Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 1: Reproduction in Organisms

CHAPTER 1. REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS

NOTES
➢ Reproduction is a process in which an organism produces young ones (offspring) similar to itself.
➢ The period from birth to the natural death of an organism is known as its lifespan.
➢ No individual is immortal, except unicellular organisms. There is no natural death in unicellular
organisms.
➢ Based on the number of participants, reproduction is 2 types: Asexual reproduction & Sexual
reproduction.
Life spans Organism Lifespan Organism Lifespan Organism Lifespan
of some
organisms Rose 5-7 years Butterfly 1-2 weeks Tortoise 100-150
yrs

Rice plant 3-7 Fruit fly 2 weeks Crow 15 yrs

months

Banyan 400+ yrs Parrot 140 yrs Cow 22 yrs

tree

Banana 2-3 yrs Crocodile 60 yrs Elephant 50-70 yrs

tree

Dog 22 yrs Horse 40-50 yrs

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
➢ It is the production of offspring by a single parent.
➢ It is seen in unicellular organisms, simple plants & animals.
➢ The offspring are identical to one another and to their parent. Such morphologically and genetically
similar individuals are known as clone.
Types of asexual reproduction
a. Fission: In this, the parent cell divides (cell division) into two or more individuals. E.g. Protists and
Monerans. Fission is 2 types:
➢ Binary fission: It is the division of parent cell into two individuals. E.g., Amoeba, Paramecium.
➢ Multiple fission: It is the division of parent cell into many individuals. E.g. Plasmodium, Amoeba.

Under unfavourable condition, Amoeba withdraws its pseudopodia and secretes a 3-layered hard covering
(cyst) around itself. It is called encystation. Under favourable conditions, encysted Amoeba undergoes
multiple fission to give many minute amoeba or pseudopodiospores. The cyst wall bursts out and spores are
liberated to grow up into many amoebae. This is called sporulation.
b. Budding: In this, a bud appears and grows in the parent body. After maturation, it is detached from parent
body to form new individual. E.g. Hydra, Sponge, Yeast etc.

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 Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 1: Reproduction in Organisms

c. Fragmentation: In this, the body breaks into distinct pieces (fragments) and each fragment grows into an
adult capable of producing offspring. E.g. Hydra.
d. Vegetative propagation: It is the production of offspring from vegetative propagules in plants.
Vegetative propagules are units of vegetative propagation.
Examples for vegetative propagules:
➢ Buds (‘eyes’) of the potato tuber.
➢ Rhizomes of banana & ginger.
Buds & Rhizomes arise from the nodes of modified stems. The nodes come in contact with damp soil or
water and produce roots and new plants.
➢ Adventitious buds of Bryophyllum. They arise from the notches at margins of leaves.
➢ Bulbil of Agave.
➢ Offset of water hyacinth.
➢ Runner, sucker, tuber, bulb etc.

Other asexual reproductive structures: E.g. zoospores (microscopic motile structures in some algae and
protists), conidia (Penicillium) and gemmules (sponge).

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

 Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 1: Reproduction in Organisms

