock is held together by
soil from its substrate due to gravity chemical bonds within minerals, by
or transporting agents like wind, ice, mineral cement, and by the
or water. It involves abrasion, interlocking of grains, while a
plucking, scouring, and dissolution. fragmented rock is held only by
friction between fracture planes or by
Wind Erosion weak electrical charges between
 Commonly occurs in flat, bare areas grains.
or dry, sandy, and loose soils Occurrence of mass wasting
 It detaches soil particles and
transport them by wind 1. Vibrations from earthquakes or
 Sandstorm blasting activities
2. Changes in the slope angle, load and
Glacier
slope support add to the instability of
 A permanent body of ice, which a slope.
consists largely of crystallized snow 3. The stability of slopes also depends
and shows evidence of movement on the composition of the materials.
due to gravity.
Classification of Mass wasting
 Glaciers have enormous erosive
power  Can be classified in a number of
Water ways such as type of material, type
of motion, and speed of movement.
 The most common erosion agent.  In general, the types of material
 Millions and tons of sediments are include rock and soil. Predominantly
picked up and transported every day coarse soil materials are called
along rivers, coasts, and in deep debris, while predominantly fine
oceans around the world materials are labeled as earth.
4 ways of water erosion
 The general types of motion include
fall, topple, slide, spread, and flow
1. Traction – rolling or dragging of
large grains aided by the push of Fall
smaller grains.  Includes the free-fall movement,
2. Saltation – bouncing of sand grains bouncing, and rolling of materials on
as they are picked up, carried along, a slope.
and dropped repeatedly.
3. Suspension – movement of fine Topple
particles like silt and clay  The forward rotation out of the slope
4. Solution – movement of soluble of a soil or rock mass. The rotation
minerals (salt) axis is usually at the base of the
Mass wasting/mass movement moving mass, below its center of
gravity.
 The downslope movement of rock,
soil, and ice due to gravity. Slide
 It is also a natural hazard that can  The downslope movement of
cause damage to life and property coherent materials along a well-
Factors in mass wasting
 defined surface of rupture called  Glacial environments refer to areas
sliding surface. where glaciers and ice sheets are
 A slide could form a planar or curve found such as in high-altitude
sliding surface. Mountains and in Polar Regions.
Spread  At the end of the glacier, a pile of
clay to boulder-sized sediments
 The lateral extension and fracturing called glacial till can be found.
of a coherent mass due to the plastic
flow of its underlying material. Mountain stream Environment
 This could occur as silt layers liquefy  Turbulent streams can carry large
during earthquake. sediments like boulders and cobbles
Flow during flood, forming thick layers of
gravel and boulders.
 Happens when the material are  Conglomerates usually form in this
saturated and move downslope as environment.
viscous fluid.
Mountain front environment
Complex
 When a stream enters the flat area at
 Combinations of several types of the base of a mountain, it loses its
movement could occur. energy and decreases in velocity.
Deposition  This process creates an alluvial fan, a
landform primarily composed of
 The process in which sediments sand- to boulder-sized sediments.
settle out of the transporting
medium. Desert Environment

Bed  Wind carries sand and silt materials.

When deposited, well-sorted sand
 The layer formed when the materials
produces sand dunes, while the
are laid down.
accumulation of silts forms foes
Sorting deposit.
 Sediments from solutions called
 The distribution of grain size in a
evaporites are also formed when
layer.
temporary lakes in the desert dry-up.
Well-Sorted
Lake (Lacustrine) environment
 Bed consists only of one or two
 A lake is a quiet environment.
similar grain size
Streams carrying sediments deposit
Clay-size coarse sediments on lake margins,
only silt and clay are deposited from
 Consists of a mixture of a very fine suspension in deeper parts of the
grain size lake.
Boulder-size  Shale can form in this environment.
 Consists of a mixture of a very River (Fluvial) Environment
coarse grain size
 In flat areas, rivers are slow moving
Clasts and commonly carry an assortment
of pebbles, sand, silt, and mud. The
 Larger sediments coarser sediments tumble along the
Matrix river bed, while the finer ones move
along in suspension.
 Fine-grained sediments
 Mud is deposited on the floodplain
Sedimentary Environment after food events.
 Pebbles and sand are deposited on
 Are where sediments are deposited
the inner bend of a meander.
Glacial Environment
  Beds of sand and pebble form lenses  Turbidity currents carry the finer
alternating with silt and mud layers sediment components, ranging from
sand to clay to a submarine fan
where turbidite deposit/sequence is
Delta Environment formed. In the deep ocean floor, clay
and planktons settle down and form
 When a river enters the sea, it very thin layers of mud.
empties its load in a delta, which  Chalk is formed from very fine
extends to the shallow coastal area. calcite shells, while chert is derived
 The upper part of the delta consists from siliceous shells
mostly of coarse sand and gravel;
Cementation
 the middle portion contains fine sand
and silt;  The process which binds together the
 And the basal portion is mostly silt individual grains.
and clay.
Cement
 Mud is also found in the swamps
 New minerals that is formed by
Beach Environment
dissolved chemicals in the water
 Tidal currents transport sands along occupying the pore spaces in
the coastline. between grains.
 The waves winnow out the finer Diagenesis
sediments, leaving only well-sorted
and well-rounded sand grains that  The process of compaction,
form ripples. cementation, and recrystallization

Shallow marine environment

 The mud and silt removed from the

shoreline and from river mouths are
transported by tidal currents and
deposited in quieter waters below the
wave zone.
 It forms well-sorted and well-
rounded silt and mud layers
inhabited by various organisms like
worms and mollusks
Shallow water carbonate environment

 In shallow marine environment

where the supply of sediments is
limited, marine, organisms like coral
reefs develop where the water is
fairly warm, clear, and full of
nutrients.
 Most of the sediments are derived
from the shell and coral fragments,
which are collectively called
carbonate sediments.
 Limestone can be formed in this
environment.
Deep marine environment
 Slope failures from the steep slopes
of submarine canyons generate
submarine landslides which create
sediments of varying sizes.