Bec 1105 Young Children's Development&Learning

UGANDA MARTYRS UNIVERSITY-NKOZI
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
COURSE TITLE: YOUNG CHILDREN'S LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
COURSE CODE: BEC 1105

COURSE LEVEL: YEAR 1 SEMESTER 1
CREDIT POINTS: 03
CONTACT HOURS: 60
LECTURER: OYOM JOSEPH JOLLY (PHD)
UNIT ONE
CONCEPTS OF CHILD GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
Meaning and definitions
Growth and development are inseparable but they differ from each other. The growth represents
the physical changes of an individual and development represents the overall changes, structure
and shape of a child.
Knowledge of the growth and development at the various stage is very essential for the teacher.
The teacher has to stimulate the growth and development of a child. He can do it only if he has
proper knowledge of the growth and development at various stages.
Development implies the overall change in shape, form or structure, along with the function of
the organ. Development is both quantitative and qualitative. It is a continuous process starting
from the Womb and ending with the tomb (Kumar, S. 2019).
Development can be described as the gradual accumulation of relatively permanent, age-related

changes through interaction with the environment.
Child development refers to changes that take place in a child in all aspects of development.
These aspects include physical, mental, social, emotional, language, aesthetics and moral.
Madudu, M. and Akosio, T. (2019) Child development is a process in which the child masters
more and more complex levels of moving, thinking, feeling and interacting with people and
objects in the environment. It involves physical, mental, social, moral, spiritual and emotional
changes.
1
Joseph Jolly Joyce Oyom. Tel. +256-772957506 or +256-701702033.
Email. joswaldlyn@gmail.com
Major Domains in Child Development
In human development, the word "domain" refers to specific aspects of growth and change. The
major domains of children development are physical, cognitive, language, and social-emotional
(psycho-social).
Children often experience a significant and obvious change in one domain at a time. For
example, if a child is focusing on learning to walk, which is in the physical domain, you may not
notice as much language development, or new words, until they have mastered walking.
It might seem like a particular domain is the only one experiencing developmental change during
different periods of a child's life, but change typically occurs in the other domains as well—just
more gradually and less prominently.
Physical Development
The physical domain covers the development of physical changes, which includes growing in
size and strength, as well as the development of both gross motor skills and fine motor skills.
The physical domain also includes the development of the senses and using them.
When young children are learning how to perform different activities with their fingers in
coordination with their eyes such as grasping, releasing, reaching, pinching, and turning their
wrist. Because these small muscle movements take time to develop, they may not come easily at
first.
These fine motor skills help children perform tasks for daily living, like buttoning buttons,
picking up finger foods, using a fork, pouring milk, going to the restroom, and washing their
hands.
In addition to these fine motor skills, children also learn to use their larger muscles, like those in
their arms, legs, back, and stomach. Walking, running, throwing, lifting, pulling, pushing, and
kicking are all important skills that are related to body awareness, balance, and strength. These
skills allow your child to control and move their body in different ways.
Parents can help their child's physical development by providing opportunities for age-
appropriate activities. For instance, babies need regular tummy time to build their neck and upper
body strength, while preschoolers and school-aged children need plenty of opportunities to run
around and play. Even tweens and teens need regular opportunities for physical activity.
Meanwhile, you shouldn't overlook the child's need to develop their fine motor skills as well.
From an early age, give them opportunities to use their hands and fingers. Give your baby rattles,
plush balls, and other toys to grasp.
Later, toys that allow them to pick things up and fit them into slots are good for developing
beginning skills. As they get older, teach them how to button buttons, use scissors, hold a pencil,
and do other tasks with their fingers and hands.
2
Physical development also can be influenced by nutrition and illness. So, make sure the children
have a healthy diet and regular wellness check-ups in order to promote proper child
development.
Cognitive Development
The cognitive domain includes intellectual development and creativity. As they develop
cognitively, children gain the ability to process thoughts, pay attention, develop memories,
understand their surroundings, express creativity, as well as to make, implement, and accomplish
plans.
The child psychologist Jean Piaget outlined four stages of cognitive development:
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to Age 2)
This stage involves learning about the environment through movements and sensations. Infants
and toddlers use basic actions like sucking, grasping, looking, and listening to learn about the
world around them.
Preoperational Stage (Ages 2 to 7)
During this stage, children learn to think symbolically as well as use words or pictures to
represent things. children in this stage enjoy pretend play, but still struggle with logic and
understanding another person's perspective.
Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7 to 11)
Once they enter this stage, kids start to think more logically, but may still struggle with
hypothetical situations and abstract thinking. Because they are beginning to see things from
another person's perspective, now is a good time to start teaching empathy.
Formal Operational Stage (Age 12 and Up)
During this stage, a child develops an increase in logical thinking. They also develop an ability to
use deductive reasoning and understand abstract ideas. As they become more adept at problem-
solving, they also are able to think more scientifically about the world around them.
You can help the child develop and hone their cognitive skills by giving them opportunities to
play with blocks, puzzles, and board games. You also should create an environment where the
child feels comfortable asking questions about the world around them and has plenty of
opportunities for free play.
Develop the child's desire to learn by helping them explore topics they are passionate about.
Encourage thinking and reasoning skills by asking them open-ended questions and teaching them
to expand on their thought processes. As they get older, teach them how to be critical consumers
of media and where to find answers to things they don't know.
3
Psycho-social Development
The psycho-social domain includes a child's growing understanding and control of their
emotions. They also begin to identify what others are feeling, develop the ability to cooperate,
show empathy, and use moral reasoning.
This domain includes developing attachments to others and learning how to interact with them.
For instance, children learn how to share, take turns, and accept differences in others. They also
develop many different types of relationships, from parents and siblings to peers, teachers,
coaches, and others in the community.
Children develop self-knowledge during the psycho-social stage. They learn how they identify
with different groups and their innate temperament will emerge in their relationships.
Teens, especially, demonstrate significant developments in the psycho-social domain as their

peers become more central to their lives and they learn how to carry out long-term friendships.
Typically, parents will notice major increases in social skills during this time.
To help your child develop both socially and emotionally, look for opportunities for them to
interact with kids their age and help them form relationships with both children and adults. You
can arrange playdates, explore playgroups, and look into extracurricular activities. Also
encourage them to talk to their grandparents, teachers, and coaches as well.
To encourage a sense of self, ask children about their interests and passions and encourage them
to identify their strengths and weaknesses. Teach them about recognizing and managing feelings.
As they get older, talk to them about healthy friendships and how to handle peer pressure.
As teachers also, we should not shy away from the challenging talks like those covering sex and
consent. All of these different social and emotional facets play into the child's overall
development.
Language Development
Language development is dependent on the other developmental domains. The ability to

communicate with others grows from infancy,3 but children develop these abilities at different
rates. Aspects of language include:4
 Phonology: Creating the sounds of speech

 Pragmatics: Communicating verbally and non-verbally in social situations
 Semantics: Understanding the rules of what words mean
 Syntax: Using grammar and putting sentences together
One of the most important things you can do with the children throughout their early life is to
read to them—and not just at bedtime. Make reading and enjoying books a central part of your
day. Reading out loud to the children from birth and beyond has a major impact on their
emerging language and literacy skills.
4
Aside from reading books, look for opportunities to read other things, too, like the directions to a
board game, letters from family members, holiday cards, online articles, and school newsletters.
Hearing new vocabulary words spoken expands a child's vocabulary and helps them prepare to
identify unfamiliar words when used in context.
In addition to reading, make sure you are talking to the children even before they can say their
first word. Tell them about the things you are doing or what you're buying in the store. Point out
different things and engage them in the world around them. Singing to your child is another
excellent way to build your child's language skills.
As they get older, try holding regular conversations, answering questions, and asking for the
child's ideas or opinions. All of these activities are an important part of their language
development.
Developmental Delays
As children grow and learn, they will pass certain developmental milestones. While every child
is different and progresses at a different rate, these milestones provide general guidelines that
help parents and caregivers gauge whether or not a child is on track.
The exact timing that a child reaches a particular milestone will vary significantly. However,
missing one or two milestones can be a cause for concern.
Talk to your child's pediatrician if you're worried that your child is not meeting milestones in a
particular area. They can evaluate your child and recommend different services if a delay is
identified.
Major Developmental Milestones in Children
Developmental milestones are the behaviors that mark stages of typical growth. These are the
core skills infants and toddlers should be reaching. Week by week and month by month, you can
check in on baby's growth and development by following baby's milestones.
Children all develop at their own pace. However, most children pass through specific changes at
approximately the same time as they get older.
Developmental milestones are divided into the core parts of child development:
 Motor milestones: When will baby sit independently? When will baby start to crawl?
Motor milestones track baby’s gross motor skills (in their core and upper body) and fine
motor skills (in their hands and feet).
 Sensory milestones: When will the baby be able to visually track objects? When will
baby have a regular sleep schedule? Sensory milestones track the development of baby’s
7 senses.
5
 Communication milestones: When will baby say their first words? When do toddlers
begin responding to questions? These language milestones are the building blocks to
baby’s communication and social skills.
 Feeding milestones: When is baby ready for finger foods? How long should baby nurse
for? These milestones help track when babies start new phases of feeding.
The Milestones mark the month most babies start a certain behavior or ability based on baby’s
age, but exact timing will vary. If you have any concerns, request an appointment with a
healthcare provider. Early detection of a problem in the child’s growth and development allows
for early correction or support.
0-3 Month Milestones
Motor Milestones
 While lying on tummy, pushes up on arms

 While lying on tummy, lifts and holds head up
 Able to move fists from closed to open
 Able to bring hands to mouth
 Moves legs and arms off of surface when excited
Sensory Milestones
 While lying on back, attempts to reach for a toy held above their chest
 While lying on back, visually tracks a moving toy from side to side
 While lying on back, keeps head centered to watch faces or toys
 Able to calm with rocking, touching, and gentle sounds
 Enjoys a variety of movements
Communication Milestones
 Quiets or smiles in response to sound or voice

 Turns head towards sound or voice
 Shows interest in faces
 Makes eye contact
 Cries differently for different needs (e.g. hungry vs. tired)
 Coos and smiles
Feeding Milestones
 Latches onto nipple or bottle

 Tongue moves forward and back to suck
6
 Drinks 2 oz. to 6 oz. of liquid per feeding, 6 times per day
 Sucks and swallows well during feeding
Motor Milestones
 Uses hands to support self while sitting