Asexual reproduction is the common method in simple organisms like algae and fungi. During adverse
conditions, they can shift to sexual method.
Higher plants reproduce asexually (vegetative) & sexually. But most of the animals show only sexual
reproduction.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
➢ It is the reproduction that involves formation of male and female gametes, either by the same individual
or by different individuals of the opposite sex.
➢ It results in offspring that are not identical to the parents or amongst themselves.
➢ It is an elaborate, complex and slow process as compared to asexual reproduction.
➢ The period of growth to reach in maturity for sexual reproduction is called the juvenile phase. In
plants, it is known as vegetative phase.
➢ In higher plants, the flowering indicates the end of vegetative phase (beginning of reproductive
phase).
➢ Annual & biennial plants show clear cut vegetative, reproductive & senescent
phases. In perennial plants, these phases are very difficult to identify.
➢ Some plants exhibit unusual flowering. E.g.
➢ Bamboo species flower only once in their lifetime (after 50-100 years), produce large number of fruits
and die.
➢ Strobilanthus kunthiana (Neela Kuranji) flowers once in 12 years.
➢ In animals, juvenile phase is followed by morphological & physiological changes prior to reproductive
behaviour.
➢ Birds living in nature lay eggs only seasonally. However, birds in captivity (e.g. poultry) can be made
to lay eggs throughout the year.
➢ The females of placental mammals exhibit cyclical changes in the ovaries, accessory ducts and
hormones during the reproductive phase. It is called oestrus cycle in non-primates (cows, sheep, rat,
deer, dog, tiger etc.) and menstrual cycle in primates (monkeys, apes & humans).
➢ Based on breeding season, mammals are 2 types:
a. Seasonal breeders: The mammals (living in natural conditions) exhibiting reproductive cycles only during
favourable seasons.
b. Continuous breeders: They are reproductively active throughout their reproductive phase.
Senescence (old age):
➢ It is the last phase of lifespan and end of reproductive phase.
➢ During this, concomitant changes occur in the body. E.g. slowing of metabolism etc. It ultimately leads
to death.
➢ In plants & animals, hormones cause transition between juvenile, reproductive & senescence
phases. Interaction between hormones and environmental factors regulate the reproductive processes
and the associated behavioural expressions of organisms.
EVENTS IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
3 stages: Pre-fertilisation, Fertilisation & Post-fertilisation events.
1. Pre-fertilisation Events
These are the events prior to the fusion of gametes.
They include gametogenesis and gamete transfer.
a. Gametogenesis
It is the formation of male and female gametes.
Gametes (haploid cells) are 2 types:

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

 Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 1: Reproduction in Organisms

a. Homogametes (isogametes): Similar gametes. They cannot categorize into male & female gametes. E.g.
Some algae like Cladophora.
b. Heterogametes: The male and female gametes are distinct types. Male gamete is called antherozoid
(sperm) and female gamete is called egg (ovum). E.g. Fucus (an alga), Human beings etc.

Sexuality (bisexual or unisexual) in organisms:

a. Bisexual: Male & female reproductive structures present in the same individual.
Bisexual plants: E.g. Hibiscus, Pisum.
In flowering plants, male flower is staminate (bears stamens) and female flower is pistillate (bears pistils).
If male & female flowers are present on same plant, it is called monoecious. E.g. Cucurbits, coconuts, Chara.

Bisexual animals (hermaphrodites): E.g. Earthworms, leech, sponge, tapeworm, etc.

b. Unisexual: Male and female reproductive structures are present on different individuals.
If male & female flowers are present on different plants, it is called dioecious. E.g. papaya, date
palm, Marchantia.
Unisexual animals: E.g. Cockroach, higher animals etc.
Fungi may be homothallic (bisexual) or heterothallic (unisexual).
Cell division during gamete formation:
➢ Many monerans, fungi, algae & bryophytes have haploid parental body. They produce haploid gametes
by mitosis.
➢ Pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms & animals have diploid parental body. They produce haploid
gametes by meiosis of meiocytes (gamete mother cell).

Name of Chromosome number

organism
In meiocytes In gametes (n)
(2n)

Human being 46 23

Housefly 12 6

Rat 42 21

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

 Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 1: Reproduction in Organisms

Dog 78 39

Cat 38 19

Fruit fly 8 4

Ophioglossum 1260 630

Apple 34 17

Rice 24 12

Maize 20 10

Potato 48 24

Butterfly 380 190

Onion 16 8
b. Gamete Transfer
➢ Male gametes need a medium to move towards female gametes for fertilisation.
➢ In most organisms, male gamete is motile and the female gamete is stationary. In some fungi and algae,
both types of gametes are motile.
➢ In simple plants (algae, bryophytes & pteridophytes), gamete transfer takes place through water medium.
To compensate the loss of male gametes during transport, large number of male gametes is produced.

