THE RIGHTLY GUIDED CALIPHS

HAZRAT ABU BAKR (RA)

LIFE BEFORE CALIPHATE

Q Give an account of the services rendered by Hazrat Abu Bakr RA to Islam before becoming a caliph.
Ans Refer to Book Topic “life before caliphate”

Q In what ways the acceptance of Islam by Hz Abu Bakr RA unique or exceptional?

Ans
 He was a close friend of the Holy Prophet pbuh.
 He is said to be the first male adult to have accepted Islam.
 The Prophet pbuh appreciated his acceptance of Islam by saying that he accepted Islam without showing
any hesitation.
 The prophet pbuh is reported to have said that whenever he invited anyone to the acceptance of Islam,
the person would indulge in a long discussion about Islam and needed reasons why he should accept his
message. However, the Prophet pbuh told that when he offered the message of Islam to Hz Abu Bakr RA,
he accepted it without any discussion or debate.

ELECTION

PROBLEMS FACED BY ABU BAKR WITHIN ARABIA:

REFUSAL TO PAY ZAKAT:

 The issue of the refusal to pay Zakat was a great test of the moral courage of Abu Bakr as the first
Caliph of the Holy Prophet.
 After the demise of the Holy Prophet many surrounding tribes of Medina which had offered allegiance to
Islam, sent a deputation to Abu Bakr with the proposal that their agreement with the Muslims had ended.
 A fresh agreement was necessary in which they should be relieved from the obligation to pay Zakat. Abu
Bakr argued that Zakat was a fundamental injunction of Islam and had to be paid.
 Seeing their proposal being rejected these tribes decided to forego Islam. Their decision was to attack
Medina when the main Muslim army was in Syria.
 They attacked at night but found Abu Bakr with his army ready to fight.
 The apostates were defeated; many tribesmen died while others fled in confusion.
  After this battle many tribes sent their delegates to Medina, offered allegiance and paid Zakat.

APOSTASY MOVEMENT:

 After the Prophet’s death, some of the people rose in revolt against the authorities in Medina and
renounced Islam.
  Abu Bakr, without any delay, launched an expedition against this movement.
 After collecting the troops at Medina, he divided them into eleven battalions each with an experienced
commander, and sent them in eleven different directions to crush these revolts.
 He instructed each commander to first invite these tribes to Islam. If any refused to comply they were to
be attacked. 
 Some of the tribes accepted Islam but the others were stubborn and were dealt with harshly.
  All campaigns were successful and Abu Bakr was able to re-establish control of Islam throughout the
Peninsula.

FALSE PROPHETS:

 In the last days of the Prophet’s life some misguided people arose to claim prophet hood.
 When Abu Bakr was elected as the Caliph they started their preaching openly.
 Among these false prophets were Tulaiha, Aswad Ansi, Musailamah and Sajjah. Tulaiha belonged to the
Banu Asad tribe in the northern Arabia.
  An army under Khalid bin Walid was sent which met them at Buzaka. 
 After a fierce battle Tulaiha’s army surrendered and he himself fled to Syria. He embraced Islam during
the time of the second Caliph.
 Aswad Ansi belonged to the Ansi tribe in Yemen. 
 He was an ugly man who kept his face veiled all the time.
 He was nicknamed ‘’the veiled prophet’’.
 Being leader of his tribe he revolted with the cooperation of the neighbouring chiefs. 
 He was the first false prophet who collected a large army in open revolt against Islam. 
 He was defeated and killed by the Muslims.
 The most dangerous of the false prophets was Musalima. 
 He belonged to a tribe of central Arabia.
 His tribe accepted him as a prophet.
 Abu Bakr sent Shurbhil and Ikramah to crush the rebellion; later Khalid bin Walid joined them. Musalima,s
army was defeated after a fierce battle at Yamamah in 633AD.Musalimah was killed.
 In this battle about 800 Muslims were martyred. Amongst them were 360 Huffaz (memorizers of the
Holy Qur’an).
 Sajjah was a woman who belonged to the Bani Tamim tribe. 
 She claimed to be a prophetess and succeeded in mustering a large following. 
 When Musalimah heard about her claim he invited her to Yamamah. 
 They decided to join forces and later Musailma married her which ended her adventure of prophet hood
and she lived in obscurity for the rest of her life. 
 When the Muslims conquered Iraq she entered the circle of Islam along with her tribe.

COMPILATION OF THE QUR’AN:

 In the battle of Yamamah several Huffaz laid down their lives.

 Hazrat Umar approached Hazrat Abu Bakr about the compilation of the Holy Qur’ran. 
 He was of the opinion that soon the preservation of the Qur’an will become a major problem owing to the
deaths of the Huffaz. 
 Abu Bakr did not agree in the beginning but was later convinced by Umar and he ordered the compilation
of the Holy Book under the supervision of Zaid bin Sabit.
SAVIOUR OF ISLAM:
Abu Bakr is rightly called the saviour of Islam because of the vital services rendered by him. Soon after the
Prophet’s death, he was the one to calm down the shocked Muslim community. 

 Most of the companions including Umar were not ready to believe in the Prophet’s death. Abu Bakr on this
occasion, delivered a convincing speech told all about the mortality of Mohammad by reciting: ‘’Mohammad
is no more than a messenger: many messengers that were before him passed away, if he died or were slain
will you then turn back on your heels?’’ (3:144).
  Later as a Caliph he suppressed the apostasy movement and thus preserved the fundamentals of Islam.
 False prophets challenged the second component of Shahada—‘’Mohammad is the final Messenger of God.’’
He defeated the false prophets and thus kept the unity of Islam.
 He fought and won against the tribes refusing to pay Zakat. By eradicating both, Abu Bakr defended the
basic principles of Islam.
 Finally by compiling the Qur’an, Abu Bakr ensured the unity of the Muslim community that depended on the
Qur’an.

WHY HE WAS CALLED AL-SIDDIQUE:

 First free male to accept Islam.
 Believed in the ‘’miraj’’ (Prophets ascension to the heavens)
ADMINISTRATION:
 Laid the foundation of a truly democratic state.
 Always took advice from the great companions of the Prophet in all important matters.
 Divided the state into provinces, each had a governor.
 The governor was responsible for military and administrative affairs.
 Governer had an ‘’amil’’ to collect taxes and ‘’qazi’’ to administer justice.
 All commanders and governors were selected on merit.
 He offered himself and his officers for strict accountability.
 He built a ‘’bait-ul-maal’’ (treasury) to collect revenue.
 Established military cantonments and maintained a reserve force.
 Expanded the Muslim Empire to Iran Syria and Rome.
 Ensured the safety of non-Muslim subjects and allowed them to perform their religious duties.
 His annual income was 6000 Dirhams which he returned to the state by issuing instructions to sell a piece
of land he owned when he was on his death bed.

4 (a) Write an account of the major contributions made to Islam by Abu Bakr:
(i) During the Prophet’s lifetime; [4]
 He was the Prophet’s friend from childhood.
 He was one of the first to accept Islam.
 He brought others to accept Islam.
 He remained loyal to the Prophet at all times, good and bad.
 He expressed belief in the Prophet’s Night Journey.
 He bought slaves who were Muslim and freed them.
 He accompanied the Prophet on the hijra.
 He gave his daughter `A’isha to be the Prophet’s wife.
 He made a financial contribution to the expedition to Tabuk.

(ii) During his caliphate. [8]

 He steadied the mourning community after the Prophet’s death.
 He continued the Prophet’s intention to send expeditions to the north. [1 mark for the basic point, and 1
extra mark for details]
 He fought against the tribes who withheld zakat.
 He fought against the false prophets.
 These were Musaylima, Tulayha, Aswad al-Ansi and Sajjah. [1 mark, but 2 marks if all four names are
given]
 He arranged to have the first collection of the Qur’an made. [1 mark, but 2 marks for details of how this
happened]
Hazrat Umar: His life before becoming a caliph and his character

• Hazrat Umar belonged to the Quraishi family of Banu Adi.

• His father’s name was Khattab bin Nufail.
• The ancestry of Hazrat Umar coincided with the Holy Prophet (PBUH) in eighth generation.
• The name of Hazrat Umar’s mother Hantamah bint Hisham bin Mughairah.
• He was born in the Year of the Elephant (about 40 years before migration). He was thus 12-13 years younger than the Holy Prophet
(PBUH).
• Hazrat Umar was born in an educated and well-off family. He too was personally eduated by his father.
• In his youth, Hazrat Umar acquired the skills of geneology, fighting, wrestling and oratory.
• Before his acceptance of Islam, Hazrat Umar was appointed to the ambassadorial post by the Quraish.
• He was well-established in trade.
• Hazrat Umar was 27 years old when the Holy Prophet (PBUH) was given the charge of Messengership.
• In the sixth year of Prophethood, Hazrat Umar accepted Islam in Arqam’s house in Makkah, which at that time was the centre of
Prophet’s preaching.
• After his conversion to Islam, Muslims performed prayer for the first time in Ka’bah.
• He was thirty three years old when he embraced Islam.
• He was given the title Farooq i.e. one who can distinguish between right and wrong by the Holy Prophet (PBUH) after he converted
to Islam.
• He migrated to Madina and took part in all major battles, i.e. Badr, Uhad, Ditch, Khyber and Hunain.
• His daughter Hazrat Hafsah was Holy Prophet (PBUH)’s wife.
• He gave half his wealth at the time of the Tabuk Expedition.

Main attributes of his personality:

• Simplicity, kindness, full commitment, dedication and devotion to his duty as Caliph, good judge of men, able to discern truth from
falsehood, high moral standards, tough as administrator, possessed the qualities of foresight and far-sightedness, quick and sharp in
decision-making and ensuring its implementation.

Election of Hazrat Umar as the second caliph:

• 24 August 634 AD.

• Hazrat Abu Bakr nominated Hazrat Umar as the next Caliph.
• After Hazrat Abu Bakr’s death, most of the eminent Companions of Muhammad (PBUH) swore allegiance to Hazrat Umar.

                                                   Wars with Persia

Battle of Namarraq (October, 634 AD):

• Because the Muslims had captured Hira under the caliphate of Abu Bakr, the infuriated Persian Emperor sent a large force under a
famous general.
• The two armies met 10 miles from Hira.
• Persians were defeated and put to flight.

Battle of Jar/Battle of the Bridge (October, 634 AD):

• Alarmed by the Muslim victory, the Persian Emperor dispatched a large army, commanded by Bahman.
• The Muslim army was led by Hazrat Abu Ubaydah.
• Before this mighty force, the Arabs fell back and re-crossed the Euphrates.
• The Persian commander challenged Hazrat Abu Ubaydah to cross the river again or allow him to come to the Arab side.
• Acting rashly and against his advisors’ warnings, Hazrat Abu Ubaydah ordered the Muslim army to build a bridge of boats and cross
the river.
• Once on the opposite side, the Muslims found themselves in an alarming situation. They were hemmed in between the Persian war-
elephants in their front and the swift river Euphrates on their backs.
• The Arabs and their animals had never seen elephants before and were terrified by these fierce and gigantic beasts. These
elephants routed the Muslim cavalry.
• Hazrat Abu Ubaida ordered the cavalry to dismount and fight on foot.
• Although the Muslims fought bravely and brought down many elephants, they were trampled in large numbers under the beasts’ feet.
• Hazrat Abu Ubaida himself was martyred by one of the elephants. His brother succeeded him, but one by one, the Muslim
commanders were martyred.
• A Muslim had cut the boat-bridge so that the Muslim army would not lose heart and retreat easily.
• However, the routed soldiers jumped into the river and many lost their lives.
• The new Muslim commander, Hazrat Musanna, ordered the bridge to be rebuilt. He and a small detachment held back the Persians
while the survivors crossed over to the Arab side.
• Out of the original Muslim force of 9,000 men, approximately:       I) 3000 survived.    II) 2,000 fell fighting.    III) 2,000 drowned in the
river.     IV) 2,000 fled to Madina and elsewhere.

Battle of Buwayb (November, 634 AD):

• Acting wisely and calmly after the disastrous Battle of Jasr, Umar rallied his allies to fight against the Persian Empire.
• When the Persians came to know of this, they sent a large force under the command of Mehran, an expert in Arabian warfare
techniques.
• The Muslim army was commanded by Hazrat Musanna.
• Like the Battle of Jasr, the Persian army camped on the eastern side of the Euphrates.
• This time, however, the Muslims allowed the Persians to cross over to the Arabian side.
• The next day, the two armies engaged in a fierce battle at Buwayb.
• Even though the Persian force was many times larger than the Muslim army, they were put to rout when Mehran was killed.
• The Muslim force destroyed the bridge over the Euphrates when the Persians tried to fall back. Persians were killed in large numbers
and their army was almost completely destroyed.

Hazrat Umar resolves to conquer Iraq:

• Hazrat Umar realized that if Hira was to be held by the Muslims, Madain, the Persian capital of the Iraqi province, must be captured.
• Hazrat Umar called for Holy War on Persia and wrote letters to his allies and rallied them under his banner.
• Finally, an army of 20,000 men was mustered and was placed under Hazrat Saad bin Abi Waqqas.

Battle of Qadisiya:

• Hazrat Saad was ordered to march to Qadisiya, a little fortress on the western bank of the Ateeq (a branch of the Euphrates).
• From here, Hazrat Saad sent an envoy to the court of Yazdgard, the Persian Emperor, with the message of Islam.
• The Persian Emperor insulted the envoy and turned him out of his court.
• To teach the Muslims a lesson, he dispatched a large army of 120,000 men, including 300 war-elephants. This army was
commanded by Rustum.
• The Muslim army now numbered 30,000, including 1400 of Muhammad (PBUH)’s Companions and 99 veterans of Badr. The
soldiers had also brought their families along, as they intended to settle on the conquered land.
• Rustum encamped with his army on the opposite bank of the river. He intended to tire out the Muslims or make them short of
supplies before attacking.
• Arab raiding parties, which attacked the fertile Persian fields, forced the Emperor to order Rustum to commence fighting.
• Rustum and his army crossed the river in the secrecy of the night by building a dam to check the flow of the water.
• The battle that ensued was very fierce and lasted for 3 days and 4 nights.
• Hazrat Saad directed his forces from his sick bed.
• Eventually, the Persians lost and were killed in large numbers.
• Rustum was killed as he tried to flee the battlefield.
• Losses:      I) Muslims --- 8500 men.                    II) Persians --- 30,000 to 40,000 men.
• Booty:       I) 6,000 pieces to every soldier.     II) 70,000 pieces from the jewels stripped from the body of Rustum.      III) 100,000
pieces from the Persian banner made from panther’s skin.
• Consequences:       I) Put an end to the military might of the Persian Empire.      II) Arab tribes no longer hesitated to fight against
Persia and the enemies of Islam.      III) Way to Madain opened.

Siege and capture of Madain:

• After resting his troops , Hazrat Saad marched on Madain with the intention of capturing it.
• The army defending the city fell back before the Muslim assault, fled into the city and closed the gates.
• The Muslims captured the city after a siege and a brave assault by the troops.
• Booty:       I) Vessels and statues of gold and silver.  II) Stores of precious stones.  III) Luxurious wardrobes.  IV) Thousands of
prisoners of war.  V) Each soldier received 12,000 dirhams.

Battle of Jalula:

• The Persian king, fleeing from Madain, took refuge in Hulwan.

• As a result, his remaining army occupied Jalula, a place in the neighborhood of Madain.
• This army made great preparations for battle; the entire town was converted into a fortress and a deep ditch was dug around the
town.
• Hazrat Saad, with Hazrat Umar’s permission, sent a strong army to Jalula under the command of Qaka.
• The siege of Jalula stretched over 7 months.
• Eventually, the Persians decided to counterattack and drive out the Muslims.
• The Muslim commander pulled back his army so that the whole of the Persian army could come into the field.
• Fierce fighting ensued.
• Eventually, a fierce storm started blowing into the Persians’ faces and they fell back and were killed in large numbers.
• The residents of Jalula surrendered on the usual terms of Jizya.

