Principles of Flight

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

- 081 04 Stability
• Dynamic Lateral/Directional Stability

- 081 05 Control
• General

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 Principles of Flight

This Presentation
• Dynamic Lat/Direct Stability
– Assymetric Propeller Slipstream
– Tendency to Spiral Dive
– Dutch Roll
– Effect of altitude

• General
– Basics, the planes and the axis
– Camber Change
– Angle of Attack Change
– “Spoiling” the airflow

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 Principles of Flight

Syllabus Progress

POF 1-3 POF 4-6 POF 7-9 POF 10-12 POF 13-15

POF 16-18 POF 19-21 POF 22-24 POF 25-27 POF 28-30

POF 31-33 POF 34-36 POF 37-39 POF 40-42 POF 43-45

POF 46-48 POF 49-51 POF 52-54 OPS 55-57 OPS 58-60

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 Principles of Flight

Dynamic Lateral/Directional Stability

Previous discussion has separated the lateral and directional response of the aeroplane to
sideslip in order to give each the required detailed study.

However, when an aeroplane is placed in a sideslip, the lateral and directional response will be
coupled, i.e. sideslip will simultaneously produce a rolling and a yawing moment.

The principal effects which determine the lateral dynamic characteristics of an aeroplane are:

• Rolling moment due to sideslip, or “dihedral effect” (static lateral stability).

• Yawing moment due to sideslip, or static directional stability.

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Spiral Divergence
When a small sideslip is introduced, the strong directional stability tends to restore the nose
into the wind while the relatively weak “dihedral effect” lags in restoring the aeroplane
laterally. The rate of divergence in the spiral motion is usually so gradual that the pilot can
control the tendency without difficulty.

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Spiral Divergence
Spiral divergence will exist when static directional stability is very large when compared to the
“dihedral effect”. The character of spiral divergence is not violent. The aeroplane, when
disturbed from the equilibrium of level flight, begins a slow spiral which gradually increases to a
spiral dive.

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Dutch Roll
Dutch roll will occur when the “dihedral effect” is large when compared to static directional
stability. Dutch roll is a coupled lateral and directional oscillation which is objectionable
because of the oscillatory nature.

When a yaw is introduced, the strong “dihedral effect” will roll the aircraft due to the lift
increase on the wing into wind. The increased induced drag on the rising wing will yaw the
aircraft in the opposite direction, reversing the coupled oscillations.

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Dutch Roll
Aircraft with a tendency to Dutch roll are fitted with a Yaw Damper. This automatically displaces
the rudder proportional to the rate of yaw to damp-out the oscillations.

If the Yaw Damper fails in flight, it is recommended that the ailerons be used by the pilot to
damp-out Dutch roll. Because of the response lag, if the pilot uses the rudder, pilot induced
oscillation (PIO) will result and the Dutch roll may very quickly become divergent, leading to loss
of control.

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Effect of Altitude on Dynamic Stability

Aerodynamic damping is due to moments created by pitching, rolling, or yawing of the aircraft.
These moments are derived from the changes in angles of attack of the tail, wing and fin
surfaces with angular rotation.

Higher TAS common to high altitude flight reduces the angle of attack changes and reduces
aerodynamic damping.

In fact, aerodynamic damping is proportional to the square root of the relative density, similar
to the proportion of True Airspeed to Equivalent Airspeed.

Thus, at an ISA altitude of 40 000 ft, aerodynamic damping would be reduced to one-half the
ISA sea level value.

At high altitudes, all types of dynamic stability are reduced.

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Dynamic Lateral/Directional Stability

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Coffee Break

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Basics, the three planes and three axis

Pitch Angle: The angle between the aircraft

longitudinal axis and the horizon.

Roll Angle: The angle between the aircraft

lateral axis and the horizon.

Yaw Angle: The angle between the aircraft

longitudinal axis and the relative airflow.

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Basics, the three planes and three axis

All aircraft are fitted with a control system to enable the pilot to manoeuvre and trim the
aircraft about each of its three axes.

The aerodynamic moments required to rotate the aircraft about the axes are usually supplied by
means of ‘flap’ type control surfaces positioned at the extremities of the aircraft so that they
have the longest possible moment arm about the CG.

There are usually three separate control systems and three sets of control surfaces:

• Rudder for control in yaw about the normal axis (directional control).

• Elevator for control in pitch about the lateral axis (longitudinal control).

• Ailerons for control in roll about the longitudinal axis (lateral control). Spoilers may also be
used to assist or replace the ailerons for roll control.

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Basics, the three planes and three axis

The effect of two of these controls may be combined in a single set of control surfaces:

• Elevons: Combine the effects of elevator and aileron.

• Ruddervator: (‘V’ or butterfly tail) Combines the effects of rudder and elevator.

• Tailerons: Slab horizontal tail surfaces that move either together, as pitch control, or
independently for control in roll.

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Basics, the three planes and three axis

The moment around an axis is produced by changing the aerodynamic force on the aerofoil.

The magnitude of the force is a product of the dynamic pressure and the angular displacement
of the control surface.

Aerodynamic force can be changed by:

• Adjusting the camber of the aerofoil;

• Changing the incidence of the aerofoil (changing AoA);

• Decreasing lift and increasing drag by “spoiling” the airflow.

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Camber Change
Changing the camber of any aerofoil (wing, tailplane or fin) will change its lift. Deflecting a
control surface effectively changes its camber.

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Angle of Attack (incidence) Change

Changing the incidence of an aerofoil will change its lift, by changing the AoA and consequently
the CL. The usual application of this system is for pitch control - the all moving (slab) tailplane.

There is no elevator; when the pilot makes a pitch input, the incidence of the whole tailplane
changes.

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“Spoiling” the Airflow

Spoilers are a device for reducing the lift of an aerofoil by disturbing the airflow over the upper
surface. They assist lateral control by moving up on the side with the up-going aileron.

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Questions

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Revisions (1)
When an aeroplane is placed in a sideslip, the lateral and directional response will be ________,
coupled i.e.
sideslip will simultaneously produce a _______ yawing moment.
rolling and a ______

large when compared to the

Spiral divergence will exist when static directional stability is very _____
“dihedral effect”.

gradual that the pilot can control the

The rate of divergence in the spiral motion is usually so ________
tendency without _________.
difficulty

large when compared to static directional stability.

Dutch roll will occur when the “dihedral effect” is ______

Aircraft which Dutch roll are fitted with a _____

Yaw Damper. This automatically displaces the rudder
proportional to the _____
rate of yaw to damp-out the oscillations.

If the Yaw Damper fails in flight, it is recommended that the ________

ailerons be used by the pilot to damp-out
Dutch roll.

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Revisions (2)
If the pilot uses the ________,
rudder pilot induced oscillation (PIO) will result and the Dutch roll may very
quickly become _________,
divergent leading to loss of _______.
control

spiral tendency may

When the swept wing aeroplane is at low CL the “dihedral effect” is small and the ______
be apparent. When the swept wing aeroplane is at high CL the “dihedral effect” is increased and the
______
Dutch _____
Roll oscillatory tendency is increased.

When pilot induced oscillation is encountered, the most effective solution is an immediate _______
release of
the controls. Any attempt to forcibly damp the oscillation simply _________
continues the excitation and
_________
amplifies the oscillation.

Higher TAS common to high altitude flight _______ Angle of ______

reduces the _____ Attack changes and reduces
damping
aerodynamic ________.

rolling
Dutch roll,” difficult rudder coordination in ________
Excessive “dihedral effect” can lead to “______
lateral control power during crosswind take-off and
manoeuvres, or place extreme demands for _______
landing.

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Sample Questions (1)

• Which of the following statements about static lateral and directional stability is
correct?

a) An aeroplane with an excessive static directional stability in relation to its static

lateral stability, will be prone to spiral dive. (spiral instability);

b) The effects of static lateral and static directional stability are completely
independent of each other because they take place about different axis;

c) An aeroplane with an excessive static directional stability in relation to its static

lateral stability, will be prone to "Dutch roll";

a) Static directional stability can be increased by installing more powerful engines.

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Sample Questions (2)

• Sensitivity for spiral dive will occur when:

a) The dutch roll tendency is too strongly suppressed by the yaw damper;

b) The static directional stability is negative, and the static lateral stability is
positive;

c) The static lateral and directional stability are both negative;

d) The static directional stability is positive, and the static lateral stability is
relatively weak.
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Sample Questions (3)

• The tendency of an aircraft to suffer from Dutch roll instability can be reduced:

a) By sweeping the wings;

b) By giving the wings anhedral;

c) By reducing the size of the fin;

d) By longitudinal dihedral.

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Sample Questions (4)

• To correct Dutch roll on an aircraft with no automatic protection system?

a) Use roll inputs;

b) Use yaw inputs;

c) Move the CG;

d) Reduce Speed below MMO.

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Sample Questions (5)

• An elevon is:

a) An all moving tailplane that has no elevator;

b) The correct name for a V - tail;

c) A surface that extends into the airflow from the upper surface of the wing to
reduce the lift;

d) A combined aileron and elevator fitted to an aircraft that does not have
conventional horizontal stabilizer (tailplane).
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Sample Questions (6)

• The control surface which gives longitudinal control is:

a) The rudder;

b) The ailerons;

c) The elevators;

d) The flaps.

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Sample Questions (7)

• Ailerons give:

a) Lateral control about the lateral axis;

b) Longitudinal control about the lateral axis;

c) Lateral control about the longitudinal axis;

d) Directional control about the normal axis.

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Sample Questions (8)

• Spoilers, when used for roll control, will:

a) Reinforce the boundary layer;

b) Create turbulence at the wing root;

c) Increase the camber at the wing root;

d) Decrease lift on the upper wing surface when deployed asymmetrically.

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See you next Class!

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