➢ In seed plants, pollen grains (in anthers) carry male gametes and ovule carries the egg. Pollen grains
are transferred to the stigma.
➢ In bisexual self-fertilizing plants (e.g. peas), anthers & stigma are closely located for easy transfer of
pollen grains.
➢ In cross pollinating plants (including dioecious plants), pollination helps in transfer of pollen grains.
Pollen grains germinate on the stigma and the pollen tubes carrying the male gametes reach the ovule
and discharge male gametes near the egg.
➢ In dioecious animals, the fertilisation helps for successful transfer and coming together of gametes.
2. Fertilization (syngamy)
➢ It is the fusion of gametes to form a diploid zygote.
➢ In rotifers, honeybees, some lizards, birds (turkey) etc., female gamete develops to new
organisms without fertilisation. This is called parthenogenesis.
Types of fertilization:
a. External fertilisation: Syngamy occurs in the external medium (water), i.e. zygote is formed outside the body.
E.g. most aquatic organisms (many algae, bony fishes etc.) and amphibians.
Such organisms show synchrony between the sexes and release large number of gametes into the surrounding
medium to ensure syngamy.
Disadvantage: The offspring are extremely vulnerable to predators threatening their survival up to adulthood.
b. Internal fertilisation: Syngamy occurs inside the body of the organism. E.g. terrestrial organisms, belonging
to fungi, animals (reptiles, birds, mammals) & plants (bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms &
angiosperms).
Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone
 Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 1: Reproduction in Organisms

In this, non-motile egg is formed inside the female body to where motile male gamete reaches and fuses.
In seed plants, the non-motile male gametes are carried to female gamete by pollen tubes.
There is large number of sperms produced but the number of eggs is very low.
3. Post-fertilisation Events
These are the events after the formation of zygote.
Zygote
➢ Development of the zygote depends on the type of life cycle of the organism and the nature of
environment.
➢ In fungi and algae, zygote develops a thick wall that is resistant to desiccation and damage. It undergoes
a period of rest before germination.
➢ In organisms with haplontic life cycle, zygote divides by meiosis into haploid spores that grow into
haploid individuals.
➢ Sexually reproducing organisms begin life as a zygote.
➢ Zygote is the vital link between organisms of one generation and the next.
Embryogenesis
➢ It is the development of embryo from the zygote.
➢ During embryogenesis, zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation.
➢ Cell divisions increase the number of cells in the embryo. Cell differentiation causes the modifications
of groups of cells into various tissues and organs to form an organism.
➢ Based on place of zygote development, animals are 2 types:
a. Oviparous: Here, animals lay fertilized/unfertilized eggs.
E.g. Reptiles & birds lay fertilized eggs covered by a hard calcareous shell. After incubation, young ones
hatch out.
b. Viviparous: Here, zygote develops into a young one inside the female body. Later, the young ones are
delivered out of the body. E.g. most of mammals.
It shows proper care and protection. So the chances of survival of young ones are greater.

NCERT SOLUTIONS
Question 1: Why is reproduction essential for organisms?
ANSWER: Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all living organisms. It is a biological process through
which living organisms produce offspring’s similar to them. Reproduction ensures the continuance of various
species on the Earth. In the absence of reproduction, the species will not be able to exist for a long time and
may soon get extinct.
Question 2: Which is a better mode of reproduction sexual or asexual? Why?
ANSWER: Sexual reproduction is a better mode of reproduction. It allows the formation of new variants by
the combination of the DNA from two different individuals, typically one of each sex. It involves the fusion
of the male and the female gamete to produce variants, which are not identical to their parents and to
themselves. This variation allows the individual to adapt to constantly changing and challenging environments.
Also, it leads to the evolution of better suited organisms which ensures greater survival of a species. On the
contrary, asexual reproduction allows very little or no variation at all. As a result, the individuals produced are
exact copies of their parents and themselves.

Question 3: Why is the offspring formed by asexual reproduction referred to as clone?

ANSWER: A clone is a group of morphologically and genetically identical individuals.
In the process of asexual reproduction, only one parent is involved and there is no fusion of the male and the
female gamete. As a result, the offsprings so produced are morphologically and genetically similar to their
parents and are thus, called clones.