Battle of Nahawand:

• After the Battle of Jalula, Hazrat Umar stopped further conquest and sought to consolidate Muslim rule in the lands already occupied.
• Towards this end, a peace treaty was signed with the Persians.
• However, the Persians soon broke the treaty and marched with 60,000 men against the 30,000 Muslims.
• The two armies fought at Nahawand for 2 days. On the 3rd day, the Persians took refuge in their forts.
• By a clever strategy, the enemy was coaxed out of hiding and hand-to-hand fighting took place.
• The Persian might was shattered forever and their emperor fled to Isfahan.
• This battle was a decisive one for the whole world, as it signaled the end of Persian power and the rise of Muslims.

Wars with the Byzantine Empire

• The Eastern Roman Empire consisting of Syria, Jerusalem and Egypt was called the Byzantine Empire.
• Although relations between the two parties had been cordial when Muhammad (PBUH) sent his envoy to Heraclius, things had
begun to cool down.
• The Christian prince of Syria had murdered Muhammad (PBUH)’s envoy at Mu’tah. This led to an increase in the hostility.

Causes:

• Rebellion of the Bedouin tribes on the Syrian border against Muslim rule on instigation of the Byzantine Empire.
• Bedouin tribes in the Byzantine Empire on the Syrian border rendered help to their kinsmen in Arabia to raid Muslim territory.
• Natural expansive need of Arabia as it was not very rich in resources as compared to its neighbours.

                                               Conquest Of Syria
Battle of Yarmouk:

• During the time of Hazrat Abu Bakr, Muslims had defeated the Romans on the Syrian front.
• During the reign of Hazrat Umar, Hazrat Khalid bin Walid had now added Damascus, Jordan and Emmessa to the Muslim State.
• In retaliation, the Byzantine Emperor sent 260,000 men, who camped in the valley of Yarmouk.
• Hazrat Abu Ubaydah rallied 40,000 men under the banner of Islam.
• The Byzantines offered to pay the Muslims a large sum of money if they left Syria.
• Hazrat Abu Ubaydah offered them the usual:    I) Accept Islam.  II) Pay Jizya.  III) Prepare for battle.
• The battle lasted for 6 days.
• By the afternoon of the 6th day, only 1/3 of the Byzantine army remained.
• Meanwhile, a storm broke out and the fleeing Byzantines were cut down in large numbers.
• With this battle, the Byzantines lost Syria and Muslim rule was ushered in.

 Fall of Juraselem:

• After the Battle of Yarmouk, Muslim forces spread out in all directions in Jordan and captured key areas to pave the way to
Jerusalem.
• The city of Jerusalem, held sacred by Jews and Christians, was strongly fortified and was protected on all sides by deep valleys.
• Muslims laid siege to Jerusalem in the severe winter.
• Hazrat Amr bin Aas, the Muslim commander, wrote to Hazrat Abu Ubaydah for reinforcements.
• When the reinforcements arrived, the citizens of the city lost heart and offered surrender if the Caliph himself would come and
receive the keys of the city.
• Leaving Hazrat Ali as his deputy, Hazrat Umar left for Jerusalem with a slave, taking turns to ride the camel.
• When he arrived, a treaty with the citizens was drawn up, guaranteeing security of life, safety of churches and other religious
buildings etc. The citizens were required to pay Jizya. Those who wouldn’t do so were asked to leave the city.
• When Hazrat Umar asked the Patriarch of the city where he could offer the prayer of thanksgiving, he was led to a church.
• Hazrat Umar declined to pray in the church because he feared that he would set an example for Muslims to convert churches to
mosques.
• He was then led to a place where Prophet David used to pray.
• Staying in Jerusalem for a few days, he reorganized the administration and built the Mosque of Hazrat Umar.

Conquest of Egypt:

• Causes/Reasons:
I) The Muslim navy was extremely weak and Alexandria was a strong naval base of the      Byzantines. From there, they could launch
a devastating attack.
II) Egypt was the ‘granary of the Empire’, and its capture would debilitate the food system of the   Byzantine Empire.
III) The conquest of Egypt would open the way to large parts of Africa.
IV) The Copts of Egypt lived in miserable conditions under their Byzantine masters; Hazrat Amr knew that these people would
welcome and support the Muslims.
• With  the  permission  of the  Caliph,  Hazrat  Amr  bin  Aas  set out for Egypt with 4,000 men, in 639 AD.
• After attacking small towns, he laid siege to the fort of Fustat, which lasted for 7 months. This fort was captured.
• Alarmed by the Muslim advance, the Egyptian king sent a large army to hold Alexandria.
• When the Muslims reached Alexandria, they found it heavily fortified and manned by 50,000 soldiers.
• At this time, the Muslims strength was only 12,000.
• Whenever the Muslims tried to get close to the city, the enemy rained boulders on them.
• Also, Alexandria was a major port and help could come from sea any time.
• When the Byzantines tried to fight the Muslims in the open, they were beaten back.
• When Emperor Heraclius died, a wave of disappointment went over the besieged city as they knew that no one would now come to
their help anymore.
• Finally, the city capitulated and Muslims became the masters of Egypt.

Death of Hazrat Umar:

• After the Battle of Nahawand, many Persian men, women and children were sold as slaves.
• One of these was Abu Lulu, also known as Firoz.
• He was purchased by the Governor of Basra.
• In Zil Haj, 23, Hazrat Umar was leading the morning prayers when Firoz attacked him with a dagger and inflicted several wounds.
• Hazrat Umar survived for some days and nominated his successors, asking them to choose the caliph from among themselves:
I) Hazrat Ali    II) Hazrat Usman     III) Hazrat Zubair bin Awwam     IV) Hazrat Abdur Rehman bin Auf     V) Hazrat Talha     VI) Hazrat
Saad bin Abi Waqqas
• With the permission of Hazrat Ayesha, Hazrat Umar was buried next to Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH).

Administration of Hazrat Umar:

• He remained as a model for administrators and rulers to come.

• Following the example of Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) and Hazrat Abu Bakr, Hazrat Umar formed the constitution of the State on the
basis of democracy.
• He established a Majlis-e-Shoora, consisting of both the Ansar and the Muhajirin. It included prominent Companions of Muhammad
(PBUH) and he always consulted this body before making any important decision.
• He also established the Majlis-e-Aam, consisting of the Muhajirin, Ansar and representatives of various tribes. This body was called
into session on special occasions.
• Each province was placed under a Wali, and each district was placed under an Amil.
• These officers had to report to Makkah on occasion of the Hajj, where the caliph could hear complaints against them and make
decisions.
• These officers also had to keep a record of their assets and property. On their retirement, their accounts would be checked to see if
they had been honest or not.
• Qazis were entrusted with judicial duties and were completely independent of the Wali.
• He was the first one to establish the Departments of Military, Education, Jails and Police etc.
• The department of Dewan was responsible for collection of all types of revenue, from the center as well as from the provinces.
• New taxes like Ushr (1/10th of the income of big lands) and Zakat on ownership of horses, were imposed.
• A new system of distribution of money from the Bait-ul-Maal was established.
• Soldiers were well looked after, but were not allowed to buy lands in the conquered territories or live with the settled people; they
could only live in cantonments.
• Farmers were cared for as well. In conquered territories, they were allowed to retain their lands.
• He himself patrolled the streets of Madina at night to look for people who needed help.
• Introduced the Muslims Hijri calendar, old-age pension system and census of the population.
• Patronized female education.

Services to Islam:

• Great boost to early Islam in Makkah.

• Played an important part in getting Abu Bakr elected as the first caliph.                            
• Held back the Persian and Byzantine hordes who were bent on attacking Arabia.
• Overpowered the Persian and Byzantine empires and conquered their large tracts of land.
• Consolidated the conquered territories.
• Left an efficient administrative system for his successors.

Hadis: “He who hates Umar, hates me, he who loves Umar, loves me.”
 CALIPHATE OF HAZRAT USMAN

Hazrat Usman: His life before becoming a caliph and his character:
• Hazrat Usman belonged to Banu Ummayya family of the Quraish.
• His father’s name was Affan.
• He was born in Makkah in the 6th year of the Elephant.
• His mother’s name was Arwah.
• His ancestry coincided with the Holy Prophet (PBUH) in fifth generation on Abd Munaf.
• In the ignorance Period, his by-name was Abu Amr.
• After embracing Islam, his by-name was Abu Abdullah.
• Hazrat Usman’s father was one of the richest men in Makkah.
• Hazrat Usman was educated and loved learning.
• He lived a chaste life, even during the Jahiliya Period, and never drank, gambled or worshipped idols.
• When he accepted Islam at the hands of Hazrat Abu Bakr, his family started torturing him.
• Hazrat Usman was one of the first Arabs to accept Islam.
• Muhammad (PBUH) gave Hazrat Usman his second daughter, Hazrat Ruqayya, in marriage.
• Hazrat Usman migrated to Abbysinia with his wife, where he flourished as a trader.
• He  returned  to  Makka  when a rumor spread among the emigrants that the Quraish had accepted Islam.
• Instead of returning to Abbysinia, he stayed back at Makkah with the Prophet (PBUH).
• Here, he spent freely in the way of Allah and liberated quite a few Muslim slaves.
• Migrated to Madina where Hazrat Aus bin Sabit was his host.
• After the Battle of Badr, Hazrat Ruqayya fell ill and passed away.
• Muhammad (PBUH) gave his third daughter, Hazrat Kulsum, in marriage to Hazrat Usman.
• Thus, Hazrat Usman is known as Zun-Nurain, or “the possessor of two lights”.
• Barely 6 years after her marriage, Hazrat Kulsum also fell ill and died.
• In Madina, Hazrat Usman worked hard as a trader and became one of the richest men of the city.
• He used to spend freely in the way of Allah, and earned the title of Ghani.
• Took part in all important battles, except Badr, when he was nursing his dying wife, Hazrat Ruqayya.
• Second person after Hazrat Umar to offer allegiance to Hazrat Abu Bakr as the first caliph.

Main attributes of his pesonality:

• Eloquence and dignity, forgiveness even when able to wreak vengeance, generosity, modesty and nobility; sincerity in friendship and
giving advice, kindness and compassion to all people, zeal for his faith, fear of the Lord and his devotion in Allah’s worship.

Election as Caliph:

• Hazrat Umar told the following people to choose the next caliph from among themselves:
I) Hazrat Ali               II) Hazrat Usman             III) Hazrat Zubair bin Awwam             IV) Hazrat Abdur Rehman bin Auf       V) Hazrat
Talha              VI) Hazrat Saad bin Abi Waqqas
• Hazrat Abdur Rehman bin Auf was not willing to shoulder the responsibilities of being a caliph and Hazrat Talha was not in Madina at
the time of Hazrat Umar’s death.
• Hazrat Abdur Rehman bin Auf agreed to act as a judge in the choosing of the next caliph.
• After having consulted with the contestants, prominent Companions and the populace, he determined that the majority favored
Hazrat Usman.
• Hazrat Abdur Rehman bin Auf and all the other contestants took the Bayt at the hands of Hazrat Usman. Thus, Hazrat Usman was
selected as the 3rd Caliph on 4 Muharram, 24 AH.

Conquests in the East and West:

• Most foreign rulers thought that it would be easy to wrest control of territories from the kind-hearted Hazrat Usman.
• There were several serious uprisings in Persia in the East and Byzantine in the West.
• Within the 1st year of his caliphate, he swiftly crushed these rebellions.
• During his reign, the whole of North Africa was conquered, including the present countries of Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
• The island of Cyprus was also captured.
• Thus, by Hazrat Usman’s reign, the Muslim Empire stretched from Morocco to Kabul.

Causes of the revolt against Hazrat Usman:

• The Islamic State contained many tribes and nationalities which had been subjugated. Although some of them had accepted Islam,
they still grudged their defeat and Islam had not imbibed their hearts.
• The Jews who had lost their religious and social importance conspired against Islam.
• When Hazrat Usman learnt of the activities of these conspirators, he expelled them from Kufa and Basra. These conspirators
widened their sphere of activity. Especially in Egypt, where a number of Jews who had only outwardly accepted Islam joined hands
with them One of these Jews, Abdullah bin Saba, instigated Muslims in the name of Hazrat Ali in Kufa, Basra, Madina and Egypt and
sowed the seeds of dissension amongst them.
• Rivalry in the Quraish themselves, i.e. between the Hashimites and Umayyads weakened the power of Hazrat Usman. Old tribal
jealousies began to raise their head.
• Hazrat Usman’s leniency encouraged his enemies.

Charges against Hazrat Usman:

Nepotism:

• It was alleged that Hazrat Usman appointed his inefficient relatives as governors in four provinces out of the twelve in the Muslim
State, i.e. Egypt, Syria, Kufa and Basra.

Governor                          Province                 Relation with Usman                 Remarks

Muawiya                            Syria                      relative                                      Able ruler and excellent administrator.

Abdullah bin Saad             Egypt                     foster brother                             N. Africa conquered under his rule
         
Walid bin Uqba                  Kufa                      Close relation                            Replaced Saad bin Abi Waqqas when he could                

                                                                                                                            not control the situation. Conducted successful

                                                                                                                            campaigns in Armenia and Azerbaijan. Was
                                                                                                                           deposed at public agitation,  in public interest.

Abdullah bin Amir           Basra                     Cousin                                   Replaced Abu Musa Ashari at the demand of the                    

                                                                                                                           people of Basra. Conquered Fars,Seestan and

                                                                                                                           Khusaran.

Leniency:

• It is also alleged that Hazrat Usman was weak and did not exercise a check on his governors.
• Actually, he had his governors in confidence and they enjoyed much independence from the center.
• He did not wish to interfere in their day-to-day affairs.

Burning of old copies of the Holy Quran:

• Rebels raised hue and cry that Hazrat Usman had maliciously burnt copies of the Quran.
• Hazrat Usman answered each and every one of the rebels’ charges in the presence of Hazrat Ali and some Companions; they were
satisfied.
• The rebels stuck to their point-of-view and prepared to march on Madina from Egypt, Kufa and Basra, with a contingent of 1,000 men
coming from each region.
• Finding the people of Madina ready to defend their city disappointed the rebels.
• Hazrat Ali tried to argue with them and they finally agreed to turn back if Hazrat Usman would appoint Muhammad bin Abu Bakr as
governor of Egypt in place of Abdullah bin Saad.

Martyrdom of Hazrat Usman:

• The rebels returned 4 days later, shouting for revenge.

• They claimed that they had intercepted an order of Hazrat Usman to the governor of Egypt to kill Muhammad bin Abu Bakr and his
companions upon their arrival.
• Hazrat Usman swore that he had sent no such order.
• The rebels told Hazrat Usman to abdicate or he would be disposed.
• When Hazrat Usman refused, they besieged his house and cut off all supplies of food and water.
• Hazrat Ali and Hazrat Zubair deputed their sons to protect Hazrat Usman and bring him food and water.
• Hazrat Usman refused all offers of military help as he did not want to shed Muslim blood.
• The siege lasted for 50 days.
• Some rebels scaled the back walls of Hazrat Usman’s house, jumped in and mercilessly killed him while he was reading the Holy
Quran.
• When Hazrat Usman’s wife, Naila, tried to save him, she was pushed away and her fingers were cut off.
• This tragic event took place on 18 Zil-Haj, 35 AH.
• Hazrat Usman’s martyrdom shattered Muslim unity and serious differences arose between the Muslims who were now divided into
two parties – the Hashimites and the Umayyads.

Administration:

• Followed the Sunnah of Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH)

• Relaxed the strict laws of Hazrat Umar.
• Allowed Arabs to acquire lands in conquered areas.
• Made extensions to the Masjid-e-Nabwi and constructed new mosques.
• Ordered construction of inns, border-outposts and guesthouses.
• Made arrangement to supply travelers with water by having wells dug near roads.
• Built dam to protect Madina from floods coming from the side of Khyber.
• Raised the salaries of officers and the armed forces.
• Rendered great service to Islam by standardizing the Quran.

                                  CALIPHATE OF HAZRAT ALI 

·         Ali's Caliphate (an Overview)

·Ali accepted the caliphate very reluctantly. Usman’s murder and the events surrounding it were a symptom, and also became a
cause, of civil strife on a large scale. Ali felt that the tragic situation was mainly due to inept governors. He therefore dismissed all the
governors who had been appointed by Usman and appointed new ones. All the governors excepting Muawiya, the governor of Syria,
submitted to his orders. Muawiya declined to obey until Usman’s blood was avenged.
·The Prophet's widow 'Aaishah also took the position that Ali should first bring the murderers to trial. Due to the chaotic conditions
during the last days of Usman it was very difficult to establish the identity of the murderers, and Ali refused to punish anyone whose
guilt was not lawfully proved. Thus a battle between the army of Ali and the supporters of 'Aaishah took place. 'Aaishah later realized
her error of judgment and never forgave herself for it.
·The situation in Hijaz (the part of Arabia in which Mecca andMedina are located) became so troubled that Ali moved his capital to
Iraq. Muawiya now openly rebelled against Ali and a fierce battle was fought between their armies. This battle was inconclusive, and
Ali had to accept the de facto government of Muawiya in Syria.
·However, even though the era of Ali's caliphate was marred by civil strife, he nevertheless introduced a number of reforms,
particularly in the levying and collecting of revenues.
·It was the fortieth year of Hijra. A fanatical group called Kharijites, consisting of people who had broken away from Ali due to his
compromise with Muawiya, claimed that neither Ali, the Caliph, nor Muawiya, the ruler of Syria, nor Amr bin al-Aas, the ruler of Egypt,
were worthy of rule. In fact, they went so far as to say that the true caliphate came to an end with 'Umar and that Muslims should live
without any ruler over them except God. They vowed to kill all three rulers, and assassins were dispatched in three directions.
·The assassins who were deputed to kill Muawiya and Amr did not succeed and were captured and executed, but Ibn-e-Muljim, the
assassin who was commissioned to kill Ali, accomplished his task. One morning when Ali was absorbed in prayer in a mosque, Ibn-e-
Muljim stabbed him with a poisoned sword. On the 20th of Ramadan, 40 A.H. died the last of the Rightly Guided Caliphs of Islam. May
God Most High be pleased with them and grant to them His eternal reward.

Conclusion
With the death of Ali, the first and most notable phase in the history of Muslim peoples came to an end. All through this period it had
been the Book of God and the practices of His Messenger - that is, the Qur'an and the Sunnah - which had guided the leaders and the
led, set the standards of their moral conduct and inspired their actions. It was the time when the ruler and the ruled, the rich and the
poor, the powerful and the weak, were uniformly subject to the Divine Law. It was an epoch of freedom and equality, of God-
consciousness and humility, of social justice which recognized no privileges, and of an impartial law which accepted no pressure
groups or vested interests.
After Ali, Muawiya assumed the caliphate and thereafter the caliphate became hereditary, passing from one king to another.

Some important points of the Khilafat of Hazrat Ali

The revolt in Ali army
The exhortations of Ali had no effect. About 20,000 men of Iraqlet by Zaid b Hasan, and Mustur bin Fidki openly revolted and laid
down their arms. The rebels approached Ali, and calling him no longer their Caliph, but simply Ali, declared "Ali you are appealing to
the sword, and they are appealing to the Quran. Let the issue of the caliphate be deferred to the judgment of God's Book". They
adopted a hostile attitude, and warned Ali that if he did not submit to their demand, he would meet the same fate as had befallen his
predecessor, Usman.
Heartbroken at the treachery of his men, Ali exclaimed with great grief, "Alas, you are deserting me at the critical time of need. Go and
join the Syrian coalition against God and His Apostle." The rebels did not rest content with their own revolt. A large section of the army
under Ashtar was still fighting, and they were having an upper hand. The rebels demanded that orders should be issued recalling
Ashtar from the battlefield. The rebels went to the extent of reproaching Ali. He was accused of being an accomplice in the murder of
Usman. He was accused of fighting against the Syrians to quench his thirst for self-aggrandizement. Ali threatened them with grave
consequences and they threatened him in turn. The pressure of the rebels increased and Ali feeling helpless had to recall Ashtar from
the front. Ashtar returned reluctantly. Ashtar upbraided them as traitors, hypocrites and villains. In return they reviled him. Because of
this revolt in his army, Ali had to suspend action against the Syrians, and thus the victory which was in immediate sight, evaded him.
Henceforward misfortune was to stalk the steps of Ali.

Causes of the helplessness of Ali

The accounts of what happened at Siffin which have come down to us give no clue as to what was the cause of rebellion against Ali
when victory was almost in sight. It is not plausible that this sudden development took place at the display of the leaves of the Holy
Quran on their lances by the Syrians. Obviously it was the culmination of some deep set conspiracy. The exact extent of such
conspiracy remains a mystery, but it appears that the treachery of most of the army chiefs of Ali was because of the bribery by
Muawiyah. The army that Ali had brought to Siffin was more a motley crowd than a disciplined force, and this lack of discipline was its
greatest weakness. It also appears that there was a good deal of jealousy among the Generals of the army of Ali. When Ali appointed
Ashas as a General his appointment was opposed by Malik Ashtar who was the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Ali, and these
differences between the two Generals persisted during the course of the war. Ali believed in the truth of his cause to such an extent
that he did not sponsor any propaganda to support such cause. On the other hand Muawiyah was a past master in making
propaganda, and in this respect he outwitted Ali.

Ali's reaction to the Arbitration decision

The arbitration decision came as a great shock to Ali. Ali had hoped that as the umpires were to take the decision in accordance with
the injunctions of the Holy Quran, they would act with a due sense of justice and fair play. The decision that was taken was neither just
nor fair. It was taken in the spirit of the old Arab traditions of the age of Ignorance and was repugnant to Islamic values. The umpires
were supposed to judge the relative merits of Ali and Muawiyah in the light of Islamic values and then choose one out of the two. The
umpires did nothing of the sort. Abu Musa the umpire of Ali had some bias against Ali because Ali had deposed him from the
governorship of Kufa, and hence wittingly or unwittingly he acted against the interests of Ali. Ali had been duly elected as the Caliph by
the authorized electorate and Abu Musa had no authority to depose Ali. 'Amr b Al-6Aas the umpire of Muawiyah was a clever man,
and taking advantage of the weakness in the stand of Abu Musa, he manipulated victory for Muawiyah. Ali could not accept the
decision, and the only option left with him was to renew the war against Muawiyah who had manipulated to win power through
underhand means. Ali accordingly gave call for arms and exhorted the people to join the war for the vindication of the truth and the
suppression of falsehood. The people responded enthusiastically to the call, and soon an army of 65,000 strong was assembled.

The Kharijites
After the Battle of Siffin the Kharijites had separated from the community and camped at Harura a few miles from Kufa. Their stand
was that Ali had made a mistake in accepting the arbitration of men Ali was asked by them to lead them to war against Muawiyah. Ali
had tried to conciliate them, and assured of them that he would lead them to war in case the decision of the umpires was against the
injunctions of Islam. Some sort of conciliation was brought about between Ali and the Kharijites, and most of the Kharijites returned to
Kufa. The Kharijites were a restive and over sensitive people of the extremist type. The Kharijites slipped from Kufa one by one,
established a settlement at Nahrawan, a few miles to the east of the Tigrisnear Madain. The Kharijites from Basra and elsewhere in
Iraqalso migrated to Nahra wan Here the Kharijites gathered in strength. They elected an Amir of their own. They were very
meticulous in observing prayers and following other injunctions of Islam. They aspired to live sinless lives. They declared that they
were not interested in the affairs of this world, and that they had sold their lives to win paradise in the next world. Where a Kharijite
picked up a date under a date tree and ate it he subsequently cut his right hand himself on the ground that the eating of the date
without purchasing it from the owner amounted to a theft. On the other hand when any Muslim indulged in any controversy with them,
they invariably killed him. They held that no one except themselves was a Muslim, and it devolved on them to get rid of such people
who did not agree with them. They let loose a reign of terror in the countryside and created a problem of law and order for the
administration. When the Kharijites of Basra migrated to Nahrawan they met in the way some Muslims including Abdullah the son of
an eminent companion Khabab. The Kharijites killed him as well as the woman who accompanied him.
(a) Describe Abu Bakr's activities against the false prophets and apostate tribes. [10]
Answers could have basic references to the false prophets, the tribes withholding zakat and the apostate tribes.
Some could go on to give fuller accounts of these challenges, faced by Abu Bakr. In the answers it could be
described that at the time of Abu Bakr's caliphate there were a number of people in Arabia who claimed to be
prophets like Muhammad. The main ones were Musaylima among the Hanifa tribes in Yamama, Tulayha among the
tribes of Asad and Ghatafan, al-Aswad in the Yemen and Sajjah among the Tamim tribe. Answers could give
accounts of how Abu Bakr sent forces against all of them and write about the fighting against Musaylima in the
battle of Yamama, which was the most fierce, and one in which many memorizers of the Qur'an were killed. The
revolt against Islam by tribes that had pledged loyalty to the Prophet and the refusal of some tribes to send
taxes to Medina could also be described. Excellent answers will give a full account.

(a) Describe Abu Bakr's activities against the false prophets and apostate tribes. [10]
Answers could have basic references to the false prophets, the tribes withholding zakat and the apostate tribes.
Some could go on to give fuller accounts of these challenges, faced by Abu Bakr. In the answers it could be
described that at the time of Abu Bakr's caliphate there were a number of people in Arabia who claimed to be
prophets like Muhammad. The main ones were Musaylima among the Hanifa tribes in Yamama, Tulayha among the
tribes of Asad and Ghatafan, al-Aswad in the Yemen and Sajjah among the Tamim tribe. Answers could give
accounts of how Abu Bakr sent forces against all of them and write about the fighting against Musaylima in the
battle of Yamama, which was the most fierce, and one in which many memorizers of the Qur'an were killed. The
revolt against Islam by tribes that had pledged loyalty to the Prophet and the refusal of some tribes to send
taxes to Medina could also be described. Excellent answers will give a full account.

(b) Why is Abu Bakr called the Saviour of Islam? [4]

To gain top marks in this question candidates need to show a good understanding of the reason why he was called
the Saviour of Islam. A satisfactory answer would simply explain that he fought to prevent the break-up of Islam.
However, more complete answers will explain that the false prophets and apostates threatened the uniqueness and
unity of Islam and could not be allowed to continue their activities. Hence when he became caliph he not only gave
new heart to the Muslims after the Prophet passed away but helped the community of Muslims against its many
enemies. In his short term as caliph he defeated the tribes who withdrew from Islam and made them stay Muslim
and he fought and won against tribes who refused to pay zakat. He also defeated the false prophets and thus kept
the unity of Islam when there was much danger. Candidates could mention his contribution in the compilation of
the Qur’an as well.

(b) Explain why he was known as the Honest One (al-Siddiq), and the Saviour of Islam. [4]
• He was given the title of al-Siddiq after he declared without hesitation that he believed the Prophet had been
taken to Jerusalem on the Night Journey.
• It also suits his conduct of showing complete loyalty towards Muhammad.
• He was acknowledged as the Saviour of Islam because of his efforts to keep the community united, to resist the
threat from tribes withdrawing from Islam, and to destroy the false prophets. [1 mark, but 2 marks for all of
these points]

Conversion of Abu Bakr (Nov ’09 paper 1):

Abu Bakr: close friend of the prophet from childhood and amongst the first to convert (first free adult male); he
became Muslim without hesitation; was open about calling others to the new faith and persuaded many to accept
Islam; he purchased slaves and set them free; he was the first person to openly invite people to the new faith and
was beaten severely.
HAZRAT UMAR

MAIN ACTIVITIES DURING THE LIFETIME OF THE PROPHET:

 Umar belonged to the Banu Ádi clan of the Quraish. 

 His father Al-Khatab was an influential leader of Makkah. 
 Umar was tall, well built, a fierce fighter and well educated. 
 He was elected the spokesperson of Quraish.
 He remained a bitter enemy of Islam and the Holy Prophet before his conversion. 
 He treated the early converts of low origin quite mercilessly and according to a tradition the Holy Prophet
had prayed to God for the conversion of Umar bin Khattab or Amr bin Hisham (Abu Jahal).
  The prayer was soon granted. Umar one day decided to kill the Holy Prophet and with that intention
started towards his house with a sword. 
 On the way, he was informed that his sister and her husband had embraced Islam. Infuriated, Umar
changed his course and went to his sister’s house who was reading the Holy Qur’an loudly. 
 This enraged Umar so much that he attacked her and her husband.
  On Umar’s insistence his sister recited some verses from Surah Taha. 
 The words of the Holy Qur’an softened his heart and tears began to fall from his eyes and he immediately
decided to embrace Islam. 
 He approached the Holy Prophet and embraced Islam.
  This was a great occasion as the morale of the Muslims boosted so much that now they started offering
prayers openly in the Kaabah after Umar took the bold step of entering the Kaabah with a small band of Muslims.
  The Holy Prophet was so pleased on hearing this that he gave him the title of ‘’Farooq’’ (one who
distinguishes between truth and falsehood).
 He started preaching Islam openly and boldly. 
 He is counted amongst the 10 blessed companions and is also a scribe of the Divine revelation. 
 His daughter Hafsa was married to the Holy Prophet. 
 He also migrated to Medina shortly after Ammar and Bilal had departed. 
 It was Umar who gave the suggestion of summoning the believers for Daily prayers by Adhaan(call for
prayer). 
 He also rendered remarkable services in all the battles including Badr, Uhad, Trench, Khyber and Hunain. 
 He was also present at the treaty of Hudaibiya and took part in Bait-e-Rizwan. 
 He participated in the victorious march to Makkah.
  In the Tabuk expedition he donated half of his wealth and in the battle of Hunain, he was among those
handfuls of Muslims who stood firmly by the side of the Holy Prophet.
 Umar was not ready to believe in the death of the Holy Prophet till Abu Bakr called him down by reciting
the verse (3:144). 
 Soon after, he started making arrangements for the Holy Prophet’s burial together with Abu Bakr. 
 In the meantime they heard of an Ansar meeting to discuss the issue of succession. 
 Both reached the spot and finally, due to Umar’s wisdom and timely intervention, Abu Bakr got elected as
the first Caliph of Islam.
  Umar himself performed extra ordinary services for Islam during his Caliphate (634-644 AD).
EXPANSION OF THE ISLAMIC EMPIRE:

 Fighting with the Persian Empire had begun during the rule of the previous Caliph.  
 Muslim forces defeated the Persian in Namaraq in October 634 AD and crossed the Euphrates.  
 The Persian supreme command then sent a huge force under Bahman.
  The two armies fought a fierce battle, the Battle of Bridge.
  Here the Muslims suffered heavy losses including their commander Abu Ubaid bin Zaid.
 The Muslims regrouped under Mutanna, in November 634 AD defeated the Persian army led by Mehran in
the Battle of Buwaib. 
 Commanding an army of 20,000 troops, Saad bin Abi Waqas met the Persian 120,000 army led by Rustam
at Qadisiya.
  The Battle of Qadisiya thus began in 635 AD. 
 A fierce battle was fought resulting in Rustam’s death.
  Now Saad and his army advanced to the Persian capital Al-Madain.
  He laid a siege for several days and the king Yazdigard escaped to north while the Muslims captured Al-
Madain. 
 The king was finally defeated at Jalula.
 In the meantime the Persians, Romans and Christian Arab tribes combined their forces in upper Iraq near
Tekrit.
  Saad dispatched an army that defeated the joint forces.
  Saad, on Umar’s advice, founded the new cities Kufa and Basra near Madain for the Muslim armies and
their families.
  Umar completed the final capture and subjugation of Persia in the Battle of Nihawand in 642 AD, marking
the end of the Sassanid Dynasty in Persia.
 In Syria the Muslim forces were advancing rapidly when Umar became the Caliph. Khalid bin Waleed added
Damacus, Jordan and Emmessa, one after another to the Muslim Empire. After the loss of these important cities
the Roman Emperor sent an army of 260,000 men against the Muslims.
  This force too was defeated in 635 AD in the Battle of Yarmouk under the leadership of Abu Ubaidah bin
Jarrah.
  Many other important Syrian towns were also captured leaving only Jerusalam and its surrounding towns.
  Finally Jerusalem was also taken in a peaceful manner on the request of Patriarch Sophronius
  He requested that the ‘king’ of Muslims should himself come and receive the keys of the city.
  Umar himself met Sophronius and signed a peace treaty under which full religious freedom was given to
the citizens of Jerusalem on the condition of paying Jizya.
  Sanctity of the Church of Resurrection and other churches was also guaranteed.
 Finally Egypt was also conquered in 640 AD by Amr bin Al-Aas who had to persuade Umar with great
difficulty.
  Amr bin Al-Aas argued that Egypt could be used by the Romans as the naval base to launch operations
against the Muslims.
  By April 641 AD Babylon was also captured and the new city of Fustat was founded in 642 AD on the
eastern bank of the Nile.
  Umar appointed able and efficient governors in all these conquered territories.
ADMINISTRATION:

 Hazrat Umar framed the constitution of the State on the basis of democracy.
  He established a Majlis-e-Shoora consisting of prominent companions of the Holy Prophet from both
Muhajirin and Ansaar.
  The Muslim Empire had grown tremendously in size and therefore it was inevitable (unavoidable) to divide
it further into a greater number of provinces.
  Each province was governed by a governor or Wali who held the executive authority.
  The Wali was assisted by a number of officers e.g. the Treasury Officer, the Revenue Collector, the
Vigilance Officer and the Judge (Qazi).
  Each province was divided into districts which were administered by Amils.
  All appointments were made in consultation with the Majlis-e-Shoora.
  All the officers were summoned to Makkah on the occasion of Hajj to be answerable to the Caliph.
  They were paid handsome salaries to make them incorruptible.
  The Caliph himself was the central authority with the headship of religious and non-religious departments
but he would always consult the Shoora in all important matters.
  In order to uphold Islamic morals and maintain law and order, Umar set up a department of police
(shurta).
 Umar reorganized the ‘bait-al-maal’ or public treasury, which was soon full to the brims with the funds
from various sources.
  These sources were: Zakat, Jizya, Kharaj (land tax), Ushr (special land tax), the goods left out by the
retreating armies of the enemy and a tax paid by non-Muslim traders.
  Special care was taken to distribute the funds among the poor and the disabled. Umar established a
special department, the Diwan or the Register of Pensions.
  It was aimed at disbursement of the public funds among the Muslim tribes.
  It was based on certain principles, for example, the whole Ummah had a share in the public funds.
  Secondly, each Muslim had a share according to his/her relationship with the Prophet, priority in
accepting Islam and services to Islam.
  Huge spending were made in the construction of mosques, schools, office buildings, canals, rest houses
and expansion of the Haram and the mosque of the Prophet.
  Umar founded some new cities like Basrah and Kufa in Iraq and Fustat and Jizah in Egypt. Umar also
introduced the Hijrah calendar. This makes a long list of the reforms and development projects introduced by
Umar.

MAIN ACTIVITIES DURING HIS CALIPHATE:

 Umar succeeded Abu Bakr as the second Caliph in 634/13AH and continued the mission of the first Caliph
till his martyrdom in 644/23AH.
  Abu Bakr himself nominated him as his successor.
  His Caliphate is noted by internal consolidation (combine things into one large unit) of the Muslim empire
accompanied by the expansion of Islamic rule by conquering the lands under the Persian and Byzantine Empires
which included Iraq, Persia, Jerusalem and Egypt. His rule was surely the golden period in Muslim history after the
death of the Holy Prophet.
 The conquest of Persia had been started during Abu Bakr’s Caliphate by the Muslim forces and finally
Persia was totally defeated in 643 AD.
 As for conquests in Syria, the Muslim forces were advancing rapidly in Syria when Umar became Caliph.
  Khalid bin Waleed laid siege to Damascus till September 635AD and finally entered the city as victor and
signed a peace treaty. 
 After this Abu Ubaidah replaced Khalid as the chief commander of the Muslim army and recaptured
Damascus decisively in September 636. 
 Other important towns in Syria on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea were also captured. Only
Jerusalem, Ramallah and Caesarea continued to resist. 
 Finally Jerusalem was also taken in a peaceful manner on the request of Patriarch Sophronius. 
 Umar himself met Sophronius and signed a peace treaty under which full religious freedom was given to
the citizens of Jerusalem on the condition of paying Jizya. 
 Sanctity of the Church of Resurrection and other churches was also guaranteed.
  Towards the end of 639AD, Amr bin Aas, with the permission of the Khalifa set from Jerusalem for
Egypt.
  Egypt was conquered by his strategic planning.
  By April 641AD Babylon was also captured. 
 Umar appointed able and efficient governors in all these conquered territories under his wonderful
administrative system.
 Hazrat Umar framed the constitution of the State on the basis of democracy.
  He established a Majlis-e-Shoora consisting of prominent companions of the Holy Prophet from both
Muhajirin and Ansaar.
  The Muslim Empire had grown tremendously in size and therefore it was inevitable (unavoidable) to divide
it further into a greater number of provinces.
  Each province was governed by a governor or Wali who held the executive authority. 
 The Wali was assisted by a number of officers e.g. the Treasury Officer, the Revenue Collector, the
Vigilance Officer and the Judge (Qazi). 
 Each province was divided into districts which were administered by Amils.
  All appointments were made in consultation with the Majlis-e-Shoora.
  All the officers were summoned to Makkah on the occasion of Hajj to be answerable to the Caliph.
  They were paid handsome salaries to make them incorruptible.
  The Caliph himself was the central authority with the headship of religious and non-religious departments
but he would always consult the Shoora in all important matters.
  In order to uphold Islamic morals and maintain law and order, Umar set up a department of police
(shurta).
 Umar reorganized the ‘bait-al-maal’ or public treasury, which was soon full to the brims with the funds
from various sources.
  These sources were: Zakat, Jizya, Kharaj (land tax), Ushr (special land tax), the goods left out by the
retreating armies of the enemy and a tax paid by non-Muslim traders. 
 Special care was taken to distribute funds among the poor and the disabled. Umar established a special
department, the Diwan or the Register of Pensions.
  It was aimed at disbursement of the public funds among the Muslim tribes.
  It was based on certain principles, for example, the whole Ummah had a share in the public funds.
  Secondly, each Muslim had a share according to his/her relationship with the Prophet, priority in
accepting Islam and services to Islam. 
 Huge spending were made in the construction of mosques, schools, office buildings, canals, rest houses and
expansion of the Haram and the mosque of the Prophet. 
 Umar founded some new cities like Basrah and Kufa in Iraq and Fustat and Jizah in Egypt. Umar also
introduced the Hijrah calendar. 
 This makes a long list of the reforms and development projects introduced by Umar.

DIFFICULTIES FACED BY UMAR:

 Although Umar continued the policies of Abu Bakr, the difference in their temperaments and
circumstances dictated the manner in which they followed these policies. 
 The period of Abu Bakr needed more tolerance as well as quick action but during the period of Umar, the
situation was calmer and controllable.
  The first difficulty faced by Umar was that the people feared him due to his hard attitude. They were
hesitant to bring their problems to him. 
 But he proved over a period of time that his harshness was for the wrong doers only, while he was quite
soft towards other people.
 Another difficulty was the administration of the vast Islamic Empire. 
 The borders of the Islamic welfare state had extended as far as Afghanistan, Africa and Europe. 
 The communication system during those days was not as efficient as today. 
 He fought against all the hindrances in administrating a large Empire and ensured the governance of
justice and reasonable accountability.
 The two superpowers of the time namely, the Persian and Byzantine Empires were busy plotting
conspiracies against the Islamic state. 
 It was Umar who defeated both these empires and established the Islamic state as a superpower in
Africa and Asia.
 Lastly the Muslim army consisted of soldiers belonging to different areas and cultures. 
 The army campaign against several countries at a time could have turned out to be a failure because of the
differences among the soldiers. 
 It was the ideal administration of Umar which ensured marvellous discipline among the forces. 
 The atmosphere in the army was exemplary and it looked as if they were the people of one tribe.

DEATH AND WHAT IT TELLS US ABOUT HIS CHARACTER:

 Umar was martyred by Firoz, a Presian slave of Mugheera in November 644. 

 Firoz was unhappy with one of Umar’s verdicts regarding the amount of daily payment he made to his
master.
  Abu Lulu (Firoz) openly threatened to kill Umar. 
 Certain people recommended that Firoz should be arrested, but Umar refused to do so. 
 He thus laid down a law that a citizen could not be arrested on grounds of suspicion or perceived danger. 
 Umar neither had a personal bodyguard nor a protocol entourage. 
 He was attacked totally unguarded. One day, while he was leading the prayer, Firoz stabbed him with a
poisoned dagger. 
 He also killed several other worshippers as he tried to escape. 
 When he was finally caught, he slit his own throat. Umar survived for some days. 
 During this period, he nominated a panel of six people: Ali, Usman, Talha, Zubair, Abdur Rehman bin Auf
and Saad bin Abi Waqas to hold mutual consultation and select his successor from among them.
 His death shows us that he had a thorough sense of fairness and that was the reason for his refusal to
give Firoz the relaxation in the payment he had to make to his master. 
 This noble attitude of his cost him his life. Umar’s fearless attitude portrays his strong belief in Allah as
the Giver and Taker of life. 
 This incident also reflects his simple lifestyle, that the head of the largest empire in history was easily
accessible and roamed around like an ordinary citizen.
 He was buried alongside the Prophet and Abu Bakr in Medina. 
 This shows his special status in the first Muslim community, his tough and principled stand and the
taxation matter reflects the integrity (honour, truthfulness) of his character.

SHORT ACCOUNT OF UMAR’S LIFE:

 Umar bin Khattab was a bitter enemy of Islam and the Holy Prophet before his conversion. He treated the
early converts of low origin quite mercilessly and according to a tradition the Holy Prophet had prayed to God for
the conversion of Umar bin Khattab or Amr bin Hisham (Abu Jahal). 
 The prayer was soon granted. He started preaching Islam boldly and openly.
  He is counted as one of the 10 blessed companions and is also a scribe of Divine revelations. 
 His daughter Hafsa was married to the Holy Prophet. 
 It was Umar who gave the suggestion of summoning the believers for Daily prayers by Adhaan(call for
prayer).
  He also rendered remarkable services in all the battles including Badr, Uhad, Trench, Khyber and Hunain. 
 Holy Prophet said, ‘’the sun has not risen over a man better than Umar.’’
 Abu Bakr himself nominated him as his successor. 
 His Caliphate is noted by internal consolidation (combine things into one large unit) of the Muslim empire
accompanied by the expansion of Islamic rule by conquering the lands under the Persian and Byzantine Empires
which included Iraq, Persia, Jerusalem and Egypt. 
 His rule was surely the golden period in Muslim history after the death of the Holy Prophet. He appointed
able and efficient governors in all these conquered territories under his wonderful administrative system. 
 Umar was finally martyred by Firoz, a Persian slave in 644 while offering the Morning Prayer. 
 He was buried alongside the Holy Prophet and Abu Bakr in Medina.
 Umar left behind him an effective system of administration throughout his empire by appointing
extremely efficient governors and Qadis (judges) and other state officials.
  His Caliphate brought a great deal of propriety (respectability) and strength for the Muslims.
HIS IMPORTANCE/SIGNIFICANCE IN ISLAMIC HISTORY:

 Umar was one of the early converts of Islam. 

 His conversion gave the morale of the Muslims a significant boost. 
 He devoted his life and energy to the cause of Islam and openly supported the Holy Prophet throughout
his mission in Makkah and Medina. 
 He performed valuable services in all the major battles fought against the enemies of Islam. He placed
about half of his wealth at the disposal of the Holy Prophet on the occasion of the Tabuk expedition. 
 He played a vital role in the election of Abu Bakr.
  He also convinced Abu Bakr to allow the compilation of the Holy Quran in a book form.
 His own Caliphate was the most successful and glorious period of early Islamic history. 
 He not only consolidated the new Muslim Empire by establishing an effective system of governance, but
also expanded its borders by capturing Persia, Syria, Palestine, Jerusalem and the fertile land of Egypt. 
 He himself led a simple and pious life and conducted patrolling at night to ensure the peace and comfort of
his people. 
 He laid down the foundations of a lasting administrative system by dividing the Empire into provinces and
by placing them under able administrators, governors and Qazis (judges).

HOW HIS CONVERSION HELPED THE YOUNG MUSLIM COMMUNITY:

 Umar was a powerful Makkan both physically and socially. 

 He was an open persecutor and oppressor of Muslims. Conversion of Umar was an important event for the
early Muslim community in Makkah that lived a very hard life. 
 The Prophet had prayed to God for the conversion of Umar bin Khattab or Amr bin Hasham (Abu Jahal)
and therefore, he expressed satisfaction over the conversion of Umar. 
 Umar, known for his fiery and impulsive nature, made his conversion public in a bold manner. 
 He was the most open about public praying. 
 This raised the confidence of the persecuted Muslim community.
  Muslims could not pray at the Kaabah until he became a Muslim. 
 They now began to offer prayer openly in the Kaabah without any fear. 
 Umar’s physical and social strength, after his conversion, was dedicated to the growth of Islam and raising
the morale of the Muslims in Makkah (and later in Medina). 
 The Prophet, in recognition of Umar’s conversion, gave him the title of Al-Farooq (the one who can
differentiate between the truth and falsehood).

LIST OF QUESTIONS
4 (a) Write an account of the main activities of Hazrat `Umar
(i) During the lifetime of the Prophet, and
(ii) During his caliphate. [2 x 6]
(b) What does the manner of Hazrat Umar’s death, tell us about his character? [4]

(a) (i) • He converted to Islam when he heard a passage of the Qur’an being recited [here allow 1 mark for the
basic point, and allow a further 1 mark for details, e.g. that he was on his way to kill the Prophet; that he
surprised his sister and her husband hearing the Qur’an recited; that he was going to destroy this passage, but
relented when he read it].
• In Makka he had a reputation as a fierce and strong fighter.
• His conversion gave courage to the Muslims in Makka.
• In Makka he proved a great help because he was able to protect the Prophet from attacks.
• He made the Hijra to Madina with the other Muslims.
• There he was always close to the Prophet in battles [allow a further 1 mark for details, such as his defending the
Prophet at Uhud, and his digging the trench before Khandaq].
• His ties with the Prophet were strengthened when the Prophet married his daughter Hafsa.
• He objected to the terms of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya because they disadvantaged the Prophet.
• He took part in the expeditions to the north that were organised towards the end of the Prophet’s life.

(ii) • He oversaw the expansion of the empire into Syria, Persia, Iraq and Egypt [allow 1 mark for the basic point, a
further 1 mark for details, and an additional 1 mark for names of battles and dates].
• He personally accepted the surrender of Jerusalem [1 mark for the basic point, and a further 1 mark for
details].
• The agreements he made with conquered non-Muslims formed the basis of later legislation about Dhimmis.
• He oversaw many important administrative measures [1 mark for the basic point, a further 1 mark for details
such as the diwan which listed those entitled to pensions from the state, the institution of the position of judge,
and a further 1 mark for full details of more than one of his measures]

(b) • Umar was killed by his slave (Abu Lu’lu’a).

• The reason was that he refused to excuse him from paying a tax.
• This is characteristic of `Umar’s total impartiality and refusal to allow concessions even to those close to him.
• He was stern about the correct observance of all regulations [allow 1 mark for any examples that illustrate this
characteristic].
• He was buried near the Prophet, which shows he was held in high honour

(b) What does the way he died tell us about his character? [4]
Candidates might begin by showing signs that they have some knowledge of how the caliph died. Some might go on
to describe how ‘Umar was assassinated by his servant. However a more complete answer will explain why the
servant killed his master, and will show an awareness of the severe fairness of ‘Umar this reveals. It was ‘Umar’s
scrupulous sense of fairness that was the reason for his refusal to give preferential treatment to his slave
despite his relationship with him which led to his assassination.
Another version regarding ‘Umar’s assassination is that he was killed by a Persian slave Firoz, who was owned by
Mughira b. Shuba. Firoz wanted a reduction in the daily payment he made to his master. ‘Umar rejected his claim
and so in anger Firoz stabbed him at dawn prayers the next day.

3: Trace the expansion of the Islamic empire under the rule of the caliph Umar. [10]
Basic answers may show some knowledge of the main battles and areas brought under Muslim rule during the
caliphate of Umar. Better answers will be able to expand on the points made earlier and be able to name and date
the main battles. Some of the important dates/battles are: 636AD/15AH battle of Yarmuk, 638AD/17AH battle
of al-Qadisiyya, 642AD/21AH battle of Nihawand. Better candidates should be able to give a coherent account of
the progress of Muslim armies, the battles won and the land captured. Fully detailed and dated answers showing a
gradual expansion of the answer will enable the candidates to get top range marks.

In what ways did the conversion of ‘Umar help the young Muslim community? [4]
Good answers here should show an understanding of the significance of ‘Umar’s conversion.
Answers could talk about how his conversion boosted Muslim morale. He was an open persecutor and oppressor of
Muslims, but upon conversion was the most open about public praying. Muslims couldn’t pray at the Ka’ba until he
became Muslim. He helped the Muslims gain confidence in practising Islam openly; no-one dared interfere with
‘Umar when he was praying. He was known for his temper and his physical strength. All this gave a physical
protection to the vulnerable Muslims.

Conversion of Umar (Nov ’09 paper 1):

‘Umar: he was initially angry at the prophet and the new message he was preaching and set out to kill him; on his
way he was told his own sister and brother-in-law had converted and so went there; overheard recitation of part
of sura Ta Ha; when he read the words himself he went to accept Islam; he had a reputation of being the fiercest
man in Makka and so his conversion provided Muslims some protection; he fought Qur’aysh until Muslims could pray
at the Ka’ba.

June 2011(2)

Write a detailed account of the administrative measures put in place by ‘Umar during his caliphate. [10]
Candidates could give a basic answer by saying that the Islamic empire expanded rapidly during his caliphate and
he undertook many administrative measures to manage the affairs of the state in an effective manner and they
could go on to list a few of the measures he took. A few examples are: he divided the state into several provinces
and appointed qualified governors called Wali; he separated the judiciary from the executive to make it
completely impartial. The Qadi was the head of the judiciary; he established a department of finance under the
name of Dewan etc. Candidates could discuss some or many of ‘Umar’s administrative measures, however the more
developed answers would discuss the more important measures in some detail.

Umar’s caliphate is regarded as the golden period of early Islamic history.”

Discuss. [4]

Some candidates could compare ‘Umar’s caliphate with those of other caliphs and give comparisons between them
to support their answer. If candidates agree with the statement then they need to show why and similarly if they
disagree they need to back up their answer with reasons. Answers could write about how this period witnessed a
lasting process of internal consolidation, peace and stability as well as prosperity as a direct result of a
comprehensive and well built infrastructure and at the same time how the borders of the empire were hugely
expanded and made secure.

HAZRAT USMAN

DURING THE PROPHET’S LIFETIME

 Usman belonged to the powerful clan of Banu Umayya of the Quraish. 

 He was modest and honest since his childhood and abstained from corrupt practices such as gambling and
drinking even before Islam. 
 He was a trader and soon became a wealthy person. 
 He was known as Ghani (the generous one). 
 He was literate as well. He became a Muslim on Abu Bakr’s invitation and was one of the earliest converts. 
 He is counted amongst the 10 blessed companions, was a scribe and later became the third Caliph of Islam.
 Soon after his conversion he married Ruqqaya, the divorced daughter of the Prophet. 
 He faced persecution in Makkah and migrated to Abyssinia along with his wife with the first batch of
emigrants. 
 He remained there for some years and then returned to Makkah. 
 As the persecutions increased he again migrated with his wife, this time to Medina. 
 After his wife died in 2A.H, he married the Prophet’s widowed daughter Umm-e-Kalsum. This earned him
the title of ‘Zun Nurrain’ (the possessor of two lights). 
 Being a wealthy man, he generously donated his wealth to the poor amongst both Mahajirin and Ansar. 
 He purchased a piece of land according to the wish of the Holy Prophet in order to extend the Prophet’s
mosque. 
 He would purchase a slave from his master and set him free on every Friday. 
 He actively participated in all the battles led by the Prophet except Badr, due to the illness of his wife
Ruqayya. 
 He donated generously in the battle of Tabuk. 
 He accompanied the Prophet in the journey towards Hudaibiya. 
 He was sent to Makkah to hold talks with the Quraish, but a rumour was spread of his murder, as he had
to stay longer than expected. 
 The Prophet on hearing the news took a pledge from his companions to avenge Usman’s blood. 
 This historic pledge was became known as Bait-e-Rizwan. 
 Usman returned safe, but the whole episode reflects his importance and the Prophet’s love for him.
 Usman was a prominent figure during the Prophet’s life and during the Caliphate of the first two Caliphs
until he himself became a Caliph. 
 The Prophet used to pray: ‘’O God! I am pleased with Usman. I beseech (beg) you to be pleased with him.’’ 
 Modesty was his most prominent feature and the Holy Prophet once said: ‘’Even the angels of God envy the
modesty of Usman’’. 
 Usman was murdered by conspirators in 35 AH and is buried in Jannat-ul-Baqi

ELECTION:
 Umar nominated Ali, Talha, Zubair, Usman, Abdur Rehman bin Auf and Saad bin Abi Waqas. All were one of
the 10 blessed companions.
 Umar’s choice was Abdur Rehman but he was not willing to shoulder the responsibility.
 Talha was not in Medina so the choice was now restricted to the remaining four.
  It was decided that as Abdur Rehman had stepped down, therefore he should choose the next Caliph.
 He consulted each one individually; Ali chose Usman and Usman chose Ali, Saad supported Usman while
Zubair mentioned both Usman and Ali.
 He asked the opinion of other prominent men as well and came to the conclusion that the majority
favoured Usman.
 Abdur Rehman first took the pledge of allegiance followed by Ali and other companions and then there was
a general pledge.
 He became the 3rd Caliph on the 4th of Muharram 24 AH.

MAIN ACTIVITIES DURING HIS CALIPHATE (expansion + administration):

 During the early years, the process of expansion of the Empire continued. 
 The army moved in all directions and for the first time in Islamic history, utilized naval power. 
 During his Caliphate, for the first time a fleet of nearly 500 ships was built to fight with the Greeks on
the Mediterranean Sea.
 His earliest focus was the Persian Empire in the East. Khurasan, Merv, Tus, Sarakhs and then Khawarzim
were captured in 650 AD. 
 This bought 40,000 captives and rich booty to Medina.
 Towards the West, the Byzantines forces were defeated and Cyprus was conquered in 649 AD.
 In North Africa, Libya, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia were conquered by the middle of the 7th century.
 In 651 AD, the standardization of the Quran on the basis of Mushaf-e-Hafsa was done. 
 Recitation on the model of only this copy was allowed and the rest burnt. 
 Official copies dispatched to all provincial capitals. 
 Two of the original manuscripts of his time exist even today.
 Continued to improve on the administrative network laid down by the previous Caliphs. Regrouped some of
the provinces and created new provinces for the newly conquered territories.
  Majlis-e-Shoora or council of consultation was maintained. Held periodic conferences of the district
authorities in order to keep himself informed of the conditions of the country. Used to hear public complaints
after Friday prayers.
 He allowed Arabs to acquire agricultural lands in the conquered territories.
 Expanded the Prophet’s mosque. Constructed new mosques, inns, border outposts etc.
 Made arrangements for the supply of drinking water for travellers by digging wells by the sides of roads
and highways.
 A dam was built to protect Medina from floods. Raised the salaries of the officers and the armed forces.
Increased the allowances paid to people by 25%.
 Is said to have sent religious teachers to India to spread Islam.

DIFFICULTIES:

 During the last years of his Caliphate, he faced serious difficulties that eventually led to his martyrdom in
35 AH.
  He was a very gentle and soft hearted person. The people who wanted to create chaos among Muslims
took advantage of his soft nature.
 Umar was a very strict administrator and the machinery of the government worked smoothly in his time.
 Usman used to overlook the minor faults of the appointed Amils, provincial heads as well as the new
converts.
 They took an advantage of his leniency and rebelled against him. Abdullah bin Saba, a Yemenite Jew who
outwardly accepted Islam, embarked on a subtle campaign of creating dissension (conflict) among the Muslims.
  He and his followers established their headquarters in Egypt and began to circulate forged letters that
complaints against the Caliph, his governors and other state officials.
  Efforts were made to highlight the long forgotten rivalry between Banu Hashim and Banu Umayya.
 Usman did not take timely action against him.
 Even some of the noblest actions of his were misprojected before the public; for example, the
standardization of the Quran and the expansion of the compound of the Kaabah.
 The uprisings in Iraq, Kufa and Egypt. Finally in 35 AH troops from all three provinces arrived at Medina
to take their complaints directly to the Caliph.
 Usman had pacified them and they were on their way home when they got a hold of a letter supposedly
from ‘Usman to the Governor of Egypt to have the leaders of the group put to death on their return. Seeking
vengeance they returned and killed him.

CHARGES AGAINST HIM:

 One of the main allegations against him was that he had appointed his inefficient relatives as governors.
There were 12 provinces in the country and he appointed his relatives in 4: Egypt, Syria, Kufa and Basra.
 All the governors appointed by him were people of great calibre. Ameer Muaviya, a relative of his was
appointed by Umar as the governor of Syria and Usman let him continue his job because he was doing it well.
 Abdullah bin Saad, his foster brother, was appointed governor of Egypt also by Umar.
 Usman appointed Saad bin Abi Waqqas as governor of Kufa. When he was unable to control the situation
there, he was replaced by Walid bin Uqba (Usman’s foster brother) who proved his worth.
 Abu Musa Ashari was deposed at the demand of the people of Basra. Was replaced by Abdullah bin Amir
(Usman’s cousin) according to the wishes of the people. He proved very successful.
 Thus none of the governors appointed by him proved a failure.
 It was also alleged that he was too lenient and did not keep a check on his governors. He, unlike Umar, gave
the governors a free hand in running the provinces and did not interfere in their day to day affairs. 
 His burning of the Qur’an was seen by some as destroying God’s Word. This was done after consultation
with the other companions and it was a great service that he rendered to Islam.
 He gave a convincing reply to each of the charges in the presence of the Prophet’s companions. His
explanation was accepted.
 The rebels however stuck to one point—their demand to depose the Caliph.
 To achieve this end, finally in 35 AH troops from Egypt, Kufa and Basra marched to Medina and encamped
outside the capital.
 Usman had pacified them and they were on their way home when they got a hold of a letter supposedly
from ‘Usman to the Governor of Egypt to have the leaders of the group put to death on their return. Seeking
vengeance they returned and killed him.

MAJOR EVENTS:

 Expansion, mention the areas conquered.

 Naval fleet.
 Compilation.
 Because of compilation and appointing relatives as governors led to several uprisings.
 The uprisings in Iraq, Kufa and Egypt. Finally in 35 AH troops from all three provinces arrived at Medina
to take their complaints directly to the Caliph.
 Usman had pacified them and they were on their way home when they got a hold of a letter supposedly
from ‘Usman to the Governor of Egypt to have the leaders of the group put to death on their return. Seeking
vengeance they returned and killed him.
MARTYRDOM:

 The rebels were on their way home when they got hold of a letter supposedly from Usman to the governor
of Egypt to have the leaders of the group put to death on their return.
 They returned to Medina after four days shouting for revenge.
 They laid siege to his house by hundreds and did not allow food and water to reach him.
 Ali deputed his sons, Hassan and Hussain, and Zubair deputed his son Abdullah to protect him.
 Some companions who were successful in reaching him, wanted to help him and fight the rebels or send for
the army.
 But Usman refused saying that he did not want to shed Muslim blood.
 The siege lasted for 50 days and finally some rebels jumped into his house, injured his wife Naila and
killed him while he was reciting the Quran.
 The copy of that particular Quran still exists with his blood on it. He died on Friday, 18th of Zil Hajj 35
AH.

SIGNIFICANCE OF HIS MARTYRDOM:

  It was a great tragedy with far reaching consequences. It marked the start of sectarianism among the
Muslims.
 The future events proved it.
 His murder reflected the growing strength of anti Islamic forces that had long been busy in hatching
conspiracies against the Muslim community secretly. The same conspirators would create difficulties for the 4th
Caliph, Ali.
 The event also reflected the gentle disposition and simple mindedness of Usman who didn’t take any action
against the rebels on the ground that he did not want to shed Muslim blood.

SIGNIFICANCE:

ROLE MODEL FOR TODAY:

JUNE 2006
4 (a) Write an account of the main activities of Hazrat `Uthman
(i)  During the lifetime of the Prophet, [6]
(ii)  During his caliphate. [6]
(b) Explain why Hazrat `Uthman encountered difficulties in the latter years of his caliphate and was
assassinated. [4]

(a) (i) • He was one of the first converts.

• He experienced persecution for his faith.
• He married the Prophet’s daughter Ruqayya.
• With her he migrated to Abyssinia.
• He migrated to Madina.
• He did not take part in the Battle of Badr because of his sick wife.
• When Ruqayya died, he was given her sister Umm Kulthum as wife.
• He acted as the Prophet’s ambassador to Quraysh when the Muslims neared Makka.
• He contributed his wealth to pay for expeditions, particularly Tabuk.

(ii) • He continued the policy of expanding Muslim territory.

• The empire expanded into Persia, Armenia and North Africa.
• He placed relatives in important positions of control.
• He requested an authentic version of the Qur’an.
• He ordered Zayd Ibn Thabit to lead the compilation of this.
• He destroyed all other copies.
• His rule caused disquiet and led to several uprisings.

(b) • His appointment of family members was seen as favouritism.

• His destruction of the Qur’an was seen by some as destroying God’s Word.
• Some Muslims questioned his ability to rule.
• He pacified a force from Egypt by making concessions, but sent word to have them killed on their return home.
• They returned to Madina and killed him.

JUNE 2008
4 (a) Write about:
(i) Abu Bakr’s conquest of the false prophets
(ii) `Uthman’s arrangements to make a collection of the Qur’an. [2x5]

(b) Explain why these two caliphs thought it was important to take these actions. [2x3]

(a) (i)
• One of the problems facing Abu Bakr was a number of people in Arabia who claimed to be prophets like
Muhammad
• The main ones were Musaylima among the Hanifa tribes in Yamama, Tulayha among the tribes of Asad and
Ghatafan, al-Aswad al-Ansi in the Yemen and Sajdah among the Tamim tribe [1 mark for all four names; 1 extra
mark for details about each]
• He sent forces against all of them
• The fighting against Musaylima was most fierce: in the battle of Yamama many memorizers of the Qur’an were
killed
(ii)
• `Uthman discovered that in parts of the empire people were following different versions of the Qur’an
• He ordered all copies of the Qur’an to be destroyed
• He invited Zayd Ibn Thabit and a group of Muslims to compile an authentic copy of the text
• They took great care, consulting widely and checking the text against memories
• They referred to the collection in the keeping of Hafsa
• `Uthman had copies made and distributed these to the major centres

(b) [In each case allow 1 mark for a basic explanatory comment (not description); 1 extra mark for a further
comment that shows fuller understanding; and the third mark for complete explanations]
The false prophets threatened the uniqueness of the Prophet Muhammad
Their claims suggested that Muhammad was not the last prophet sent from God
Unless they were overthrown Islam could not uphold its claims
If variant readings were allowed the message of the Qur’an might be obscured
These readings threatened the purity of God’s instructions
If they were allowed to continue the community might be split over different teachings

JUNE 2010
3 (a) what major events took place during the caliphate of ‘Uthman? [10]

‘Uthman was the third caliph. He continued the policy of expanding the Islamic territories. He expanded the state
towards the east and in the Mediterranean and crushed many rebellions.
Details of areas conquered and rebellions put down could be given here. The first Muslim naval fleet was built
during the reign of ‘Uthman. It was ‘Uthman who during his term as caliph ordered a full edition of the Qur’an to
be made and for this appointed Zayd Ibn Thabit to lead the compilation. He ordered all unofficial copies of the
Qur’an to be burnt. Some candidates may well discuss that it was because of this action of his and the charge that
he had appointed inefficient relatives as governors that his rule caused disquiet and led to several uprisings. They
could go on to mention the uprisings in Iraq, Kufa and Egypt and say how finally in 35 AH troops from all three
provinces arrived at Medina to take their complaints directly to the caliph.

(b) Explain why ‘Uthman encountered difficulties in the later years of his caliphate and was assassinated.
[4]

His appointment of family members in important positions was regarded as favouritism. The burning of the copies
of the Qur’an to be replaced by the official version prepared by Zayd Ibn Thabit was seen as destroying the word
of Allah. Yet another reason was that some Muslims questioned his ability to rule. To get to the higher level of
marks the candidates must write about his assassination as well. Here the stronger candidates could state that
after ‘Uthman had pacified the Egyptians they were on their way home when they got a hold of a letter supposedly
from ‘Uthman to the Governor of Egypt to have the leaders of the group put to death on their return. Seeking
vengeance they returned and killed him. Evaluation of some of the points discussed above is needed to get to the
top levels.

HAZRAT ALI
SIGNIFICANCE DURING THE PROPHET’S LIFETIME:

 Ali was the first cousin of the Holy Prophet and so belonged to the Banu Hashim. 
 His father was Abu Talib bin Abdul Muttalib, who had brought up Mohammad in his childhood. 
 Ali was about ten years old when the Prophet received the first revelation.
 Ali got the special opportunity of living in the company of the Prophet and so developed great love for him
since his childhood. 
 Ali was brave and literate and was a very intelligent youth of Makkah. 
 He led a pious and noble life, hated idol worshipping, drinking, gambling and bloodshed. 
 He was first among the children to embrace Islam. . 
 One day he saw his cousin and his wife put their foreheads on the ground. 
 Hazrat Ali looked at them amazingly. 
 Never before had he seen anybody saying prayers in this style. 
 When the prayer was over, Hazrat Ali asked his cousin about this strange act. 
 He explained: "We were worshipping Allah, the One," the Holy Prophet said, "I advise you to do the same
and never bend your head before Lat, Uzza or any other idol." Next morning Hazrat Ali accepted Islam.
 When the Holy Prophet asked the Hashimites to help him in his mission, 
 Hazrat Ali was the only person to respond to his call. After that Ali started supporting the Holy Prophet
bravely and the Prophet declared him as ‘’my brother and my lieutenant’’.
 The Prophet gave his youngest daughter Fatima in marriage to Ali and Hassan and Hussain were born from
this marriage. 
 Ali demonstrated utmost courage and boldness by sleeping in the bed of The Prophet on the night before
migration to Medina. 
 At that time he had entrusted to Ali the task of returning the belongings of the people that had been
placed in the Prophet’s custody for safe keeping.
 In Medina, when the Prophet declared the emigrants and helpers as brothers, the Holy Prophet declared
that Ali would be his brother. 
 Hazrat Ali was a brave warrior and showed great courage in all battles. 
 At the time of the Battle of Badr, he was chosen to carry the Muslim banner. 
 During the Battle of Uhad, he was one of the few Muslims who defended the Holy Prophet. After the
battle he, along with his wife Fatima washed the Prophet’s wounds. 
 During the Battle of Trench, when some of the pagans were able to cross over the ditch, Ali killed them.
  He was one of the leaders in the siege of the Jewish tribe of Banu Quraizah. 
 He showed great bravery in the battle of Khyber, using a door as a shield. 
 At Hunain he defended the Holy Prophet and at the time of the conquest of Makkah, he again carried the
Muslim banner. 
 For his bravery, the Prophet gave him the title of Asad Allah/Lion of Allah.
  Hazrat Ali did not take part in the Tabuk Expedition as he remained in Medina as the Prophet’s deputy. 
 On his complaint that he was not going with the army, the Prophet said to him: ‘’you are to me as Haroon
was to Musa, except that there will be no prophet after me.’’ (Agreed Upon)
 He was among those who had taken the oath of Rizwan for the sake of Usman’s life and then he drafted
the treaty of Hudaibiya and was one of the witnesses as well. 
 He was one of the 10 blessed companions. 
 He was one of the scribes of the Divine Revelation. 
 He also wrote the letters sent out by the Prophet to different kings and emperors. 
 He was present at the time of the death of the Holy Prophet. 
 He washed his dead body and was one of those who lowered the Prophet into the grave.

ELECTION:

 There was no Caliph of Islam for three days after Hazrat Usman's murder. Medina was completely in the
grip of the rioters.
 Most of the Companions had left Medina during the dark days of the holocaust (a war in which very many
ordinary people are killed). The few who remained felt absolutely helpless.
  After three days, when the rebels decided to return to their homes, they felt it was necessary that the
new Caliph should be chosen before they left Medina.
  In this connection there were differences among the rebels.
 One group favoured the election of Ali (Egypt); another favoured the election of Talha (Kufa) while the
third wanted Zubair (Basra).
  The Egyptians and some prominent companions requested Hazrat Ali to accept the office of the Caliph
but he refused.
 The rebels then offered the Khilafat to Talha and Zubair but they too refused.
  They next requested the Ansar to choose a Caliph from amongst themselves, but they declined and said in
that in the presence of Ali, no one else deserved to be the Caliph.
  There was a complete deadlock in the matter of election.
 They then gave the ultimatum that unless the Caliph was chosen within the next 24 hours, they would be
forced to take some drastic action (mass murder).
  Hazrat Ali had talks with those of the Companions who were still in Medina. They favoured him to forward
and serve the people.
 ·So Hazrat Ali agreed to take responsibility of guiding the affairs of the Muslims. He consented to
become the fourth Caliph of Islam.
 All came to the Prophet's Mosque to receive the pledge of loyalty. Malik Ushtar was the first to take the
pledge. He was followed by other people.
 Talha and Zubair, the two noted Companions, were in Medina at the time. They were among the six
electors nominated by Umar. Hazrat Ali wanted to have their confidence. Both of them took the pledge.
 ·Members of the Umayyad family all fled to Syria. They took away with them the blood-stained shirt of
the late Caliph and the chopped fingers of his wife, Naila.
 Hazrat Ali knew well that difficult times lay ahead. The forces of lawlessness had been unleashed. It
would require tireless work, great patience and much tact to restore law and order. Ali hoped to accomplish the
task with the co-operation of his people.

CHANGE OF GOVERNORS:

 On becoming the Caliph, Hazrat Ali felt that in the interest of the state, it was necessary that there
should be a change in the provincial governors.
 He therefore decided to remove the governors appointed by Usman and appoint new people to take their
place.
 Many of his friends advised him not to take such a step before establishing himself as the Caliph.
 With regard to Muaviya, the governor of Syria, they particularly asked him not to interfere because the
appointment of Muaviya was not made by Usman but by Umar.
  Also because he was popular in Syria and the people were happy with him.
 Against the advice of his friends, Ali decided to replace Muaviya also along with the others.
 He appointed new governors for Syria, Egypt, Kufa, Basra and Yemen. Then he sent them to take charge of
their provinces.
 The governors appointed in the provinces of Basra, Egypt and Yemen were able to take charge of their
provinces without any resistance.
  But the governor for Kufa had to return to Medina after having failed to assume the charge of his office.
 Similarly the Governor for Syria was met by a Syrian army who told him to go back as they did not
acknowledge Ali as the Caliph. Muaviya was not ready to accept Ali as Caliph. The main crisis started here.

BATTLE OF CAMEL (JAMAL):

 Banu Ummayads who were in power in Syria raised a cry for revenge for Usman’s blood.
 Exhibited the blood stained clothes of Usman and the chopped fingers of his wife to instigate the people.
 Many people in Makkah and Medina also joined them and demanded punishment for the assassins.
 Ali agreed but argued that he would do so only after re-establishing peace in the country. He realized that
the assassination of Usman was not the work of a few individuals who could be easily punished.
  Due to the chaotic conditions during the last days of Uthman it was very difficult to establish the
identity of the murderers, and Ali refused to punish anyone whose guilt was not lawfully proved.
  When Talha and Zubair, who were the first to acknowledge Ali as a Caliph, saw that he was taking no
positive steps to avenge Usman’s death, they became furious.
 They approached Hazrat Ayesha, who was herself deeply grieved at Usman’s murder, and prevailed
(influenced) upon her to join them in demanding revenge for Usman’s murder.
  They raised an army of 15,000 men and persuaded Ayesha to accompany them.
 In the meantime, Ali was preparing a 20,000 army to cope with the situation in Syria whose governor
Muaviya had refused to take oath of allegiance. He diverted his attention towards Basra and met Ayesha’s forces
in October 656.
 Ali did not wish to fight Ayesha and sent one of the Prophet’s companions to assure her that the delay in
punishing the murderers of Usman was due to non-availability of evidence.
  Ayesha also wanted to prevent bloodshed and agreed to negotiate. The negotiations began between the
two parties and ended in mutual agreement.
 This was not in favour of the rebels who had gone to such great lengths to cause fighting amongst the
Muslims.
 A band of them masterminded an attack on Ayesha’s army during the night, provoking them to retaliate
against Ali’s army.
 In the fighting that followed, Talha and Zubair were killed. Ayesha’s own camel was finally over powered
and its legs were cut, thus giving the name Battle of the Camel to this event.
 She was treated with respect and honour and was sent to Medina escorted by her brother where she led a
retired life and never took part in politics again.
 10,000 combatants lay dead from both sides in this very first civil war of Islam.
 As a result of the victory at Basra, Ali’s Khilafat came to be acknowledged by the entire Muslim world
except Syria.
 After this battle, Ali shifted the capital to Kufa.

WHY TALHA AND ZUBAIR OPPOSED HIM:

 Talha and Zubair opposed Ali for a number of reasons.

 They had initially taken oath at Ali’s hand and hoped Ali would take quick action against the killers of
Usman.
  Ali, however, having his own plans and strategies, acted differently.
  He began to dismiss the governors appointed by Usman since he considered them to be the root cause of
all troubles.
  While doing so, the actions against Usman’s killers got delayed and this delay drove a wedge between Ali
and the two close companions of the Prophet.
  They began to oppose Ali’s policies as they wanted urgent steps against the rebels.
 Failing to see Ali introducing any reforms to control the crisis, Talha and Zubair joined Ayesha to worsen
the conflict.

BATTLE OF SIFFIN:

Causes:
 After his election, Ali deposed Muaviya from the governorship of Syria. Muaviya refused and under his
influence no one in Syria took the oath of allegiance to the new Caliph.
 Muaviya raised a cry for revenge for the blood of Usman and displayed his blood stained clothes and his
wife’s fingers in a mosque in Damascus.
  He claimed that his election as Caliph was illegal and was carried out under the pressure of the rebels who
had killed Usman.
 He presented Talha and Zubair as martyrs who laid down their lives for the blood of Usman.
  He criticized Ali for the ill treatment of Hazrat Ayesha.
 His propaganda spread to Iran and Iraq.
 Muaviya gained enough strength in a year to challenge the Caliph.
 Ali wrote him a letter telling him that he had been elected in the same way as the former Caliphs had been
elected. Muaviya replied that he was not ready to accept Ali as a Caliph.
 Events:
 Ali managed to collect an army of 80-90 thousand men and Muaviya also collected a large army.
  Both armies met at Siffin. For several months the rival soldiers remained facing each other. Except
occasional skirmishes no decisive battle took place.
  Ali sent messengers to Muaviya asking him to submit in the interest of the unity of Islam.
  Muaviya in reply demanded that Usman’s assassins should be punished first. All negotiations for peace
broke down and both sides got ready for war.
 The main battle began on the 8th of Safar 37 A.H. on the fourth day the position of Muaviya’s army began
to worsen.
  Muaviya, on the advice of Amr bin Aas ordered the soldiers in the front ranks to fasten the Holy Quran
on their lances as a sign that the war should end.
  Many officers in Ali’s army refused to fight, so the war was stopped and it was decided that the matter
be referred to an arbitration (mediation/settlement).
  Ali appointed Abu Musa Ashari and Muaviya appointed Amr bin Aas. They were to settle the dispute in
accordance with the Quran and Sunnah and announce their decision by Ramadan. In the meantime all hostilities
were to cease.
  Ali left the battlefield of Siffin for Kufa. The battle of Siffin led to the birth of the first sect among
Muslims that came to be known as Kharijites.

WHY MUAVIYA REFUSED TO ACCEPT ALI AS CALIPH:

 Ali had been elected in unusual circumstances, mainly on the insistence of the rebels against Usman.
 Ali wanted to restore peace first and then deal with the assassination of Usman, so he issued orders of
the governors appointed by Usman.
  Muaviya’s name was in the list.
  Ali ordered Muaviya to surrender his position as governor of Syria.
   Since Muaviya would not accept `Ali as caliph he did not do this.
 Ali refused to take steps against the killers of Muaviya’s uncle `Usman.
  Muaviya insisted that `Ali should punish them before he would obey him.
  Muaviya’s opposition was a combination of personal ambition and desire for justice.

WHY SOME SUPPORTERS OF ALI LEFT HIM AFTER SIFFIN:

  Talha and Zubayr thought he should punish Usman’s assassins as soon as possible.
  This was the just action and they thought `Ali was wrong not to do it.
 Ali’s supporters at Siffin thought he was the leader of the community and those who opposed him were
wrong.
 So they thought he was wrong to arbitrate with sinners.

ARBITRATION:

 In Ramadan Abu Musa Ashari and Amr bin Aas met at Dumat-ul-Jandal, a place between Kufa and
Damascus, for arbitration.
 The question put to them was ‘’are the two eligible for the post of Caliph.’’
 Abu Musa announced that both Ali and Muaviya would resign and the people should be given a right to
choose any one of them as Caliph.
  Amr bin Aas announced that he agreed with Abu Musa to depose Ali but he himself had decided to retain
Muaviya on his post.
 Because Muaviya is a successful governor and his people have no complaints against him, so the election for
the Caliph should take place while Muaviya retained his seat.
 The decision was one sided so Hazrat Ali, on principle did not accept it. Now the only way for him was to
fight against Muaviya once again.

KHARIJITES:

 The term Kharijites literally means separatists or out goers. These people had taken part in the revolt
against Usman and were involved in his murder.
 When Muaviya raised the cry for revenge for the blood of Usman, they allied themselves with Hazrat Ali
and fought on his side in the Battles of Camel and Siffin.
 · When the troops of Muaviya asked for cease fire, they responded to the call and forced Ali to suspend
hostilities, although victory for his forces were near.
 When Hazrat Ali was going to Kufa after the decision of arbitration right after the Battle of Siffin, they
insisted that Hazrat Ali should attack the Syrians. Ali replied that he could not break the agreement signed by
him.
 Their argument was that neither Ali nor Muawiya were worthy of rule.
 They based it on a verse of the Quran 49:9 which said that there is no arbitrator but God.
 In fact, they went so far as to say that the true caliphate came to an end with 'Umar and that Muslims
should live without any ruler over them except God.
 When they arrived near Kufa, 12000 men separated and marched towards Harwara, where they formed a
party and started their activities against Hazrat Ali.
  In this way these people separated from the main body of the Muslims.

BATTLE OF NAHRAWAN:

 While Hazrat Ali made preparations to attack Muaviya, the Kharijites from all over the country collected
at Nahrawan and began to create problems.
 So Ali had to fight against them first. The Kharijites were defeated badly. Out of 4000 only a few dozen
managed to escape.
 The survivors vowed to take revenge.
 This decisive victory diverted his attention from the main struggle against Muaviya.
 It was because of this war that Hazrat Ali was assassinated by a Kharijite two years later.

FALL OF EGYPT:

 When Hazrat Ali decided to step forward against Muaviya, his troops disobeyed.
 Muaviya took advantage of the disobedience and ordered Amr bin Aas to attack Egypt.
 Governor of Egypt was defeated and Egypt came under the control of Muaviya.
 After the fall of Egypt, a rebellion broke out throughout the Muslim Empire against the Caliph.
 Ali signed a treaty with Muaviya in which it was decided that Syria and Egypt will be ruled by Muaviya and
remaining territories would remain under Hazrat Ali.
 The Kharijites did not want peace to prevail and they now started preparation to kill Hazrat Ali.

MARTYRDOM:

  After the Battle of Nahrawan, the Kharijites became his bitter enemies. The survivors of the battle
wanted revenge for their friends who were killed in the battle.
  In 40A.H some of the Kharijites assembeled in Makkah and decided to kill Ali, Muaviya and Amr bin Aas
simultaneously.
  They claimed that neither Ali nor Muawiya were worthy of rule.
 In fact, they went so far as to say that the true caliphate came to an end with 'Umar and that Muslims
should live without any ruler over them except God. They vowed to kill all three rulers, and assassins were
dispatched in three directions.
 The assassins who were deputed to kill Muawiya and Amr did not succeed and were captured and executed.
 Abdul Rehman bin Muljim was selected to assassinate Ali.
 On the 18th of Ramazan when Ali was leading the morning prayers in a mosque at Kufa, Muljim attacked
him with a poisonous sword.
 The wounds proved fatal and he died on the 21st of Ramazan.
  His son Hassan killed Muljim the next day.
 There are different versions as to the place of his burial. Majority of the people hold that he was buried
in Najaf.
  He did not name anyone as his successor.

ADMINISTRATION:

  The whole period of his caliphate passed in civil wars therefore he did not have a chance to pay proper
attention to administration or conquests.
 He administered the state on the lines laid down by the previous caliphs without making any changes.
 The divisions of the provinces remained the same as during Umars time with a few exceptions.
 The capital was changed from Medina to Kufa and some of the officers and governors were changed.
  Was very particular in taking care of non-Muslims.
 He constructed castles for the women and children who were widowed and orphaned in Iran during the
days of revolt.
 He introduced Islamic injunctions which included whip lashes to drinkers and cutting of hands on stealing.
 He passed laws to provide food to the prisoners.

MAIN ACTIVITIES DURING HIS CALIPHATE:

 He became caliph after the murder of `Uthman.

  He did not immediately take steps to punish `Uthman’s killers.
 For this Talha and Zubayr, supported by `A’isha, opposed him.
 They fought him at the battle of the Camel.
 [+1 for a full account of this opposition and its outcome.]
  Uthman’s nephew Mu`awiya also opposed him.
 They fought at the battle of Siffin.
 This was indecisive so they agreed to arbitration.
 [+1 for a full account of this opposition and its outcome.]
  Some of `Ali’s supporters disagreed with this and abandoned him.
 He defeated them at the battle of Nahrawan.
  He was killed by one of these while at prayer.

SIGNIFICANCE:

NOVEMBER 2005(2)
 In this question you should answer part (a) and either part (b) or part (c)

(a) Write an account of the life of `Ali ibn Abi Talib, paying particular attention to:
(i) His companionship of the Prophet; [6]
(ii) His caliphate. [6]

Either (b) Explain why `Ali was opposed by Mu`awiya during his rule as caliph. [4]

Or (c) Explain why `Ali’s leadership of the community is regarded as important by Shi`i Muslims. [4]
(a) (i)
• He was close to the Prophet from childhood.
• He became one of the first Muslims.
• He married the Prophet’s daughter Fatima.
• He took the Prophet’s place in his bed at the time of the hijra.
• He was taken by the Prophet as his brother when pairing Ansar and Muhajirun.
• He was one of the foremost warriors of the Islamic community.
• He offered to fight single-handedly before a number of battles.
• [1 mark for details, e.g. his feats at the battle of Hunayn.]
• He was a scribe of the Prophet.
• He wrote the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya.
• [Shi`as believe the Prophet designated him as his successor.]
(ii)
• He became caliph after the murder of `Uthman.
• He did not immediately take steps to punish `Uthman’s killers.
• For this Talha and Zubayr, supported by `A’isha, opposed him.
• They fought him at the battle of the Camel.
• [+1 for a full account of this opposition and its outcome.]
• `Uthman’s nephew Mu`awiya also opposed him.
• They fought at the battle of Siffin.
• This was indecisive so they agreed to arbitration.
• [+1 for a full account of this opposition and its outcome.]
• Some of `Ali’s supporters disagreed with this and abandoned him.
• He defeated them at the battle of Nahrawan.
• He was killed by one of these while at prayer.
(a) Describe four incidents that show how, between 622 and 661, the Prophet and the Rightly
Guided Caliphs conducted relations with other states. [4 x 3]
(b) Suggest ways in which any two of these examples can provide models for relations
between states today.

Four Guided Caliphs

LIST OF QUESTIONS

ABU BAKR
LIFE BEFORE CALIPHATE
ELECTIONS
CHALLENGES
(a) Describe Abu Bakr’s activities against the false prophets and apostate tribes. [10]
(a) Write a detailed account of the election of Abu Bakr as the first caliph and the action he took
against any two of the false prophets. [10]
(a) Write an account of the major challenges that faced Abu Bakr during his caliphate. [10]
(a) Write a detailed account of the four false prophets, and how the caliph Abu Bakr defeated them.
[10]
(a) Write an account of the campaign led by Abu Bakr against the tribes refusing to pay zakat. [10]

(b) Why did Abu Bakr think it of great importance to defeat the false prophets? [4]
(b) What was the significance of his actions in dealing firmly with the apostate tribes? [4]
(b) How important in your view was the campaign against the tribes refusing to pay zakat? [4]
(b) What was the most serious danger faced by the Islamic state during Abu Bakr’s caliphate? Give
reasons for your answer. [4]
(b) In your opinion what was the most important task that faced Abu Bakr on becoming caliph? Briefly
discuss. [4]

COMPILATION OF QURAN
(a) Write a detailed account of the battle of Yamama, and of the compilation of the Qur’an during the
caliphate of Abu Bakr. [10]

EXPANSION
ADMINISTRATION
(a) Write a detailed account about the election and administration of Abu Bakr. [10]

CHARACTER
ACHIEVEMENTS

(a) Write an account of the achievements of Abu Bakr as the first caliph of Islam. [10]
(a) Write a detailed account of Abu Bakr’s achievements as Caliph. [10]
(b) Which was his greatest contribution as caliph? Give reasons for your answer. [4]
(b) In your opinion, what was the greatest service performed by Abu Bakr during his caliphate? Give
reasons for your choice. [4]

TITLES
(b)Explain why he was known as the Honest One (al-Siddiq), and the Saviour of Islam. [4]
(b) Whyis Abu Bakr called the Saviour of Islam? [4]
(b) The Prophet called Abu Bakr ‘al-Siddiq’ (Testifier of the Truth). How did Abu Bakr live up to his
title during his caliphate? [4]

MISCELLANEOUS
(a) Write about any two major events that took place during the caliphate of Abu Bakr. [10]
 LIST OF QUESTIONS

HAZRAT UMAR RA

LIFE BEFORE CALIPHATE

ELECTION

EXPANSION
(a) Write a detailed account of two battles under the caliphate of ‘Umar. [10]
(a) Give an account of the following two battles fought during the rule of ‘Umar:
• Battle of Qadisiya;
• Battle of Yarmuk [10]
(a) Write an account of the Battle of Yarmuk fought during the caliphate of ‘Umar. [10]
(a) The conquest of Persia was one of ‘Umar’s great achievements. Write an account of any two
battles fought with the Persians during his caliphate. [10]
(a) Trace the expansion of the Islamic empire under the rule of the caliph ‘Umar. [10]
(b) Say which in your opinion was the most significant of the battles fought under ‘Umar against the
Persians and why. [4]
(b) How does ‘Umar’s conduct at the surrender of Jerusalem set an example for Muslims?[4]

ADMINISTRATION
(a) Write a detailed account of the administrative measures put in place by ‘Umar during his
caliphate. [10]
(a) ‘ ‘Umar’s caliphate is regarded as a golden era in Islamic history.’ Write an account of how ‘Umar
ruled during his ten year caliphate. [10]
(a) ‘Umar made several administrative reforms during his ten year caliphate. Write an account of at
least five of them and say how these reforms helped make his rule so admirable. [10]

CHARACTER
(b) What does the way he died tell us about his character? [4]
(b) Which in your opinion was ‘Umar’s greatest quality as caliph? Give reasons for your choice. [4]

MARTYRDOM
(b) ‘ ‘Umar’s unbending attitude led to his assassination.’ What can Muslims learn from this?v[4]
(b) In your opinion what lesson(s) can be learnt by the martyrdom of ‘Umar? [4]

ACHIEVEMENTS
(b) ‘ ‘Umar’s caliphate is regarded as the golden period of early Islamic history’. Discuss. [4]
(b) Was ‘Umar better as a military leader or as an administrator? [4]
(b) What do you think was ‘Umar’s greatest achievement during his rule? Explain why you think so.
[4]

LIST OF QUESTIONS

HAZRAT USMAN RA

LIFE BEFORE CALIPHATE

ELECTION
PROBLEMS
(a) What were the causes of the revolt against ‘Uthman and what charges were made against
him? [10]
(a) Outline the charges levelled against ‘Uthman by his opponents, and describe the main events
of the revolt against him. [10]
(a) Outline the reasons for the unrest against ‘Uthman and write an account of the rebellion in
Madina that led to his martyrdom. [10]
(b) Explain why ‘Uthman encountered difficulties in the later years of his caliphate and was
assassinated. [4]

The years 651 to 656 were the years of trouble for the third caliph of Islam.
Charges leveled against Hz Usman
 He had appointed inefficient relatives as governors in four provinces;
 He was too lenient and did not keep a check on his governors;
 He had burned copies of the Qur’an
 He spent on his relatives from the Bait-ul Maal.
 Candidates need to also write about the revolt that took place against ‘Uthman that led to his
martyrdom.
Cause of the Revolt
 His soft nature was taken advantage of, the fact that he sometimes overlooked the faults of his
governors made them bold and as a result caused unrest in the provincial capitals which grew to
engulf the entire Islamic state;
 Abdullah bin Saba, a Yemenite Jew who outwardly accepted Islam embarked on a subtle campaign
of creating dissension amongst the Muslims and ‘Uthman did not take timely action against him.
 Rivalry between the houses of Hashim and the Umayya also contributed to this revolt
Details of the Revolt
 Three columns of men left their garrison cities apparently for pilgrimage. Upon reaching Madina
they set up camp, they were armed. The rebels sent their deputations to the three most
respected members of the inner council of Companions still alive.
 The rebels’ return after having their demand met by ‘Uthman
 Their return to Madina after intercepting a letter supposedly from the caliph to the governor of
Egypt to put the rebels to death upon their return etc.
 The siege of the caliph’s house and the events that led to his martyrdom.

(b) How justified were the criticisms against ‘Uthman for burning the copies of the Qur’an?
Give reasons for your answer. [4]
Reasons to say that the Charges were unjustified
 He brought about administrative changes in some areas e.g. Jordan and Palestine were united
into one province Syria. To improve administration he divided the power and set up a new
department of police.
 He did keep a strict watch on governors and other administrators, e.g. Saad bin Abi Waqas drew
money from the bait ul maal and did not return it for which he was deposed by ‘Uthman.
 However he overlooked simple mistakes of his governors. He not only increased the income of
the public treasury but spent more generously on the masses. He also started welfare projects
for the masses as well as the state, new buildings in provinces, bridges, roads and highways etc.
were built.
 He not only sent religious teachers to different tribes and cities but himself preached to the
prisoners of war. The greatest service he performed during his caliphate was the compilation of
the Qur’an.
 The allegations against ‘Uthman for burning the copies were unjustified as he was trying to save
the Qur’an from corruption. A word wrongly pronounced in Arabic can change the meaning of the
word totally. Hence, it was important that only the authentic copies were in circulation.

ACHIEVEMENTS including EXPANSION AND ADMINISTRATION

(a) Write in detail about the policy followed by ‘Uthman as caliph in expanding and maintaining the
state. [10]

 Details from the topic Conquest in the East and West

 Administration

MARTYRDOM
(b) Can Muslims today learn lessons from the martyrdom of ‘Uthman? Give reasons for your answer.
[4]

 He stood firm and did not relinquish his responsibility of being a caliphate that teaches us to be
firm and unwavering in time of crisis and not to ignore our responsibilities
 He did not allow an armed response to his protestors showing that we must show tolerance to
opposition
 He negotiated instead of crushing his opponents showing that whenever we can we must give
peace a chance.
 He accepted most of the demands in order to maintain peace showing that we should be willing to
sacrifice in order to maintain peace

MISCELLANEOUS
(a) What major events took place during the caliphate of ‘Uthman? [10]
(a) Give an account of: (i) the election of the caliph ‘Uthman, and (ii) the compilation of the Qur’an
that took place during his caliphate. [10]

OUTCOME OF HIS MARTYRDOM

(b) What do you think was the most harmful outcome of ‘Uthman’s assassination? [4]

 The unity of the Muslims suffered a huge blow and led to the civil wars in the caliphate of ‘Ali.

(a) What were the consequences of ‘Uthman’s murder? [10]

 Uthman’s murder led to ‘Ali’s controversial election. Some companions considered this election to
be unfair because it was done under the pressure of the rebels that had gathered in Madinah
against Hazrat usman RA.
The umma was divided on this issue. Some beliweved his election was right while others
considered it to be unfair.
 Many Quraysh left Madina and moved back to Makka which became their power base.
 Some who had sworn allegiance to ‘Ali took back their oath
 The Umayyads, in particular Mu’awiya, called for avenging the murder of ‘Uthman.
 The rebels in turn who had attacked ‘Uthman demanded the reversal of his policies which they
said were contrary to Islamic principles.
 Ali took some quick measures demanded by the opponents of ‘Uthman and changed the governors
appointed by his predecessor with those who supported him and distributed the wealth that
both Umar and ‘Uthman had kept aside.
 However, his slow response against the murderers of ‘Uthman led to strong reactions which led
to the first civil wars in Islam e.g. the battles of Camel and Siffin.

LIST OF QUESTIONS

HAZRAT ALI RA
LIFE BEFORE CALIPHATE

ELECTION

CHANGE OF GOVERNORS
(a) ‘Ali’s policy of changing the governors appointed by ‘Uthman led to a lot of problems for
him. Outline: (i) his reasons for making these changes; (ii) the effects of his policy. [10]

 ‘Ali, upon assuming the caliphate, dismissed all the governors appointed by ‘Uthman despite the
advice of some of his companions not to do so until he had established himself as the caliph and
the political unrest of the time had settled down.
 One of the major charges levelled against ‘Uthman was that he had appointed inefficient
relatives as governors.
 Mu’awiya who was the governor of Syria and a cousin of ‘Uthman, refused to leave his post and
accept ‘Ali as the caliph until ‘Uthman’s assassins were punished.
 This demand of Mu’awiya led to unrest and the formation of different groups even within ‘Ali’s
core supporters, as Talha and Zubayr who had initially sided with ‘Ali turned against him.
 The battles of Camel and Siffin ensued with their brief account what their outcome meant for
‘Ali.
PROBLEMS
(a) ‘Ali’s caliphate was riddled with problems. Describe what these problems were. [10]
 The crisis loaded atmosphere in which ‘Ali came to power. After the assassination of ‘Uthman
Madina was without any government for 3 days and was virtually controlled by the rebels who
were pressing ‘Ali to take on the caliphate.
 The clan of ‘Uthman on the other hand demanded swift action against the murderers once he
assumed power.
 The change of governors resulted in creating a power struggle between ‘Ali and Mu’awiya.
 To add to that the Muslim empire had become so vast that communicating and controlling affairs
was no easy task. The battles fought in his short reign were the first civil wars in Islam. These
battles were, the battle of Camel in which Talha, Zubayr who had initially sided with ‘Ali turned
against him and raised the cry for vengeance for the assassination of ‘Uthman. They were
supported by A’isha. An attempt was made to settle the differences but extremists provoked a
fight, which grew into a battle around the camel on which A’isha was seated.
 The next battle was the battle of Siffin fought between ‘Ali and Mu’awiya in 657AD. The fight
proved indecisive for many days and when it appeared that Mu’awiya’s side might lose he ordered
his soldiers to fix the Qur’an on their lances and called for arbitration.
 Rise of the Kharijites and the battle of Nahrawan

(b) In your opinion what was the greatest threat faced by ‘Ali during his caliphate
(b) Choose any one problem you have written about in Part (a) and say why you think it was
significant. [4]

PROBLEM 1. OPPOSITION FROM HZ TALHA AR AND HZ ZUBAIR RA

(a) Write an account of the events that resulted from the opposition of Talha and Zubayr to
‘Ali. [10]

 Talha and Zubayr were amongst the first people to do bay’a on ‘Ali’s hand
 However, because of his delay in punishing the assassins of ‘Uthman, they turned against him.
 They asked Ayesha to join forces with them and raised a force of their own.
 ‘Ali also raised an army of 10000 and marched to Basra to face them.
 Negotiations were held between the two sides and were almost successful, but the mischief
mongers attacked both sides at night, as peace would not have been in their interests, and this
finally led to the war.
 Talha and Zubayr left the battlefield as per the terms of the treaty but were killed and Ayesha
fought the battle seated on her camel. This is how the battle got its name, i.e. battle of camel.
 ‘Ali won this battle and Ayesha was sent back to Madina with due respect.
 This was the first civil war of Islam in which 10000 Muslims lost their lives and after which ‘Ali
moved his capital to Kufa from Madina.
 On account of this battle ‘Ali was prevented from dealing effectively with Mu’awiya earlier and
that the battle caused a deep divide amongst the umma.
 The above were some of the immediate challenges that ‘Ali faced due to the opposition of Talha
and Zubayr.
  The long term effects of this opposition, however, were felt till his martyrdom

(b) Explain why Talha and Zubayr opposed ‘Ali. [4]

 disagreement over ‘Ali’s reaction to the death of ‘Uthman.
 ‘Ali’s problem of having to act against law-breakers while not yet in a secure position.

PROBLEM 2. CONFLICT WITH HZ AYESHA RA AND BATTLE OF JAML,

(a) Give a detailed account of the following events: • the opposition faced by ‘Ali when he
became Caliph and • the Battle of Camel [10]
 Fierce opposition faced by ‘Ali on becoming caliph by Hazrat Aisha who was joined by Talha and
Zubayr.
 He was accused of manipulating the political strife that led to the martyrdom of ‘Uthman.
 The fact that he was a reluctant arbitrator and other details related to his contribution in
resolving the crisis between ‘Uthman and the rebels were ignored.
 Following the above a detailed account of the Battle of Camel should be written about e.g. the
number of men on either side, how a tentative peace treaty was brokered but broken by the
mischief makers etc.

PROBLEM 3. CONFLICT WITH AMEER MUAWIYA AND BATTLE OF SIFFIN

(b) Why do you think Muawiya refused to accept Ali as a caliph? [4]
(b) Explain why you think Mu’awiya refused to step down from the governorship of Syria at
‘Ali’s request. [4]
 He wanted ‘Ali to take immediate action against the killers of ‘Uthman;
 The rivalry between the Ummayads and the Hashimites.
 A desire for justice or personal ambition was the reason why he refused to step down as
governor of Syria at ‘Ali’s request.
(b) What in your opinion was the most serious consequence of the outcome of the arbitration
during the rest of ‘Ali’s reign? [4]
(b) In your opinion what was the most serious consequence of the outcome of this battle
(SIFFIN)? Give reasons for your answer. [4]

 Failure of the arbitration led to a weakening of ‘Ali’s position.

 A series of events unrolled after the arbitration e.g. ‘Ali was preparing to fight the Syrians the
Kharijites fought him which demoralised his army even more so that they refused to proceed to
Syria which made Mu’awiya even more bold leading to his takeover of Egypt.
 The fall of Egypt led to frequent rebellions.
 ‘Ali’s position weakened whilst on the other hand Mu’awiya’s strengthened which led to the
empire being divided between ‘Ali and Mu’awiya.

(a) Mu‘awiya was opposed to ‘Ali’s caliphate. Give reasons for his opposition and write an
account of the Battle of Siffin which resulted from this opposition. [10]
(a) Write about the following events that took place during the caliphate of ‘Ali: • the battle
of Siffin; • the emergence of Kharijites; and • the arbitration after Siffin. [10]
THE BATTLE OF SIFFIN
 The battle of Siffin which was fought between ‘Ali and Mu’awiyah.
 ‘Ali was reluctant to fight fellow Muslims but Mu’awiya who was an Umayyad and the Governor of
Syria refused to accept ‘Ali as the caliph till the murderers of ‘Uthman were brought to justice.
 ‘Ali in turn wanted to stabilise the empire then deal with the assassins of ‘Uthman as it was not
the work of one man but several.
 Candidates could give some background information of why the battle was fought between the
two and that could be read as development in the answer.
 It could also be said that the battle of Siffin followed the battle of Camel, in which ‘Ali was
victorious, and was fought in Muharram in 37A.H. ‘Ali met Mu’awiya’s force with his own army of
80 000 men in Siffin.
 Fighting continued for several days between the two sides with loss of life on both sides but
when the battle started to turn in favour of ‘Ali, Mu’awiya asked his men to tie the Qur’an on
their lances to stop the war and decide the outcome by referring to the Qur’an.
 A section of ‘Ali’s army refused to fight, ‘Ali tried to reason with them that it was a ploy to
avert defeat but they refused to listen and 10 000 of ‘Ali’s men laid down their arms which
forced ‘Ali to agree to a truce, according to the terms of the truce the dispute about the
caliphate was to be referred to two arbitrators, one from each side, to meet within six months.
THE RISE OF KHARIJITES
 The battle of Siffin gave birth to a secession movement, the disenchanted elements of the army
from Kufa and Basra refused to set up camp with the rest of the garrison on their return from
the battle, they came to be known as the Kharijites.
 The Kharijites were bitterly opposed to the idea of arbitration, however ’Ali treated them with
compassion and persuaded them to return to their homes.
THE ARBITRATION
 Arbitration took place at Dauma-tu-Jandal.
 Abu Musa Al ‘Ashari represented ‘Ali whilst Amr bin Al’Aas represented Mu’awiya.
 It was agreed in the arbitration by the two sides that both ‘Ali and Mu’awiya should be deposed.
 However, at the time of the announcement of the verdict Abu Musa, as per the agreement,
announced that he and his colleagues agreed that both ‘Ali and Mu’awiya should step down but
Amr bin Al’Aas changed his stance and said that ‘Ali should step down however, Mu’awiya should
retain his post. Thus the arbitration failed.
 The failure of the arbitration deeply upset the Kharijites who had made their peace with ‘Ali.
They now broke away and set up their own community in Nahrawan.

PROBLEM 4. RISE OF KHARIJITS AND BATTLE OF NAHARWAN

(a) How did the arbitration following the Battle of Siffin lead to the emergence of the
Kharijites? [10]
 The details of the arbitration drafted two days after the Battle of Siffin were a disaster for
‘Ali as he had led his army into battle as the Commander of the Faithful and now the troops were
headed back as a faction in a civil war, as the draft at the end read that both parties agreed to
bind themselves by God’s word.
  It could be said that the disenchanted elements from ‘Ali’s army from both the Basra and Kufa
regiments refused to set up camp with the rest of their regiment and they came to be known as
the Kharijites.
 They were opposed to the idea of arbitration and argued for ‘No judgment but God’s’, by which
they meant that as the caliph ‘Ali should not have agreed to the arbitration and compromised his
authority.
 They were treated with compassion by ‘Ali who reminded them that it was not him who had
sought a ceasefire. The famous oath of Ghadir Khumm composed by the Prophet in the last year
of his life was repeated. After which most of the Kharijites returned to their home.
 It was after the result of the peace conference held in 658 that the Kharijites got even more
upset and set up their own community in Nahrawan.
 Later that year ‘Ali’s attempt to get the Kharijites on board to fight Mu’awiya was only partially
successful as only 2000 moderates joined him. ‘Ali decided to deal with the remaining before
confronting Mu’awiya but when ‘Ali’s army saw within the martyrs their fathers and brothers
they lost the will to fight. Eventually ‘Ali was forced to share power with Mu’awiya and the
remaining small band of Kharijites raised the standard of rebellion in Persia.

(b) ‘The Kharijites were the main reason for ‘Ali not winning the Battle of Siffin’. Do you agree
or disagree? Give reasons to support your answer. [4]

BATTLES

(a) Which important battles were fought during the caliphate of ‘Ali? Write a descriptive account
of each. [10]

MARTYRDOM
(b) ‘Ibn Muljam’s murder of ‘Ali was unjustified’. Discuss, giving reasons for your answer.[4]

CHARACTER

ACHIEVEMENTS
(b) ‘‘Ali was the right ruler for the time’. Briefly discuss this statement. [4]
(b) ‘‘Ali was a strong caliph.’ Give reasons to agree or disagree with this statement. [4]
(b) ‘‘Ali was a strong caliph’. Give reasons to agree or disagree with this statement. [4]
 They could say that agreeing to assume the caliphate in a crisis laden situation goes to show
‘Ali’s selfless motive and strength. More specifically, when caliph, he took some decisions despite
the advice of his companions e.g. removing the governors which showed he was a strong caliph,
ready to take unpopular decisions. At Siffin he wanted to carry on the battle but he was let
down by a large number of his soldiers. A counter argument could be given by those who do not
think he was a strong caliph but with due respect to the fourth righteously guided caliph of
Islam. All valid answers need to be credited.

MISCELLANEOUS
(a) Describe the main events of the caliphate of ‘Ali. [10]
(a) What were the main events of the caliphate of Ali ? [10]
 MIXED QUESTIONS

(a) Outline the reasons why the caliphs Abu Bakr and ‘Uthman thought it necessary to compile the
Qur’an and describe how they went about completing this task. [10]
Ans Refer to compilation of the Holy Quran

(a) Outline the characteristics of the caliphates of all four Rightly Guided Caliphs which make them
an example of leadership for Muslim rulers. [10]
(a) Write about how the four Rightly Guided Caliphs are role models for leaders today. [10]

 They did not think of themselves as above the common man. Reference to the famous speech
made by Abu Bakr on his election as the first caliph.
 Election Processes e.g. Abu Bakr nominated Umar and since there was no opposition to him all
the companions took allegiance on his hand. On his death bed he appointed a panel of six to
choose the next caliph. Ali too was elected by the Muslims in the mosque of the Prophet. These
elections show that leadership or caliphate was not a hereditary concept in Islam and a form of
democracy was practised.
 They consulted the majlis e shura in all affairs of the state. • Everyone was free to express
their opinion and criticise the caliph.
 The caliphs were available to all and at all times.
 The judiciary was independent and no one was above the law.
 The bait ul maal was public property and was so treated by the caliphs. Examples to all or some
of the points given above could be given by the candidates to show how the caliphs were
examples of leadership, not only to the people of their age, but to today’s leaders as well.

(a) Choose any two caliphs from the three given below and say how and why they were martyred: •
‘Umar; • ‘Uthman; and • ‘Ali. [10]
(a) Write a descriptive account of the important events that took place in the caliphates of any two
of the four Rightly Guided Caliphs. [10]
(a) Briefly describe the main events of the caliphate of any two of the rightly guided caliphs given
below:
(i) Abu Bakr(ii) ‘Umar(iii) ‘Uthman [10]

(a) Write about how the four Rightly Guided Caliphs ruled during their caliphates in accordance with
Islamic values. [10]
 All four of the Rightly Guided Caliphs endeavoured to emulate the Prophet. They followed the
Qur’an and the sunna. They lived very simply and were all humble men.
 Adherence to the principles of Islam and treated the caliphate as a trust given to him by God
and back the point being made with an example/quote.
 Four caliphs were good administrators and available to the common man at all times.
 They looked for solutions of problems in ijma’ and qiyas.
 How they executed justice to all, safeguarded human rights and did not consider the treasury as
their personal asset but drew a small salary.
  Their loyalty to the Qur’an and commitment to establishing a welfare state could be given in the
answer

(a) Write an account of the Battle of Yamama fought during the caliphate of Abu Bakr, and the
Battle of the Camel fought during the caliphate of ‘Ali. [10]

(b) ‘Umar and ‘Uthman stood by what they believed to be just and were martyred for the position
they took. What lessons can be learnt from their martyrdom? Give reasons for your answer. [4]
(b) Choose any one practice of the caliphs from Part (a) and explain how governments today could
act on it. [4]
(b) In your opinion, which characteristic of the rules of the caliphs, if adopted by the present day
rulers, would improve the lives of ordinary people in the countries they live in? [4]
(b) In your opinion, how important was it to have a compiled copy of the Qur’an and what could have
been the dangers of not having one? [4]
(b) Three of the four Rightly Guided Caliphs were martyred for the decisions they made. Can Muslim
leaders today learn anything from this? Give reasons for your answer. [4]