 Rolls from back to tummy and tummy to back
 While standing with support, accepts entire weight with legs
 Reaches for nearby toys while on tummy
 While lying on back, reaches both hands to play with feet
 While lying on back, transfers a toy from one hand to the other
Sensory Milestones
 Uses both hands to explore toys

 Generally unhappy when not hungry or tired
 Brings hands and objects to mouth
 Able to calm with rocking, touching, and gentle sounds
 Is not upset by everyday sounds
 Enjoys a variety of movements
 Reacts to sudden noises or sounds

 Listens and responds when spoken to
 Begins to use consonant sounds in babbling, e.g. “da, da, da”
 Makes different kinds of sounds to express feelings
 Notices toys that make sounds
 Uses babbling to get attention
Feeding Milestones
 Shows interest in food

 Opens mouth as spoon approaches
 Moves pureed food from front of mouth to back
 Begins to eat cereals and pureed foods – Smooth, pureed food (single ingredient only),
like carrots, sweet potato, squash, apples, pears
Motor Milestones
 Sits without support
 Sits and reaches for toys without falling
7
 Moves from tummy or back into sitting
 Starts to move with alternate leg and arm movement e.g. creeping, crawling
 Picks up head and pushes through elbows during Tummy Time
 Turns head to visually track objects while sitting
 Shows more control while rolling and sitting
 Picks up small objects with thumbs and fingers
 In simple play imitates others
Sensory Milestones
 Enjoys a variety of movements – bouncing up and down, rocking back and forth
 Explores and examines an object using both hands and mouth
 Turns several pages of a chunky (board) book at once
 Experiments with the amount of force needed to pick up different objects
 Focuses on objects near and far
 Investigates shapes, sizes, and textures of toys and surroundings
 Observes environment from a variety of positions – while lying on back or tummy,
sitting, crawling, and standing with assistance
 Uses increased variety of sounds and syllable combinations in babbling

 Looks at familiar objects and people when named
 Recognizes sound of their name
 Participates in two-way communication
 Follows some routine commands when paired with gestures
 Shows recognition of commonly used words
 Simple gestures, e.g. shaking head for “no”
 Imitates sounds
Feeding Milestones
 In a highchair, holds and drinks from a bottle

 Begins to eat thicker pureed and mashed table foods
 Enjoys chew toys that can massage sore and swollen gums during teething
 Stays full longer after eating
 Starts to look and reach for objects, such as, food that is nearby
 Shows strong reaction to new smells and tastes
Motor Milestones
8
 Pulls to stand and cruises along furniture
 Stands alone and takes several independent steps
 Moves in and out of various positions to explore environment and get desired toys
 Maintains balance in sitting when throwing objects
 Claps hands
 Releases objects into a container with a large opening
 Uses thumb and pointer finger to pick up tiny objects
Sensory Milestones
 Enjoys listening to songs

 Explores toys with fingers and mouth
 Crawls to or away from objects baby sees in the distance
 Meaningfully uses “mama” or “dada”

 Responds to simple directions, e.g. “Come here”
 Produces long strings of gibberish (jargoning) in social communication
 Says one or two words
 Imitates speech sounds
 Babbling has sounds and rhythms of speech
 Pays attention to where you are looking and pointing
 Responds to “no”
 Begins using hand movements to communicate wants and needs, e.g. reaches to be
picked up
Feeding Milestones
 Finger feeds self

 Eating an increasing variety of food
 Begins to use an open cup
 Ready to try soft-cooked vegetables, soft fruits, and finger foods (banana slices, cooked
pasta)
 Might be ready to start self feeding with utensils
 Enjoys a greater variety of smells and tastes
Motor Milestones
 Walks independently
 Squats to pick up a toy
 Stacks two objects
Sensory Milestones
9
 Helps with getting dressed/undressed
 Has a regular sleep schedule
 Eats an increasing variety of foods
By 15 months:
 May use 5-10 words

 Combines sounds and gestures
 Imitates simple words and actions
 Consistently follows simple directions
 Shows interest in pictures
 Can identify 1-2 body parts when named
 Understands 50 words
By 18 months:
 Responds to questions
 Repeats words overheard in conversation
 Continues to produce speech-like babbling
 Points at familiar objects and people in pictures
 Understands “in” and “on”
 Responds to yes/no questions with head shake/nod
Feeding Milestones
 Increases variety of coarsely chopped table foods

 Holds and drinks from a cup
Motor Milestones
 Starts to jumps with both feet leaving the ground

 When walking, able to pull toys behind them
 Runs
 Stands on tiptoes
 Climbs on low furniture
 Kicks large ball
 Goes up and down stairs with support
Sensory Milestones
 Flips switches on and off

 Uses crayons, pens, or markers to make marks on paper
10
 Sorts shapes and colors
 Stacks 5 or more small blocks or toys on top of each other
 Takes toys apart and puts them back together
By 21 Months:
 Uses at least 50 words

 Consistently imitates new words
 Names objects and pictures
 Understands simple pronouns (me, you, my)
 Identifies 3-5 body parts when named
 Understands new words quickly
By 24 months:
 Begins to use 2 word phrases

 Uses simple pronouns (me, you, my)
 Understands action words
 Uses gestures and words during pretend play
 Follows 2-step related directions e.g. “Pick up your coat and bring it to me”
 Enjoys listening to stories
2-3 Year Milestones
By 30 months:
 Consistently uses 2-3 word phrases

 Uses “in” and “on”
 At least 50% of speech is understood by caregiver
 Follows 2-step unrelated directions, e.g. “give me the ball and go get your coat”
 Understands basic nouns and pronouns
 Understands “mine” and “yours”
By 36 months:
 Asks “what” and “where” questions

 Uses plurals, e.g. “dogs”
 Most speech is understood by caregiver
 Simple understanding of concepts including color, space, time
 Understands “why” questions
 Understands most simple sentences
11
Developmental delays
Developmental delays refer to areas where children have not gained the skills that experts expect
children of their age to have. You may notice delays in any developmental areas, including ones
that affect:
 Cognitive skills, such as problem-solving.

 Communication skills.
 Fine motor skills.
 Social skills.
 Speech and language.
Signs of developmental delays can vary significantly. Sometimes, you may notice signs of a
delay during infancy. Or symptoms may not show up until a child is school age.
Some of the most common signs of developmental delays can include:
 Rolling over, crawling or walking much later than expected.

 Difficulty communicating, talking or fitting in socially.
 Problems with connecting actions to consequences.
 Inability to perform everyday tasks without help, such as getting dressed or using the
bathroom.
 Trouble remembering instructions.
 Learning challenges in school.
Causes of Developmental Delays
Some developmental delays have no known cause. Some delays occur due to genetic factors,
such as Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome or Angelman syndrome.
Some children have a higher risk of developmental delays due to environmental factors such as:
 Exposure to toxins before birth, such as alcohol or lead poisoning.

 Low birthweight.
 Preterm birth.
 Severe trauma, such as abuse.
The Treatment options for Developmental Delays
Developmental delays don’t have a cure. However, certain types of therapy can help your child
function well or keep up with peers. Some therapy options include:
 Behavioral therapy for children who have trouble behaving appropriately at home or in
social settings.
12
 Occupational therapy to work on fine motor skills and completing everyday tasks
without help.
 Special education for support with learning disabilities and social skills.
 Speech and language therapy to address difficulties with creating or understanding
speech and language sounds.
 Physical therapy to address delays in gross motor skills, such as physical changes that
affect how a child walk.
UNIT TWO
CONSTRUCTIONS OF CHILDHOOD AND ITS EFFECT ON PRACTICE

Meaning
Constructions of childhood refers to the ways the idea of childhood changes overtime and how
different people and cultures perceive childhood changes over time. According to James and
Prout, (1990) childhood is distinct from biological immaturity, is neither a natural nor a universal
feature of human groups but appears as a specific structural and cultural component of many
societies.
13
The societies we live contribute much into forming childhood. If you believe childhood is
socially constructed, you believe ways of seeing childhood can change across times and cultures.
Examples of social constructs include Children being perceived as good, evil, vulnerable, weak
and innocent.
In Uganda like any other African countries, have diverse and multi-ethnic societies but with
close if not the same view of childhood. However, values and child rearing practices seldom
show variations among the different ethnic groupings A child is viewed as a weak, tender,
innocent and truthful. Their development is seriously and closely catered, it is believed that the
future of any society is vested in the children. Having a child is a defining characteristic of most
Ugandan families, as children are symbols of status, respect and completeness of the nuclear
family.
Therefore, when their childhood is not accounted for can lead to the serious downfall of the
society. So, matters concerning childhood is well catered for in the constitution of Uganda and
other statues and policy documents amalgamated children issues as appoint of concern.
Cultural values guide the relationship between children and their parents in the
Ugandan context.
Children are socialized to acquire the cultural morals of the society; with respect for parents and
other elders as the key of socialization. Children communicate with their parents and any adult in
the family and the community with the utmost respect and dignity - a value that is reaffirmed by
the African Children’s Charter. Parents and other older members of the community participate in
the socialization of children in all spheres of life.
Respect for parents and other elders as the key of socialization in Ugandan society, has
implications for children’s participation. It is worth noting the contradiction that exists in Uganda
regarding how childhood construction affects participation; children from about 8 years are
perceived as matured and capable of participating in household chores including care of younger
siblings and other minor economic activities in the private sphere, but are considered immature
and incapable of contributing to decision-making in the public sphere.
Children’s participation in Uganda
Culturally required behavior (i.e. respect) flows ‘bottom-up’ from lower age to higher age.
African culture stresses reverence and deference to elders and authority at all times, as causing
an adult to ‘lose face’ (embarrassed) is considered disrespectful. Tacitly therefore, children and
young people acquiesce to ‘adultism’ and thus cannot challenge or disagree with decisions made
by adults which they are not in favor of.
There are limited opportunities for children’s voices to be heard at the national level in Uganda.
For example, young people believed respect for elders limit their ability to challenge officials.
During gatherings and other community events children and young people do not sit in the
company of elders. This, according to a young person is driven by “fear that young people will
be arrogant if given chance to sit with the elders” and may disrespect them.
14
Children and young people’s reverence for elders at all times is believed to be influenced by a
belief in ancestor worship (Salm and Falola, 2002). It is believed that ancestors can either punish
or reward the living. It is also believed that elders are the conduit of communication with the
ancestors. Hence, respect and reverence for elders could engender rewards for a meaningful life.
The implication of this hierarchical arrangement is that children and young people can only
dominate and receive respect from those younger than themselves, but must show utmost
obedience and respect to those older than themselves.
At the family and community level, it is not appreciated or encouraged for children and young
people to disagree with adults when decisions are being taken. It is therefore common for
children and young people to keep quiet rather than say something that adults would not approve
of. According to Hofstede, (2005) “a child who repeatedly voices opinions deviating from what
is collectively felt is considered to have a bad character.” By such cultural ideology any
participatory effort that includes both adults and young people together may be counter-
productive and thus likely to fail.
With regards to gender, the construction of ‘girlhood’ influences girls’ participation. There
seems to be a greater number of males participating in participatory initiatives than females
A gendered analysis of children’s participation is important more so “since girls’ and boys’
possibilities to emerge as public, political actors are strongly and differently tied to their
structural positions in their families.” (Gordon, 2008).
Childhood Constructed by Society
When talking about childhood as a social construct, you need to remember the focus is on
perceptions or the ways we see children and how this can change.
Looking back into history, we can observe that the way we perceive childhood has changed. We
can see this clearly when we consider it across the following vectors:
 Time. What we might have considered to have been a ‘normal’ child 100 years ago is
very different to what we see as a child today. We tend to see children as much more
innocent these days than in the past;
 Culture. Different cultures see children differently. Interestingly, in Japan, children are
trusted to walk home from school at much younger ages than in the United States. Why?
Do the Japanese have a different perception of childhood to Westerners?
 Social Class. Do middle-class people try to prevent their children from associating with
working-class children? Might this be because working class children are tainted with the
‘Oliver’s Twist’ image of rowdy, ratty, street kids?
 Race. Unfortunately, some people see children of minority races as a ‘threat’ to the
majority. We’ve seen this in history when children of certain racial classes were
murdered to try to enact genocide.
15
EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONS OF CHILDHOOD.
1. The Miniature Adult
According to Philippe Aries (1962), British society used to see children as miniature
adults.
In other words, childhood wasn’t a distinctly different period of life than adulthood.
To make this claim, Aries showed pictures of children in medieval portraits. He remarked
that children in these portraits appeared the same as adults in their mannerisms, dress, and
facial expressions. They wore the same clothes as adults, smiled the same as adults, and
appeared to be acting in all ways as if they were adults. Aries also claimed that due to
lack of child labor laws, children became workers, and therefore basically adults, at 7
years of age. Thus, he assumes, from about the age of 7 children were considered to be
adults in all ways but height!
They were miniature adults! Today, we believe childhood to last until about 18 years of
age. Thus, we perceive children to be distinct and different from adults for a much longer
period of time. We also protect children from labor, hard work and politics because –
again – we don’t consider them to be like adults the way people did in the past.
Here’s some examples of the miniature adult child:
 The child who works. When children are set to work in factories like in
Victorian England, they appeared to have been seen and treated like adults;
 The child soldiers. In the Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic
of Congo there are still many thousands of child soldiers. We can argue that these
children are considered miniature adults, given that they’re tasked with
undertaking very serious ‘adult’ tasks.
2. The Evil Child

Another very common way of viewing childhood in the middle ages was to see them as
‘Evil’.
This was for a long time a deeply religious view of children.
Born Evil
Beginning with early Christian and Judean theologians, many believed children were
born sinners having inherited Adam’s guilt for his ‘original sin’ in the Garden of Eden
(Wiley, 2002).
While it must be noted that the idea of children as sinners is one of many Christian and
Judean views (indeed, Pope Leo defended the innocence of children in the fifth century
(Wiley, 2002)), it has historically been an influential idea amongst many followers of
Christian and Judean religions.
For example, original sin is alluded to several times in the Old and New Testament.
Genesis 8:21 states:
“Every inclination of the human heart is evil from childhood.” (New International
Version, 2011)
At various times, Christian churches have preached that children must be baptized at a
young age in order to relieve them of their inherited sins (Wiley, 2002).
Dionysian Childhood
Chris Jenks (2005) also used the phrase ‘Dionysian childhood’ to explain the view of
children as evil.
16
Dionysus us the prince of wine and revelry – hence, he is the prince of sin.
Jenks coined this term because, like Dionysus, the evil child “loves pleasure, it celebrates
self-gratification and it is wholly demanding” (2005, p. 63).
Here are some more examples:

 Child Murderers. One of the most prominent examples of the evil child today is
that of the child who has committed unspeakable crimes. Take, for example, the
two 10-year-old children Robert Thompson and Jon Venables who murdered a
toddler, James Bulger, in 1993. These two 10-year-old murders were widely seen
in British society and British press as being innately evil and incapable of
redemption.
 Children who get the cane. If children are evil, it’s our job to discipline them to
give them a positive civilizing influence. That may be a reason why we used to
cane children in schools.
3. The Good Child

While the view of children as ‘evil’ persisted for much of the middle ages, it is believed
that the upper classes in England began to perceive children as ‘innately good’ at some
point in the 17th Century.
Born Good
Philippe Aries, who I mentioned earlier, believed that the growing middle classes in
Britain developed enough money that they no longer needed to see their children as
‘miniature adults’.
When parents had enough money to pamper their children, suddenly their views of
children changed. According to Aries, children of the rich upper classes were therefore
suddenly seen as good, sweet and incapable of doing wrong. In fact, this view is the exact
opposite of the Evil child.
The Evil child was seen to be born innately bad and in need of discipline to become a
good adult.
The Good child was seen to be born innately good and was, sadly, corrupted by the evil
of adults!
Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Emile, the ‘Good’ Boy!

Jean-Jacques Rousseau is the most well-known proponent of the view of childhood as
innately good and natural.
He rejects the idea that children are corrupt at birth, but rather argues that civilization is
the culprit of corruption, arguing that:
“All things are as good as their Creator made them, but everything degenerates in the
hands of men” (Rousseau, 1762, p. 1). In Rousseau’s acclaimed book, Émile, or On
Education (1762), he hypothesizes how he would raise Émile, a fictional child, to resist
the corruptions of society. Throughout, he proposes moralizing and romantic ideas about
the child’s goodness.
He believed children should be protected from the evils of the adult world. Just for good
measure, his controversial interpretations of religious texts got him chased out of France.
Bonsoir, Rousseau!
17
Apollonian Childhood
Chris Jenks, who I mentioned earlier, also has a name for the good child.
He calls the good child the Apollonian child, named after the god of sun and light!
Like Apollo, the good child represents all that is good in the world: happiness, laughter
and sunshine
Here are a few more examples of the good child:
 Montessori Education. In Maria Montessori’s model of education, children are
seen as having an innate tendency towards goodness. When a child misbehaves,
we need to consider what corrupting influences may have led to this behavior.
 Parents blinded by love. Sometimes parents have quite poorly behaved children,
but they view them with rose colored glasses. We don’t see our children for who
they are due to our deeply held desires that our precious darlings have only
goodness in their hearts and do no wrong.
4. The Innocent Child

The view of childhood as a time of innocence is, by and large, the dominant way of
viewing children in today’s day and age. A quick distinction:
 The good child is born with an innate tendency to do good things.
 The innocent child is born neither good or bad: they are the blank slate, or tabula
rasa.
Because a child is innocent, they are very precious. We must be very careful not to
corrupt them.
Therefore, we often treat the innocent child in much the same way as we treat the good
child (above). We try to protect the innocent child from bad influences, and we try to
encourage them to do good things! When a child misbehaves, we don’t hold them
accountable because they don’t know better.
Furthermore, we want to prolong this innocence as long as possible. We place warning on
TV shows and movies to protect the innocence of children. We mourn lost innocence
when we see our children growing up, we hear them swear for the first time, and when
we see them being devious and sneaky.
Examples of the Innocent Child
Here’s some examples of the innocent child:
 Children in the Courts. Most western countries do not hold children accountable
(or, at least, as accountable as adults) in legal proceedings because we believe
that they ‘cannot know better’ at a young age.
 Anne Geddes Imagery. If you’re not sure who Anne Geddes is, I recommend
googling her images! She takes photos of children in angelic poses to emphasize
their innocence.
5. The Incompetent / Bubble Wrapped Child

Often, our desire to protect children from the corrupting influences of the outside world
become somewhat obsessive. When we fail to accept that children need chances to
explore, challenge themselves and take risks, we create a new type of childhood: The
18
bubble wrapped child. The bubble wrapped child is an image of the child that has
emerged in recent decades.
It is a child who is so overly protected that they are afforded no freedom. The bubble
wrapped child is not allowed to play outside or do things for themselves. They are
pampered and protected to within an inch of their life. We adults over-play this child’s
incompetence and fail to see its ability to navigate the world. We protect too much out of
good intentions and the child never learns resilience, persistence or self-reliance.
Examples of the Incompetent / Bubble Wrapped Child
Here are some examples of the bubble wrapped child:
 Children who can’t think for themselves. When we bubble wrap our children,
they fail to have the capacity to predict and react to potential dangers. They don’t
get a chance to test their own limits or learn to regulate their behavior, which
stunts their development.
6. The Snowballing Child

Another way we adult make a mess out of parenting is our inability to discipline our
children. The phenomenon of the snowballing child has become more and more popular
in recent decades. Sorin and Galloway (2006) argue that the snowballing child is a social
construct of childhood that frames children as desiring – and taking – power from
parents.
The snowballing child occurs when parents cede power to children. It often occurs
because parents are too busy with work and other pressures. While many people in
society today may be wealthier than ever before, they’re also busier. So, when a child
asks for or demands something, we give it to them. Child wants candy. We give them
candy. Child wants a toy. We give them a toy. The child learns that they have control
over the parent and their behavior snowballs. Before long, this child has no boundaries
and knows that a simple temper tantrum will deliver them whatever they desire.
Here’s the one and only example of the snowballing child you’ll ever need:
 Veruca Salt from Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. Veruca Salt demands
everything of her dad, and he fawns over here. He trips head over heels to give
her everything she wants. And she knows she’s the boss.
7. The Sexualized Child

Contemporary media is to blame for an insidious image of the sexualized child. Children
striking adult-like poses in hyper-sexualized clothing adorn many high-end clothing
adverts in today’s age. Often, we’ll see images of very young girls in makeup striking
suggestive poses. Here, we are often presented a view of the child in a way that suggests
sex. This image saw a surge in popularity as society and consumer culture became
liberalized and companies sought newer, raunchier and edgier ways to turn a dime.
However, images of the sexualized child also draw our minds to the shadows of society.
Child slavery and sex trafficking continues to occur in many parts of society, to the
horror of right-thinking people around the world.
Here are some examples of the sexualized child:
19
 Advertising. Take a look around at the magazine rack next time you are at the
shopping center. See if you can find advertising that places children in sexualized
poses.
 Sex Trafficking. This is usually done in the shadows, although infamously the
so-called Islamic State group in Syria and Iraq openly traded Yazidi girls as sex
slaves during their reign of terror in recent years.
8. The Child as Commodity

The commodified child is seen less for its innate worth as a human being and more for its
economic worth. Adults use the commodified child for financial gain. They turn children
into movie stars, then pocket the profits; they force them to work in order to generate
money; and they sell images of their child for their own personal gain.
Now, many children may want to be child actors. And that’s okay, too. The premise
behind the commodified child perspective is that parents or adults will use children to
generate money for their own good, without regard for the welfare of the child.
There are two main ways in which we commodify children:
 Child Actors. When parents force their children to act in order to make money
off their own children, they become commodified.
 Child Labor. When we put children to work in sweatshops and as chimney
sweeps, we also commodify them. Note that sometimes this is inescapable; for
example, areas of the world that experience extreme poverty have no choice but to
set their children to work.
9. The Victim Child

The victim child is a child who is voiceless and oppressed by social, political and
economic forces out of their control. The victim child is the child suffering from famine
or displaced due to war. It’s the orphaned child, homeless child, or child living in an
abusive household. Victim children are often unseen and unheard. They exist in every
country in the world, but are more often seen in nations torn apart by war and poverty.
Victim children often have no adults to advocate for them and protect them, or the adults
in their lives are also victims themselves.
Examples of the Victim Child
These are the most common times we see the child constructed as a victim:
 In Charity Advertising. You’ll see victim children regularly in advertisements
seeking your money to help them out. Often times, these children are also
photographed without their permission and these images commodified.
 In Domestic Violence Households. Another common time we construct children
as victims is when they are living in violent households. These children lack
advocates, because the adults who should be advocating for them are abusers.
10. The Noble Child

Noble children are children who are seen as saviors whose role is to save adults from
themselves. These children appear regularly in biblical mythologies (think: Jesus) and
children’s books. Next time you flick through a children’s book, have a look at how the
children are the heroes of the story. They save the world, the adults in the world, and all
20
of their friends. The noble child can also be a child who steps in and take an adult role
when there is no competent adult to do the role for them.
This is most commonly seen when children lose their parents, and the oldest child
assumes the role of the mother.
Here are two examples of the noble child:
 Jesus Christ. Jesus is the child born to save the world from itself. He is
seen from the very first day of his life as the answer to the problems that plague the
world.
 Harry Potter. Harry Potter fights against evil adults on behalf of
goodness. Like Jesus, Harry Potter was always destined to take his position as the noble
savior.
11. The Wise Child

Next time you watch a movie, pay close attention to the way the children in the movies
act.
It is a very common trope in movies that the child takes a minor role in a movie, but plays
an important role as the bearer or all wisdom. The adult in the movie might find
themselves in a tricky situation and ask the child for advice. The child, regularly, has very
wise advice to give out of the blue! The wise child is similar to the noble child because
they’re seen as being blessed with great skill or knowledge. The difference between the
wise child and the noble child is that the noble child is an anointed savior, while the wise
child will lose their wisdom as they move towards adulthood.
Here’s a great example of the wise child:
 ‘From the Mouths of Babes.’ This saying reflects the trope that exists in popular
culture: children have the capacity to make very wise statements that we adults should pay close
attention to.
 Rachel Hansen, 500 Days of Summer. Next time you watch the movie 500 Days of
Summer, take a listen to the advice Rachel gives to her older brother Tom. What role does
Rachel play in the movie?
12. The Gendered Child

While we talk about social constructions of childhood, many feminist scholars also talk
about the social construction of gender.
At the intersection of these two concepts is the social construction of gender in
childhood.
Social and cultural theories from within the ‘new’ sociology of childhood argue that
gender roles are drilled into children from a very young age.
All our perceptions of girls liking princesses may, maybe, have to do with the fact that
media has reinforced this perception over and over again.
Others disagree that this is a social construct of childhood, and argue that there are some
things biologically built into us that make girls and boys gravitate toward different
activities.
Here are some more examples of how we gender children:
 Boys like blue, Girls like pink. Why does my niece love pink so much? Is there
something inherent in girls’ preferences for pink, or is it simply a socially constructed
idea about childhood?
21
 Boys like trucks, Girls like ponies. Is this, also, a social construct? Has media taught
girls they should like ponies and princesses, or do they naturally gravitate to ‘girly’
things?
13. The Agentic Child

The view of the child as ‘agentic’ is growing increasingly popular. The term ‘Agentic’
stems from the concept of agency, or more simply “capacity to act out of free will”. This
perspective of childhood holds the belief that children are competent and capable.
Children are seen as human beings with more power than we’ve traditionally afforded
them the power. An empowering vision, this way of seeing childhood tries to include
children in decision making.
Agentic children are consulted and their opinions, thoughts and feelings. Thus, they are
given more chances to be parts of participatory democratic society.
Here’s another example of the agentic child:

 Contemporary Teaching Theories. Nowadays, most teachers see children as competent
and capable. This filters through to their teaching strategies where they give children
choices in their own education and are encouraged to play in their environments to
engage in ‘active learning’.
14. The Digital Native Child

We often perceive children these days as being digital natives.
A digital native is a person who has some in-built strengths in navigating digital
technologies.
Children somehow are able to flick through tablet computers with ease at very young
ages. They can code and navigate the labyrinth of files in desktop computers very
efficiently. And they frustratingly can adapt to and learn about new technologies rapidly.
The digital learning curve seems so much less steep for young people! Now, whether this
is our social construct (or ‘perception’) or if it’s reality, I don’t know! But we’re
beginning to construct children as computer wizards and masterminds, which is another
cog changing the ways we perceive children and childhood.
22
UNIT THREE
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF GROWTH, DEVELOPEMTN AND LEARNING
PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
There are several principles that governs human growth and development. They are as discussed
below:
1. Principle of Continuity
The development follows the principle of continuity which means that development is a
continuous process. It starts with pre-natal and ends with death.
2. Principle of Integration
Development thus involves a movement from the whole to parts and from parts to the whole and
this way it is the integration of the whole and its parts as well as the specific and general
responses. It enables a child to develop satisfactorily concerning various aspects or dimensions
of his personality. For Example, Child first starts to learn hand movement then finger movement
and then learn the movement of both hand and finger together this is called integration
3. Principle of lack of uniformity in the developmental rate
Development through a continuous process, but does not exhibit steadiness and uniformity in
terms of the rate of development in various development of personality or the developmental
periods and stages of life. For Example, A person may have a high rate of growth and
development in terms of height and weight but may not have the same pace of mental and social
development.
4. Principle of individual difference
Every organism is a distinct creation in itself. One of the most important principles of
development is that involves individual differences. There is no fixed rate of development. That
23
all children will learn to walk is universal, but the time at which each child takes his first step
may vary.
5. Principle of uniformity pattern
Although development does not proceed at a uniform rate and shows marked individual
differences concerning the process and outcome of various stages of development, it follows a
definite pattern in one or the other dimension which is uniform and universal concerning the
individual of a species.
6. Principle of proceeding from general to specific
While developing to any aspect of personality. The child first pickup or exhibit a general
response and learn how to show specific and goal-directed responses afterwards.
7. Principle of interaction between Heredity and Environment
The development of a child is a process that cannot be defined wholly based on either heredity or
environment. Both have to play an important role in development. There are arguments in favour
of both. However, most psychologists agree that an interplay o these two factors leads to
development.
Where heredity decides or set some limits on development (mostly physical), environmental
influences complete the developmental process (qualitative). Environmental influences provide
space for multidimensional development through interaction with family, peers, society and so
on. Growth and development are a joint product of heredity and environment.
8. Principle of interrelation
Various aspects or dimensions of one’s growth and development are interrelated. What is
achieved or not achieved in one or other dimensions in the course of the gradual and continuous
process of development surely affects the development of other dimensions.
A healthy body tends to develop a healthy mind and an emotionally stable, physically strong, and
socially conscious personality. Inadequate physical or mental development may, on the other
hand, result in a socially or emotionally maladjusted personality.
9. Principle of Cephalocaudal
Development proceeds in the direction of the longitudinal axis. Development from head to foot
or toe. That is why, before it becomes able to stand, the child first gains control over his head and
arms and then on his legs.
10. Principle of Proximodistal
24
Development of motor skills to start at central body parts to outwards. That is why, in the
beginning, the child is seen to exercise control over the large fundamental muscles of the arm
and then hand and only afterward over the smaller muscles of the fingers.
11. Principle of predictability
Development is predictable, which means that with the help of the uniformity of pattern and
sequence of development. We can go to a great extent, forecast the general nature and behavior
of a child in one or more aspects or dimensions at any particular stage of its growth and
development. We can know the particular age at which children will learn to walk, speak, and so
on.
12. Principle of Spiral versus Linear advancement
The child doesn’t proceed straight or linear on the path of development at any stage never takes
place at a constant or steady pace. After the child had developed to a certain level, there is likely
to be a period of rest for consolidation of the developmental progress achieved till then. In
advancing further, therefore, the development turns back and then moves forward again in a
spiral pattern
25
Image source: Advanced Educational Psychology by S.K. Mangal
13. Principle of Association of Maturation and Learning
Biological growth and development are known as maturation. Biological changes involve
changes in the brain and the nervous system, which provide new abilities to a child.
Development proceeds from simple to complex. In the beginning, a child learns through concrete
objects and gradually moves to abstract thinking. This transition happens because of the
maturation
Note: As teachers we must understand the different stages and principles of growth and
development so that we can teach the learners according to their age, interest, skills, and needs.
Educational Implication of the principles of growth and Development
The knowledge of the above–mentioned principles of growth and development may prove
beneficial to us in several ways describe below:
 Development is a continuous and non-stop process at all periods and stages of human
life. Therefore, we should never give up our efforts to achieve perfection in terms of
development in the different dimensions of our personalities.
 The principle of individual differences among children reminds us to understand the

wide individual differences at all periods of growth and development. Each child should
be helped along the developmental process according to their ability, strengths, and
limitations.
 The principles related to growth and development suggest a pattern or trend for the
advancement of children on the developmental path. This knowledge can help us to
understand what is often expected in terms of the right growth and development at a
specific developmental stage and that we can then plan accordingly to achieve it by
organizing the environmental experiences.
 Principles of proceeding from general to specific responses and the principles of

integration help us to develop appropriate learning experiences to achieve maximum
growth and development.
26
 Principles of interrelation and interdependence direct us to make every effort from the
very beginning for the all-around harmonious development of the personalities of our
child and caution us no to encourage the development of particular aspects at the cost of
another.
 The principles of spiral advancement of development help us to make adequate

arrangements for subsequent progress and consolidation of the progress achieved during
specific developmental stages.
 The cephalocaudal and proximodistal tendencies as suggested by the principle of

developmental direction help us to arrange the suitable learning experiences, processes,
and environmental set-up so as to accommodate and help the children to grow and
develop according to the trend and nature of these tendencies.
 The principle of interaction reminds us to recognize the joint responsibilities of heredity

and environment in the development of personality. Genetic make-up is inborn and
influences a limited amount of development, so we can provide a suitable environment
for a child to take out their maximum growth and development.
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
1. PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (1896-1980)
Jean Piaget is a Swiss-born psychologist who was the first to make a systematic study of the
acquisition of understanding in children. He was Zoologist by profession, He was started
working with Alfred Binet on Intelligence tests and because of his interest, he also studied child
development with a focus on cognitive development. Piaget is also known as radical
Constructivist
Piaget has explained and discussed the different stages of cognitive development. He believed
that cognitive development takes place through four fundamental stages. All children have to
pass through these stages to reach the next higher level of cognitive thinking.
Piaget’s Stages of Child Development
Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development is divided into four Major stages are:
1. Sensory Motor Stage: (0—2 Years)

2. Preoperational stage: (2—7 Years)
3. Concrete Operational Stage: (7—11 Years)
4. Formal Operational Stage: (11 Years —Adulthood)
27
Fig. A diagrammatical representation of Piaget’s four-stage of Cognitive Development Theory
The Sensory Motor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 years
The main characteristic of this stage of development are:
 It involves the senses and motor activities.

 Children do reflexive activities such as sucking and grasping.
 The child observes and imitates his or her surroundings. Thought and memory also start
to develop systematically.
 Children learn to recognise objects and understand that objects have their separate
permanent existence
 As infants grow older, they learn that even if an object is not in front of them, it still
exists. Piaget called it to object permanence. It is also known as ‘out of sight, out of mind
Children also learn to work in a particular direction. Catching a particular thing which they are
asked to catch, playing with puzzles and so on are common activities they learn to do. They
move from simple to complex logical action and thinking. This goal-directed thinking helps them
to progress to a higher-level scheme to achieve a goal.
The Sensory Motor Stage is further divided into six sub-stages
There are six sub-stages of the first stage given by Piaget:
1. Stages of Reflex Activities (0—1 month): Inborn reflexes (sucking and looking) help
the child to understand the surrounding.
2. Primary Circular Reactions (1—4 months): Sensations and schemas get coordinated in
this stage. Whatever children do in this stage, they tend to do it repeatedly as they derive
pleasure from doing so. For example, if a child starts sucking thumb, he or she will
continue with this action because it gives the child a soothing feeling.
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4—8 months): younger Children become more focused
on doing actions. They repeat their actions to get a response from the environment.
28
4. Coordination of Reactions (8—12 months): In this stage, children learn to make a
difference between goal and means. They also develop ways to achieve their goals. They
also try to generalize the learning and try to use it from one situation to another.
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12—18 months): This is a stage of trial and error.
Children explore the things around them. They make mistakes and also tend to repeat
these mistakes. This stage is very important as children learn to be confident in this
particular stage. They repeat many actions because they want attention from their
caregiver.
6. Early Representational Thought (18—24 months): Children start focusing more on
mental activities rather than physical actions and they start thinking about objects. At this
age, they show the ability to recognize object permanence. They search for the toy even if
it is not in their sight.
The Preoperational stage
Ages: 2 to 7 Years
The Main Characteristics of the stage involves:
 Children begin to process their thoughts at this stage although in a manner that is far less
efficient than the logical thought-processing of adults.
 Their vocabulary expands and develops during this time because they change their
working style and habits and start behaving like little adults
 This stage is known as a pre-operational stage of cognitive development. It is called ‘pre’
because, in this stage, children cannot perform a logical operation.
 This stage is categorized into two parts. pre-conceptual stage (2-4) and intuitive stage (4-
7).
 Their vocabulary expands and develops during this time because they change their
working style and habits and start behaving like little adults.
Ego-centrism is one of the main characteristics of pre-operational. Children focus on their

perspectives and feel that they are correct. They also believe that others also share the same
perspective because they think that it is the only perspective that exists. But gradually they
understand that there are many perspectives and Piaget called it ‘decentering: They start
believing that they are not at the centre of everything.
Animism is also a characteristic of the pre-operational stage. It is a characteristic by which

children believe that all objects or things are living and has some consciousness. An example of
this is that children often believe that a table also feels pain if it is hit or kicked; a car does not
get started because it is tired and so on. A child believes that everyone is like him or her.
Children also develop the ability to use symbols, language, pictures, signs or gestures to
represent actions or objects mentally. Piaget called this semiotic function or symbolism. Along
with this, their ideas of right and wrong are governed by the people around them.
29
They generally focus on one aspect at a time and cannot think of any Other possible situation.
This is called moral realism. This moral realism makes them believe and respect rules and
authority. children are not equipped for certain functions at this stage.
For example, they cannot do reversible thinking. While children can do simple logical
operations, they face difficulty in understanding reverse counting, extended family relation tree
and so on. Along with reversibility, they also face difficulty in the conservation of various
concepts such as height and width. Conservation is a principle according to which some
characteristics of an object remain the same despite the change in its appearance.
A famous example of conservation is that regarding the conservation of volume, where children
said the glass with more height has more water than the other glass, although the volume of
water was the same in both the glasses. Such examples show that children can think only in one
direction and face difficulty in the conservation of various concepts
The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 years
The main characteristic of the Concrete Operational stage are:
 Children can do operations on concrete objects and situations. However, they will find it
hard to solve abstract problems and have difficulty with words like ‘assume’ that relate to
mental conjecture.
 They can do logical thinking if they are allowed to manipulate objects. By comparison,
however, it is seen that thoughts can be manipulated and the presence of the object is not
necessary for the thought to take place in the formal operations stage.
 They start thinking more like mature persons and rarely believe in animism and ego-
centrism.
However, there may be a few exceptions where some children continue to hold on to these
fixations as do some people who carry them well into their adulthood. During the concrete
operational stage, children gradually develop the ability to conserve or learn that objects are not
always the way that they appear to be. They start taking many perspectives about concepts. They
begin to develop the ability to Understand identity, compensation and reversibility.
Once children have learned to conserve, they also learn that objects remain the same even after
changes in colours, etc.
For example, they learn that if they spread out the pencils on the floor, there are still as many as
there were before, even though they look different!
Children learn many things in this stage concerning conservation such as classification, grouping
objects into categories, seriation, arranging of objects in sequential order according to one aspect,
such as size, weight or volume
30
The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 11 years to Adulthood
The Main Characteristics of the formal operational stage are:
 This is the final stage of Piaget’s cognitive development in this stage

 Children become capable of abstract thinking and can understand the combination and
coordination of numbers and variables.
 Developed formal operational thought.
 Children move ahead from concrete objects to abstract concepts
 They develop a logical system of intelligence and try to incorporate all possible solutions
while working on a problem.
 They also learn to coordinate between different variables.
Children in this stage use the formal operations problem-solving strategy in which an individual
begins by identifying all the factors that might affect a problem and then deduces them
systematically. Piaget called it hypothetico-deductive reasoning.
This stage permits adolescents to reason beyond a world, of concrete reality to a world of
possibilities. Sometimes, they just live in a world of imagination with no concern about the real
world.
Piaget believes that children overcome egocentrism, but they still tend to believe that everyone
shares similar thoughts, feelings and concerns. They wonder why people do not understand their
needs and perspective and therefore, they develop adolescent ego-centrism. They feel that
everyone notices them, what they do, how they walk, how they talk and so on.
Piaget said, children, develop an imaginary audience and think they are being observed by
people. They spend a long time in front of the mirror before they go out
Some of the Important concepts of Piaget’s theory
1. Schema: Schema describes both the physical and actions involved in understanding and
knowing. According to Piaget, we have a system for organizing information in our mind
and we do organize information and experiences in our mental system under different
categories. The Mental System and the categories are known as schema
2. Adaptation: According to Piaget how we adjust with the environment and called this
process adaptation. Adaption has two subprocesses these are:
3. Assimilation: The process of taking new information and fitting the new knowledge or
information into the existing schema
4. Accommodation: It involves changing or altering existing schema for the light of new
information. Sometimes we see that the existing schema does not support new
information. In such a situation, we generally do two things. Firstly, we alter the existing
schema and secondly, we create a new schema. This process is known as
Accommodation
31
5. Equilibration: The ongoing process through which a child tries to create a balance
between Assimilation and Accommodation. The state of mental balance. This process is
known as equilibration
Implication of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development to learning.
 Teachers should stress on maturation, age and experience (activities).

 Children should be taught from known to unknown
 Teachers should provide a simulative environment to encourage children to discover
 Teachers should consider the cognitive level of the child when teaching. This is because
children learn according to their level of understanding.
 Teachers should encourage social interaction in the classroom so as to facilitate learning.
Through interaction, children learn from each other.
 Teachers should assess children in order to find the results of teaching.
 Teachers should provide a variety of concrete materials. Children learns concepts such as
roughness and smoothness, color and other things as they manipulate materials.
Activity:
i) What are the 4 stages of cognitive development?

ii) Why the Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is important?
2. SIGMUND FREUD’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT (1856-

1939)
Sigmund Freud is referred to as the father of psychoanalytic theory. He studied medicine and
dealt with mental patients. He developed the theory of subconscious human mind and the
importance of sexuality in human behavior as a result of his clinical work with patients suffering
from mental illness.
According to him, behavior is activated by a set of biological instincts that control the mind and
psychological tensions. The mind is made up of three structures namely Id, Ego, and super ego.
i) Id: represents the deepest part of mind. It operates at the now and here principle.
Children are born with it and it seeks immediate gratification where the needs must be
met there and then. For example, when a baby is hungry, he cries and wants to be fed
without delay.
ii) Ego: the ego operates the reality principle. It tries to satisfy the pleasure needs of the
ego. It defers gratification of the urges of instinct until a suitable time or methods are
found. For example, a child may want to release the bladder or bowels when he is in
the sitting room and when told to wait for the potty he will wait.
iii) Super-Ego: it balances the Id and Ego. The super-ego contains a set of rules to judge
the right and wrong behavior. It deals with the ideas and values of a society which are
presented to the child through words and actions.
32
Freud assumed that human beings are endowed from birth with sexual energy (Libido).
According to him, this energy is invested on different body organs known as Erogenous zones.
He believed that in each stage of development there are crises which must be resolved. If the
crises are not resolved, fixation occurs. Fixation is the halting of development at a particular
stage due to the failure to resolve the problems of the previous stage satisfactorily.
Freud came up with five stages of child development which occur in the following sequence.
 Oral stage (0-2 years)
 Anal stage (2-3 years)
 Phallic stage (4-5 years)
 Latency stage (6-13 years)
 Genital stage (Adolescence through adulthood)
At this level, our focus will be on the phallic and latency stages. These stages cover the period of
early childhood (4-8 years).
The Phallic stage (4-5 years)

During this stage, the sexual energy becomes attached to the genital. At the beginnings of phallic
stage, different boys and girls undergo difficult experiences which Freud called the Oedipus and
electra complexes respectively.
According to Freud, a boy becomes attached to his mother and starts experiencing sexual
feelings towards her and desires her as a sexual object. On the other hand, the boy becomes
jealous of the father. He feels that the father is a rival for mother’s affection but fears that the
father will discover his desires and castrate him. The boy experiences a conflict and begins to
look for ways of getting rid of them. He begins to create friendship with the father by identifying
himself with the father.
Similarly, a girl experiences electra complex. At first, she gets attached to the mother. But when
she realizes that she does not have a penis, she experiences penis envy and blames the mother for
her problem, she then turns her affection and attention to the father. In the struggle towards
possessing the father, she identifies with her mother.
If the conflicts are not resolved, the child becomes fixated. For example, boys may possess
feminine qualities while girls may possess masculine qualities. Boys may like bright colours and
plait their hair on one hand, and girls may have a liking for men’s clothes such as trousers and
like the company of men.
Latency (6-13 years)

By the end of phallic stage, the Oedipus and Electra complex situations are resolved and
calmness sets in and from about 6 years, the child’s sexual feelings lies dormant. Meaning that
the sexual energy (libido) is not intensified at any part of the body.
There is little or no interest in the opposite sex. They interact with children of the same sex and
are undistracted by libidinal desires; therefore, they invest their energy in acquiring skills and
being productive at school. At this stage there is no major conflict.
Implications of Freud’s theory of psychosexual development

 During the puberty stage, parents, teachers and caregivers should understand children’s
behavior and avoid being very strict on them.
33
 Parents should interact with their children as this helps them to develop good behavior
 Parents, teachers and caregivers should be good role models in that children at phallic
stage try to identify themselves with the parents of the same sex. This will help them to
develop sex roles.
 During latency stage, children spend most of their time mastering tasks and acquiring
skills. Therefore, parents and teachers should provide children with activities that will
help them to acquire skills like writing, reading, and simple arithmetic.
 Teachers should provide a variety of materials which are important at this level of
acquiring skills.
3. VYGOTSKY'S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and theory in
cognitive development particularly sociocultural theory.
Vygotsky in his sociocultural theory views human development as a socially mediated process in
which children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through
collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society. It stresses the
fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition because of his strong
belief on that community plays a central role in the process of "making meaning."
Theory is comprised of concepts such as:
i) culture-specific tools
ii) private speech
iii) Zone of Proximal Development.
Culture as Tools of intellectual adaptation
Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic abilities for intellectual development called
'elementary mental functions which include –
i) Attention
ii) Sensation
iii) Perception
iv) Memory
Eventually, through interaction within the sociocultural environment, these are developed into
more sophisticated and effective mental processes which Vygotsky refers to as 'higher mental
functions.'
Each culture provides its children tools of intellectual adaptation that allow them to use the basic
mental functions more effectively/adaptively. The tools of intellectual adaptation, therefore, vary
from culture to culture. For example, memory in young children is limited by biological factors.
However, culture determines the type of memory strategy we develop. For example, in western
34
culture, children learn note-taking to aid memory, but in pre-literate societies, other strategies
must be developed, such as tying knots in a string to remember, or carrying pebbles, or repetition
of the names of ancestors until large numbers can be repeated.
In order to understanding Vygotsky's theories on cognitive development, one must understand

two of the main principles of his work: The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD)
More Knowledgeable Other
The more knowledgeable other (MKO) refers to someone who has a better understanding or a
higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the
case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the individuals with more
knowledge or experience.
For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teenage music groups, how to
win at the most recent PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform the newest dance craze - a
child or their parents?
Electronic teachers have also been used in educational settings to facilitate and guide learners
through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that they must have (or be programmed with)
more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does.
Zone of Proximal Development
This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve
independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled
partner.
Vygotsky consequently focuses much more closely on social interaction as an aid to learning;
arguing that, left alone, children will develop - but not to their full potential. He refers to the gap
between actual and potential learning as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - and argues
that it is only through collaboration with adults and other learners that this gap can be bridged.
The Zone of Proximal Development is the gap between the level of actual development, what the
child can do on his own and the level of potential development, what a child can do with the
assistance of more advanced and competent individuals. Social interaction, therefore, supports
the child’s cognitive development in the ZPD, leading to a higher level of reasoning.
For example, the child could not solve the jigsaw puzzle (in the example above) by itself and
would have taken a long time to do so (if at all), but was able to solve it following interaction
with the father, and has developed competence at this skill that will be applied to future jigsaws.
35
ZPD is the zone where instruction is the most beneficial as it is when the task is just beyond the
individual’s capabilities. To learn we must be presented with tasks that are just out of our ability
range. Challenging tasks promote the maximum cognitive growth.
He also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies. He
suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop
with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development.
Vygotsky and Language development
He believed that language develops from social interactions, for communication purposes. This
made him to viewed language as man’s greatest tool, a means for communicating with the
outside world.
According to Vygotsky, language plays two critical roles in cognitive development:
i) It is the main means by which adults transmit information to children.

ii) Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.
He differentiates between three forms of language:
 social speech (2 years): which is external communication used to talk to others;

 private speech (3 years): which is directed to the self and serves an intellectual function.
 private speech (7 years): goes underground, diminishing in audibility as it takes on a
self-regulating function and is transformed into silent inner speech.
For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life,
merging at around three years of age. At this point speech and thought become interdependent:
thought becomes verbal, speech becomes representational. When this happens, children's
monologues internalized to become inner speech. The internalization of language is important as
it drives cognitive development.
'Inner speech is not the interior aspect of external speech - it is a function in itself. It still remains
speech, i.e., thought connected with words. But while in external speech thought is embodied in
words, in inner speech words dies as they bring forth thought. Inner speech is to a large extent
thinking in pure meanings.'
Vygotsky was the first psychologist to document the importance of private speech. He
considered private speech as the transition point between social and inner speech, the moment in
development where language and thought unite to constitute verbal thinking.
Thus, private speech, in Vygotsky's view, was the earliest manifestation of inner speech. Indeed,
private speech is more similar (in its form and function) to inner speech than social speech.
Private speech is 'typically defined, in contrast to social speech, as speech addressed to the self
(not to others) for the purpose of self-regulation (rather than communication).'
36
Through private speech, children begin to collaborate with themselves in the same way a more
knowledgeable other (e.g., adults) collaborate with them in the achievement of a given function.
Vygotsky sees "private speech" as a means for children to plan activities and strategies and
therefore aid their development. He believed that children who engaged in large amounts of
private speech are more socially competent than children who do not use it extensively.
Children raised in cognitively and linguistically stimulating environments (situations more

frequently observed in higher socioeconomic status families) start using and internalizing private
speech faster than children from less privileged backgrounds. Indeed, children raised in
environments characterized by low verbal and social exchanges exhibit delays in private speech
development.
Applying Vygotsky's Theory to the Classroom
i) Vygotsky's approach to child development is a form of social constructivism, based

on the idea that cognitive functions are the products of social interactions.
ii) Vygotsky emphasized the collaborative nature of learning by the construction of
knowledge through social negotiation. He rejected the assumption made by Piaget
that it was possible to separate learning from its social context.
iii) Vygotsky believed everything is learned on two levels. First, through interaction with
others, and then integrated into the individual’s mental structure.
iv) Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social
level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological)
and then inside the child (intra-psychological). This applies equally to voluntary
attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher
functions originate as actual relationships between individuals.
v) Teaching styles based on constructivism mark a conscious effort to move from
‘traditional, objectivist models didactic, memory-oriented transmission models’
(Cannella & Reiff, 1994) to a more student-centred approach.
vi) Traditionally, schools have not promoted environments in which the students play an
active role in their own education as well as their peers'. Vygotsky's theory, however,
requires the teacher and students to play untraditional roles as they collaborate with
each other.
vii) Instead of a teacher dictating her meaning to students for future recitation, a teacher
should collaborate with her students in order to create meaning in ways that students
can make their own (Hausfather, 1996).
viii) For example, a pupil and teacher begin a task with different levels of skill and
understanding. As each adjusts to the perspective of the other, the teacher has to
translate their own insights in a way that is within the grasp of the pupil, and the pupil
develops more complete understanding of a task or concept.
ix) The pupil is able to internalize the 'how to do it' part of a task as part of their private
or inner speech dialog. Vygotsky referred to this process as intersubjectivity.
37
ZPD
According to Vygotsky cognitive change occurs within the zone of proximal development,
instruction would be designed to reach a developmental level that is just above the learner's
current developmental level.
He proclaims that "learning which is oriented toward developmental levels that have already
been reached is ineffective from the view point of the child's overall development. It does not
aim for a new stage of the developmental process but rather lags behind this process.
Vygotsky's theories also feed into the current interest in collaborative learning, suggesting that
group members should have different levels of ability so more advanced children can help less
advanced members operate within their ZPD.
Scaffolding and reciprocal teaching are effective strategies to access the zone of proximal
development.
Reciprocal Teaching
A contemporary educational application of Vygotsky's theory is "reciprocal teaching," used to

improve learners' ability to learn from text. In this method, teachers and students collaborate in
learning and practicing four key skills: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The
teacher's role in the process is reduced over time.
Reciprocal teaching allows for the creation of a dialogue between students and teachers. This
two- way communication becomes an instructional strategy by encouraging students to go
beyond answering questions and engage in the discourse (Driscoll, 1994; Hausfather, 1996).
A study conducted by Brown and Palincsar (1989), demonstrated the Vygotskian approach with
reciprocal teaching methods in their successful program to teach reading strategies. The teacher
and students alternated turns leading small group discussions on a reading. After modeling four
reading strategies, students began to assume the teaching role.
Results of this study showed significant gains over other instructional strategies (Driscoll, 1994;
Hausfather,1996). Cognitively Guided Instruction is another strategy to implement Vygotsky's
theory. This strategy involves the teacher and students exploring math problems and then sharing
their different problem-solving strategies in an open dialogue (Hausfather,1996).
The physical classroom, based on Vygotsky's theory, would provide clustered desks or tables and
work space for peer instruction, collaboration, and small group instruction. Learning becomes a
reciprocal experience for the students and teacher.
Like the environment, the instructional design of material to be learned would be structured to
promote and encourage student interaction and collaboration. Thus, the classroom becomes a
community of learning.
38
Scaffolding
Also, Vygotsky theory of cognitive development on learners is relevant to instructional concepts

such as "scaffolding" and "apprenticeship," in which a teacher or more advanced peer helps to
structure or arrange a task so that a novice can work on it successfully.
A teacher's role is to identify each individual’s current level of development and provide them
with opportunities to cross their ZPD.
A crucial element in this process is the use of what later became known as scaffolding; the way
in which the teacher provides students with frameworks and experiences which encourage them
to extend their existing schemata and incorporate new skills, competences and understandings.
Scaffolding describes the conditions that support the child’s learning, to move from what they
already know to new knowledge and abilities.
Scaffolding requires the teacher to provide students the opportunity to extend their current skills
and knowledge.
During scaffolding the support offered by an adult (or more knowledgeable other) gradually
decreases as the child becomes more skilled in the task. As the adult withdraws their help, the
child assumes more of the strategic planning and eventually gains competence to master similar
problems without the aid of a teacher or more knowledgeable peer.
It is important to note that this is more than simply instruction; learning experiences must be
presented in such a way as to actively challenge existing mental structures and provide
frameworks
Five ways in which an adult can “scaffold” a child’s learning:
1. Engaging the child’s interest

2. Maintaining the child’s interest in the task e.g. avoiding distraction and providing clear
instructions on how to start the task.
3. Keeping the child’s frustration under control e.g. by supportive interactions, adapt
instructions according where the child is struggling
4. Emphasizing the important features of the task
5. Demonstrating the task: showing the child how to do the task in simple, clear steps.
As the child progresses through the ZPD, the level of scaffolding necessary declines from 5 to 1.
39
The teacher must engage learners' interest, simplify tasks so they are manageable, and motivate
students to pursue the instructional goal. In addition, the teacher must look for discrepancies
between learners' efforts and the solution, control for frustration and risk, and model an idealized
version of the act.
Challenges to Traditional Teaching Methods
Vygotsky's social development theory challenges traditional teaching methods. Historically,

schools have been organized around recitation teaching. The teacher disseminates knowledge to
be memorized by the students, who in turn recite the information back to the teacher
(Hausfather,1996). However, the studies described above offer empirical evidence that learning
based on the social development theory facilitates cognitive development over other instructional
strategies.
The structure of our schools does not reflect the rapid changes our society is experiencing. The
introduction and integration of computer technology in society has tremendously increased the
opportunities for social interaction.
Therefore, the social context for learning is transforming as well. Whereas collaboration and peer
instruction were once only possible in shared physical space, learning relationships can now be
formed from distances through cyberspace.
Computer technology is a cultural tool that students can use to mediate and internalize their
learning. Recent research suggests changing the learning contexts with technology is a powerful
learning activity (Crawford, 1996). If schools continue to resist structural change, students will
be ill prepared for the world they will live.
4. ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHO-SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (1902-

1994)
Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential
theories of development which was impacted much by theory of Sigmund Freud psychosexual
development. Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development. He believed that a child’s
uniqueness (personality) is developed in a series of stages.
His theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was
interested in how social interaction and relationships play a role in the development and growth
of human beings.
The theory was based on what is known as the epigenetic principle. This principle suggests that
people grow in a sequence that occurs over time and in the context of a larger community.
The stages that make up his theory are as follows:
 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months)

 Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18 months to 3 years)
40
 Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from 3 to five)
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from 6 to 11)
 Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18)
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40)
 Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65)
 Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to death)
We shall concentrate on the first four stages of development (infancy to school age) because they
facilitate greatly the other four stages.
Conflict During Each Stage
Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for following
periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves
as a turning point in development.
In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or
failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high but
so is the potential for failure.
If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological
strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. If they fail to deal effectively with
these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self.
Mastery Leads to Ego Strength
Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in
Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life.
If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred
to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a
sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development.
Psychosocial Stages: A Summary Chart

Age Conflict Important Events Outcome
Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Hope
Early Childhood (2 to 3 Autonomy vs. Shame and
Toilet Training Will
years) Doubt
Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose
School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority School Confidence
Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion Social Relationships Fidelity
Young Adulthood (19 to 40
Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Love
years)
Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 Generativity vs. Stagnation Work and Parenthood Care
41
Psychosocial Stages: A Summary Chart
Age Conflict Important Events Outcome
years)
Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life Wisdom
A brief summary of the eight stages
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year
of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent,
developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.
At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything
they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to
provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon
the adults in their life.
Outcomes
If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers
who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in
the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world
is inconsistent and unpredictable.
During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when
caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that
successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When
this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience
tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.
The Role of Independence
At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are
starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they
prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help
children develop a sense of autonomy.
Potty Training
42
The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over
physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping
children develop this sense of autonomy.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to
control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other
important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing
selection.
Outcomes
Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of
personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of
autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Finding Balance
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not
are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance
between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can
act with intention, within reason and limits.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point
in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to
acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
Outcomes
The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin
asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of
purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense
of guilt.
When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved,
the ego quality known as purpose emerges.
43
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages
5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of
competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. This is the transitional period from
early childhood to middle childhood.
Outcomes
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength
known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set
before them.
Implication of Erik Erikson’ theory of psycho-social development

 Parents and caregivers (teachers) need to help children have a healthy balance between
initiative and guilt. They should encourage them to carry out their goals with guidance in
activities.
 Parents should provide a simulative environment which will allow the child to carry out
his goals. For example, provide them with variety of materials for play and give play
opportunities.
 Parents should children with opportunity to go to school. This is where they acquire
skills, like reading, writing, skills of self-identification and how to live with others. For
example, turn taking and respect.
 Children should be given challenging tasks and reinforced to carry out the tasks to
completion.
5. LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg studied moral reasoning and presented the dilemma that people go through. He
described how people reason when faced with a situation that require moral judgements.
Kohlberg gave an example of man whose wife was suffering from cancer. The drug was very
expensive; therefore, he decided to steal it to save his wife’s life. This represented dilemmas that
people go through when faced with situations that require moral reasoning.
Kohlberg was not interested with the answer people gave. He believed that it is moral reasoning
that determines the stage of development that one is in and not the answer that one gives.
Kohlberg came up with three levels of six stages of moral development.
 Pre-conventional level
44
 Conventional level
 Post conventional level
Early childhood years cut across the first level and half of the second level as follows:
Level I: Pre-conventional (4-10 years)

Children at this level make decisions based on reward and punishment and are concerned with
the satisfaction of their own needs, pre-conventional children may reflect egocentrism assuming
that everyone else sees things they, way they do.
Before the first stage, children think anything they like or want or that helps them is good;
anything they dislike or hurts them is bad. They have no concept rules or obligations independent
of their wishes. This pre-stage is called Egocentric judgement.
Stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation
During the first stage of pre-conventional level, children assume that adults decide what is wrong
and right; therefore, they believe that behavior that avoid punishment must be good depending
on the consequence of the action. For example, child may say one should not steal because he or
she will be punished by the parents.
Stage 2: instrumental relativist orientation
At this stage children start realizing that they have to please others in order to please themselves.
They can now understand that others do understand them.
Children at this stage feel that it is important for them to resolve peer conflict to allow each
person to do what he wants.
Level II: conventional moral Reasoning

At this stage children start to consider the social standards of the society which reflects what is
right and wrong (moral values).
Stage 3: Good boy/ Nice girl orientation

Children at this stage want to do good to help and to please others. They want to be approved by
others. They feel that one should do what he would wants others to do to him, for example, they
may say it is not wrong to steal if one is saving a life.
Other levels and stages which are not applicable to early childhood are: level III post-
conventional, autonomous or principled level; stage 4 authority maintaining orientation, stage 5
social contract legalistic orientation and stage 6 universal ethical principle orientation.
Implication of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning

 Parents and teachers should reinforce good behavior in children by appreciating the child
through a clap when a good behavior is exhibited.
 Parents and teachers should introduce children to rules and regulations that guide
behavior but should be flexible in the punishment and focus on the behavior of the child.
 Parents and teachers should not measure moral reasoning depending on the child’s age.
This is because the stages of moral development cut across all levels of development.
 Parents should instill positive societal values to help children differentiate right from
wrong.
45
 Parents and Teacher should foster positive moral relationships by encouraging
cooperative learning.
UNIT FOUR
FACTORS AFFECTING CHILDREN’S GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Children’s growth and development are affected by a variety of factors right from the beginning
of life in a mother’s womb to pre-adolescence stage even beyond. The factors are diverse and
broad, they can be categorized as internal and external factors
Internal Factors
All those factors which intrinsically lie within the individual are called internal factors. These
factors include
1. Heredity factors
2. Biological or constitutional factors
3. Intelligence
4. Emotional Factors
5. Social Nature
1. Heredity factors: Heredity factors play their part at the time of conception in the mother’s
womb. The heredity factor contribution includes-
46
 What is transferred to the offspring from its immediate parents in the form of genes and
chromosomes?
 The height, weight, colour of eyes and the skin, the characteristics of hair all these
decided by the hereditary influence
 The physical structure, nervous system and other things related to one’s constitutional
make–up, body chemistry and physical development are, to a great extent, decided by
heredity factors.
If the heredity contribution is satisfactory, then with minimum efforts of the environmental
forces, we get satisfactory results. However, in case the hereditary contribution is quite merged,
then we have to make tremendous efforts for achieving desired success in terms of a child’s
satisfactory growth and development
2. Biological or constitutional factors: A child’s constitutional makeup somatic structure,

physique and body chemistry influence his growth and development throughout his life. This can
be sustained in the following manner-
 A child who is physically weak or has any internal deformities cannot be expected to
achieve satisfactory results in terms of his normal growth and development. He usually
suffers from an illness which is not only hampering his physical growth but also affect
his development in other spheres-mental, social and emotional
 The nervous system which controls the body movement affects the growth and
development of a child in cognitive spheres
 The endocrine or ductless glands are potent factors affecting the growth and development
of an individual from his birth. The chemistry of the body is governed by these glands.
Each of these glands secrets its own chemical known as hormones. Ex- an imbalance in
the pituitary gland may lead to an abnormal increase or decrease in height
 Defective constitutional make-up like ugly face, short stature and any other deformity of
the body may give birth to feelings of inferiority of a child. Moreover, he may face
adjustment problem in the environment and consequently may lag behind in the race of
growth and development pertaining aspects of his personality
3. Intelligence: Intelligence is the ability to learn, adjust and take up the right decision at right
time, which has a great influence on the overall growth and development of a child. It affects
child social behaviors, moral judgement and emotional growth. It is said the intelligent person is
very well controlled over his emotions and is found to carry on well with his personal and social
adjustment. Thus, the physical, social, emotional, moral and language development of a child is
greatly affecting and controlled by the level of his intelligence.
4. Emotional Factors: Emotional factors, e.g. emotional adjustability and maturity, play a big
role in influencing a person’s overall growth and development. A child who is found to be
overwhelmed by negative emotions like fear, anger, jealousy etc is adversely affected in his
physical, mental, social, moral and language development.
5. Social Nature: A person’s socialization helps him in achieving adjustment and advancement
in other aspects of his growth and development. He may learn from his environment, more by
47
means of his social nature, which may prove to be a boom to him for his proper growth and
development
External Factors
The factors lying extrinsically outside the individual in his environment are said to be the
external factors affecting growth and development. These include
1. The environment in the womb of the mother: The amount and quality of nourishment
available in the mother’s womb from the time of conception till his birth is very
important in the aspects of growth and development of the child. The factors associated
with this period are
 The Physical and mental health of the mother during pregnancy

 Single child or multiple child getting nourished in the womb
 The quality & quantity of nutrition received by the embryo within the womb of the
mother
 Normal or abnormal delivery
 Any damage or accident to the baby in the womb
2. The environment available after birth: Whether a child gets from different conditions
and forces of his environment after his birth, influences his growth and development in
many ways. These include-
3. Accidents and incidents in life: The growth and development are greatly affected by the
good and bad incidents and accidents which happen to meet in his lifetime. Sometimes, a
small injury or an incident may change the entire development course in his life. For
example, if a child’s nervous system is damaged in an accident, it will hamper his mental
development and in turn, it will affect his development in other spheres-social, emotional,
moral and physical
4. The quality of the physical environment, medical care and nourishment: A child’s
growth and development are greatly influenced by the quality of his physical
environment and medical care and nourishment available to him for his living and
working. These include open space, balanced diet, good living and working conditions
and proper medical care.
5. The quality of the facilities and opportunities provided by the social and cultural
forces: What a child gets from his social and cultural environment for the growth and
development of his potentials, influences the entire course of his development. In a true
sense, he develops and becomes what he is permitted to and desired by these social and
cultural forces. A few such conditions are given below-
 Parents and family care received by the child

 Economic and social status of the parents and family
 The quality of the neighborhood and the surrounding environment
 The quality of schooling received by the child
 The quality of peer group relationships and company of a child.
48
The growth and development are influence by both heredity and environment. If the
quality of a gene and chromosome transfers from parents to a child then we need
minimum environmental efforts to achieve the maximum growth and development of a
child. Family is one of the most important factors in the child overall growth and
development in all spheres.
UNIT FIVE
ASSESSMENT OF CHILDREN’S DEVELOPMENT ASPECTS FOR PLANNING AND
EVALUATION
Assessment is the process of evaluating the nature of growth and development of children for
proper planning for them. According to MoES (2020), assessment is the process through which
the quality and quantity of learning process of a given activity can be judged within a specific
time. It helps in improving task performance and planning by both the teacher and the child.
Assessment methods
This refers to the ways and strategies of assessing children developmental aspects. The methods
include: observation of children, observation of children’s work and interviews.
1. Observation of children
Observation is the commonly used method of assessing developmental aspects of children in
ECDE. The observer is able to collect the information directly from the child’s actions, behaviors
and expression. In observation the following tools are developed and used:
 Checklist
 Observation schedule
 Rating scale
 Interview schedule
2. Observation of children’s work
The teacher can choose to observe children’s artwork or class work in various activities. The
teacher can go round the class and observe children’s work. She can mark or give comments
about the quality of the work done. Children can be given projects like modelling while the
teacher observes their models and evaluate their skills.
Sometimes, children work may be kept and their progress evaluated through observation. To aid
observation of children’s work, the teacher may use tools such as:
 Observation checklist
 Rating scales
3. Interviews
Interviews involves face to face administration of questions to a child. The questions target
particular developmental aspects of children. Before interviews are conducted, the interviewer
49
should create a friendly relationship with the child. For successful interviewing process, guiding
questions must be developed and put into paper. The paper with particular questions to direct the
interview is called an interview guide or interview schedule.
Assessment tools
These are instruments used to collect data during assessment period. The tools discussed are:
observation schedule, observation checklist, rating scale and interview schedule.
i) Observation schedule
When assessing children developmental aspects, one can use observation schedule to record
what he observes during data collection. The observer defines and comes up with a detailed list
of behaviors to be assessed. The observer keeps on observing and recording behaviors as they
occur. Below is a sample of an observation schedule.
Behavior Frequency Total

Sharing IIII I
Cooperating IIII IIII
Taking turns IIII
Bullying others I
ii) Observation checklist

An observation checklist is a tool that consist of observable behavior or items used by the
assessor to determine their presence or absence in children. An example of a checklist is
presented below:
Behavior Present Not present

Can walk with support √
Can stand without √
Can run a short distance x
iii) Interview schedule

This is a tool with a set of questions prepared by the interviewer (assessor) and it is used to used
to guide the interviewing process environment. An example of an interview schedule is presented
below:
 What is your name?
 Where do you live?
 Where do you go to school?
 Do you read stories at school?
 If you read can you retell one story?
 Who teaches you mathematics?
 What do you use when counting?
 Have you ever gone to a neighboring farm?
 Do you like drawing? What kind of drawing do you like?
50
 Which game do you like playing? Do your parents allow you to play at home?
iv) Rating scale

It is a measuring instrument that requires the observer to note the degree to which a characteristic
is present or how often the behavior occurs. Below is a sample of a rating scale.
Response Rate
Can recognise all the letters Excellent
Can recognise three of the five letters Good
Can run recognise one or none of the five letters Fair
Scores: Excellent = 3 points

Good = 2 points
Fair = 1 point
51

Bec 1105 Young Children's Development&Learning

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bec 1105 Young Children's Development&Learning

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bec 1105 Young Children's Development&Learning

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UGANDA MARTYRS UNIVERSITY-NKOZI

COURSE TITLE: YOUNG CHILDREN'S LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT

COURSE CODE: BEC 1105

Meaning and definitions

Development can be described as the gradual accumulation of relatively permanent, age-related

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to Age 2)

Preoperational Stage (Ages 2 to 7)

Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7 to 11)

Formal Operational Stage (Age 12 and Up)

Teens, especially, demonstrate significant developments in the psycho-social domain as their

Language development is dependent on the other developmental domains. The ability to

 Phonology: Creating the sounds of speech

Major Developmental Milestones in Children

0-3 Month Milestones

 While lying on tummy, pushes up on arms

 Quiets or smiles in response to sound or voice

 Latches onto nipple or bottle

4-6 Month Milestones

 Uses hands to support self while sitting

 Uses both hands to explore toys

 Reacts to sudden noises or sounds

 Shows interest in food

7-9 Month Milestones

 Uses increased variety of sounds and syllable combinations in babbling

 In a highchair, holds and drinks from a bottle

10-12 Month Milestones

 Enjoys listening to songs

 Meaningfully uses “mama” or “dada”

 Finger feeds self

13-18 Month Milestones

 May use 5-10 words

 Increases variety of coarsely chopped table foods

19-24 Month Milestones

 Starts to jumps with both feet leaving the ground

 Flips switches on and off

 Uses at least 50 words

 Begins to use 2 word phrases

2-3 Year Milestones

 Consistently uses 2-3 word phrases

 Asks “what” and “where” questions

 Cognitive skills, such as problem-solving.

Some of the most common signs of developmental delays can include:

 Rolling over, crawling or walking much later than expected.

Causes of Developmental Delays

 Exposure to toxins before birth, such as alcohol or lead poisoning.

The Treatment options for Developmental Delays

CONSTRUCTIONS OF CHILDHOOD AND ITS EFFECT ON PRACTICE

Children’s participation in Uganda

Childhood Constructed by Society

2. The Evil Child

Here are some more examples:

3. The Good Child

Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Emile, the ‘Good’ Boy!

4. The Innocent Child

5. The Incompetent / Bubble Wrapped Child

6. The Snowballing Child

7. The Sexualized Child

8. The Child as Commodity

9. The Victim Child

10. The Noble Child