Question 4: Offspring formed due to sexual reproduction have better chances of survival. Why? Is this
statement always true?
ANSWER: Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of the male and the female gamete. This fusion allows
the formation of new variants by the combination of the DNA from two (usually) different members of the
species. The variations allow the individuals to adapt under varied environmental conditions for better chances
of survival.
However, it is not always necessary that the offspring produced due to sexual reproduction has better chances
of survival. Under some circumstances, asexual reproduction is more advantageous for certain organisms. For
Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone
Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 1: Reproduction in Organisms

example, some individuals who do not move from one place to another and are well settled in their
environment. Also, asexual reproduction is a fast and a quick mode of reproduction which does not consume
much time and energy as compared to sexual reproduction.

Question 5: How does the progeny formed from asexual reproduction differ from those formed by
sexual reproduction?
ANSWER:
Progeny formed from asexual reproduction Progeny formed from sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction does not involve the fusion Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of the
of the male and the female gamete. Organisms male and the female gamete of two individuals,
1. undergoing this kind of reproduction produce typically one of each sex. Organisms undergoing
offspring’s that are morphologically and this kind of reproduction produce offspring’s
genetically identical to them. that are not identical to them.
Offsprings thus produced do not show variations Offspring’s thus produced show variations from
2.
and are called clones. each other and their parents.

Question 6: Distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction. Why is vegetative reproduction also
considered as a type of asexual reproduction?
ANSWER:
Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction
It involves the fusion of the male and female It does not involves the fusion of the male and
1
gamete. the female gamete
2. It requires two (usually) different individuals. It requires only one individual.
The individuals produced are not identical to their
The individuals produced are identical to the
3. parents and show variations from each other and
parent and are hence, called clones.
also, from their parents.
Asexual modes of reproduction are common in
Most animals reproduce sexually. Both sexual and
4. organisms having simple organizations such as
asexual modes of reproduction are found in plants.
algae and fungi.
5. It is a slow process. It is a fast process.
Vegetative propagation is a process in which new plants are obtained without the production of seeds or spores.
It involves the propagation of plants through certain vegetative parts such as the rhizome, sucker, tuber, bulb,
etc. It does not involve the fusion of the male and the female gamete and requires only one parent. Hence,
vegetative reproduction is considered as a type of asexual reproduction.

Question 7: What is vegetative propagation? Give two suitable examples.

ANSWER: Vegetative propagation is a mode of asexual reproduction in which new plants are obtained from
the vegetative parts of plants. It does not involve the production of seeds or spores for the propagation of new
plants. Vegetative parts of plants such as runners, rhizomes, suckers, tubers, etc. can be used as propagules for
raising new plants.
Examples of vegetative reproduction are:
5. Eyes of potato:
The surface of a potato has several buds called eyes. Each of these buds when buried in soil develops into a
new plant, which is identical to the parent plant.

2. Leaf buds of Bryophyllum:

The leaves of Bryophyllum plants bear several adventitious buds on their margins. These leaf buds have the
ability to grow and develop into tiny plants when the leaves get detached from the plant and come in contact
Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone
Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 1: Reproduction in Organisms

with moist soil.

Question 8: Define
(a) Juvenile phase,
(b) Reproductive phase,
€ Senescent phase.
ANSWER: (a) Juvenile phase:
It is the period of growth in an individual organism after its birth and before it reaches reproductive maturity.
(b) Reproductive phase:
It is the period when an individual organism reproduces sexually.
€ Senescent phase:
It is the period when an organism grows old and loses the ability to reproduce.

Question 9: Higher organisms have resorted to sexual reproduction in spite of its complexity. Why?
ANSWER: Although sexual reproduction involves more time and energy, higher organisms have resorted to
sexual reproduction in spite of its complexity. This is because this mode of reproduction helps introduce new
variations in progenies through the combination of the DNA from two (usually) different individuals. These
variations allow the individual to cope with various environmental conditions and thus, make the organism
better suited for the environment. Variations also lead to the evolution of better organisms and therefore,
provide better chances of survival. On the other hand, asexual reproduction does not provide genetic
differences in the individuals produced.

Question 10: Explain why meiosis and gametogenesis are always interlinked?
ANSWER: Meiosis is a process of reductional division in which the amount of genetic material is reduced.
Gametogenesis is the process of the formation of gametes. Gametes produced by organisms are haploids
(containing only one set of chromosomes), while the body of an organism is diploid. Therefore, for producing
haploid gametes (gametogenesis), the germ cells of an organism undergo meiosis. During the process, the
meiocytes of an organism undergo two successive nuclear and cell divisions with a single cycle of DNA
replication to form the haploid gametes.

Question 11: Identify each part in a flowering plant and write whether it is haploid (n) or diploid (2n).
(a) Ovary ———————————
(b) Anther ———————————
€ Egg ———————————
(d) Pollen ———————————
€ Male gamete ———————————
(f ) Zygote ———————————
ANSWER:
(a) Ovary Diploid (2n)
(b) Anther Diploid (2n)
€ Egg Haploid (n)
(d) Pollen Haploid (n)
€ Male gamete Haploid (n)
(f ) Zygote Diploid (2n)

Question 12: Define external fertilization. Mention its disadvantages.

ANSWER: External fertilization is the process in which the fusion of the male and the female gamete takes
place outside the female body in an external medium, generally water. Fish, frog, starfish are some organisms
that exhibit external fertilization.
Disadvantages of external fertilization:
In external fertilization, eggs have less chances of fertilization. This can lead to the wastage of a large number
of eggs produced during the process.
Further, there is an absence of proper parental care to the offspring, which results in a low rate of survival in
the progenies.

Question 13: Differentiate between a zoospore and a zygote.

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone
Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 1: Reproduction in Organisms

ANSWER:
Zoospore Zygote
A zoospore is a motile asexual spore that utilizes A zygote is a non-motile diploid cell formed as
1.
the flagella for movement. a result of fertilization.
2. It is an asexual reproductive structure. It is formed as a result of sexual reproduction.

Question 14: Differentiate between gametogenesis from embryogenesis.

ANSWER:
Gametogenesis Embryogenesis
It is the process of the formation of haploid male and It is the process of the development of the
female gametes from diploid meiocytes through the embryo from the repeated mitotic divisions of
process of meiosis. the diploid zygote.

Question 15: Describe the post-fertilization changes in a flower.

ANSWER: Fertilization is the process of the fusion of the male and the female gamete to form a diploid
zygote. After fertilization, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo. The fertilized ovule forms a
seed. The seed contains an embryo, enclosed in a protective covering, called the seed coat. As the seed grows
further, other floral parts wither and fall off. This leads to the growth of the ovary, which enlarges and ripens
to become a fruit with a thick wall called the pericarp.

Question 16: What is a bisexual flower? Collect five bisexual flowers from your neighborhood and with
the help of your teacher find out their common and scientific names.
ANSWER: A flower that contains both the male and female reproductive structure (stamen and pistil) is called
a bisexual flower. Examples of plants bearing bisexual flowers are:
(1) Water lily ( Nymphaea odorata)
(2) Rose (Rosa multiflora )
(3) Hibiscus (Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis )
(4) Mustard ( Brassica nigra)
(5) Petunia (Petunia hybrida)

Question 17: Examine a few flowers of any cucurbit plant and try to identify the staminate and pistillate
flowers. Do you know any other plant that bears unisexual flowers?
ANSWER:

Cucurbit plant bears unisexual flowers as these flowers have either the stamen or the pistil. The staminate
flowers bear bright, yellow coloured petals along with stamens that represent the male reproductive structure.
On the other hand, the pistillate flowers bear only the pistil that represents the female reproductive structure.
Other examples of plants that bear unisexual flowers are corn, papaya, cucumber, etc.

Question 18: Why are offspring of oviparous animals at a greater risk as compared to offspring of
viviparous animals?
ANSWER: Oviparous animals lay eggs outside their body. As a result, the eggs of these animals are under
continuous threat from various environmental factors. On the other hand, in viviparous animals, the
development of the egg takes place inside the body of the female. Hence, the offspring of an egg-laying or
oviparous animal is at greater risk as compared to the offspring of a viviparous animal, which gives birth to
its young ones.

_______________________

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone