ME165-3

Solar and Wind Utilization

Prepared By:
Lecture 2.1 Solar Radiation Engr. Estelito V. Mamuyac
12/01/2022
2022-2023 / 2T
 The Sun

• The sun, our singular source of renewable

energy, sits at the center of the solar
system and emits energy as
electromagnetic radiation at an extremely
large and relatively constant rate, 24 hours
per day, 365 days of the year.
• The rate at which this energy is emitted is
equivalent to the energy coming from a
furnace at a temperature of about 6,000 oK
(10,340ºF).
• If we could harvest the energy coming from
just 10 hectares (25 acres) of the surface of
A Photograph of the Sun the sun, we would have enough to supply
the current energy demand of the world.
 The Sun
• Three important reasons why we cannot rely on the sun
to supply the current energy demand of the world
• First, the earth is displaced from the sun, and since the
sun’s energy spreads out like light from a candle, only a
small fraction of the energy leaving an area of the sun
reaches an equal area on the earth.
• Second, the earth rotates about its polar axis, so that
any collection device located on the earth’s surface can
receive the sun’s radiant energy for only about one-half
of each day.
 The Sun
• The third and least predictable factor is the
condition of the thin shell of atmosphere that
surrounds the earth’s surface.
• At best the earth’s atmosphere accounts for another
30 percent reduction in the sun’s energy.
• As is widely known, however, the weather conditions
can stop all but a minimal amount of solar radiation
from reaching the earth’s surface for many days in a
row.
 The Sun
Some basic technical facts about the sun
• Mean distance from the earth: 149 600 000 km (the astronomic unit)
• Diameter: 1 392 000 km (109 × that of the earth)
• Volume: 1,300,000 times that of the earth
• Mass: 1,993 × 1027 kg (332 000 times that of the earth)
• Density (at its center): >100 × 103 kg/m3 (over 100X that of water)
• Pressure (at its center): over 1 billion atmospheres
• Temperature (at its center): about 15 000 000 degrees Kelvin
• Temperature (at the surface): 6 000 degrees Kelvin
• Energy radiation: 380 × 1021 kW
• The Earth receives: 170 × 1012 kW
 Solar Radiation

• Solar Radiation
• Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun, particularly
electromagnetic energy.
• Radiant energy is the energy of electromagnetic waves.
• Solar radiation is a term used to describe visible and near-visible (ultraviolet
and near-infrared) radiation emitted from the sun.
 Solar Radiation

• Extraterrestial Radiation
• Solar radiation incident outside the earth's atmosphere is
called extraterrestrial radiation. On average the
extraterrestrial irradiance is 1367 Watts/meter2 (W/m2).
• This value varies by ±3% as the earth orbits the sun. The
earth's closest approach to the sun occurs around January
4th and it is furthest from the sun around July 5th. The
extraterrestrial radiation is:
 Solar Radiation
• Extraterrestial Radiation
 Solar Radiation
• Terrestrial Solar Radiation
• Terrestrial radiation is a term used to describe
infrared radiation emitted from the atmosphere.
 Solar Radiation
• Solar Constant
• The solar constant, a measure of flux density, is the amount of
incoming solar electromagnetic radiation per unit area that
would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays, at a
distance of 1 astronomical unit (AU) (roughly the mean
distance from the Sun to the Earth).
• Solar constant = 1,361 W/m2 (roughly at solar minimum)
• Solar constant = 1,362 W/m2 (roughly at solar maximum)
 Solar Radiation

• Solar Constant
 Solar Positions
• Polar Axis
• The fixed reference axis from
which the polar angle is
measured in a polar
coordinate system.
 Solar Positions
• Ecliptic
• It is the apparent path of the Sun on
the celestial sphere as seen from the
Earth's center, and also the plane of
this path, which is coplanar with the
orbit of the Earth around the Sun.
• The path of the Sun is not normally
noticeable from the Earth's surface
because the Earth rotates, carrying
the observer through the cycle of
sunrise and sunset, obscuring the
small motion of the Sun against the
background stars.
 Solar Positions
• Solar Declination Angle
• The declination angle of the sun is the angle
between the equator and a line drawn from the
centre of the Earth to the centre of the sun.
• The declination angle, denoted by d, varies
seasonally due to the tilt of the Earth on its axis of
rotation and the rotation of the Earth around the
sun.
 Solar Declination Angle

• If the Earth were not tilted on its

axis of rotation, the declination
would always be 0°. However,
the Earth is tilted by 23.45° and
the declination angle varies
plus or minus this amount. Only
at the spring and fall equinoxes
is the declination angle equal to
0°.
 Solar Declination Angle
The declination angle can be calculated by the equation:
d = 23.45o sin [(360/365)(d – 81)]

Where d is the day of the year with Jan 1 as d = 1. (N is also used for the day of the year).
A more accurate expression is:
d = sin-1 {sin(23.45o) sin [(360/365)(d – 81)]}
The declination is zero at the equinoxes (March 21 and September 22), positive during
the northern hemisphere summer, and negative during the northern hemisphere
winter.
The declination reaches a maximum of 23.45° on June 21 (summer solstice in the
northern hemisphere) and a minimum of -23.45° on December 22 (winter solstice in
the northern hemisphere).
 Solar Declination Angle

Declination angle can also be given in radians by the Spencer formula:

d = 0.006918 – 0.399912 cos(G) + 0.070257 sin(G)

- 0.006758 cos(2G) + 0.000907 sin(2G)
- 0.002697 cos(3G) + 0.00148 sin(3G)

Where G is called the day angle, given (in radians) by

G = 2p(d-1)/365
 Solar Declination Angle
Example Problem No. 2.1
• Find the declination angle on October 2, 2013.
• Solution:
Use the following equation
d = 23.45o sin [(360/365)(d – 81)]
d = (no. days Jan) + (no. days Feb) + (no. days Mar)
+ (no. days Apr) +…..+ (no. days Oct)
= 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31 + 30 + 2 = 275 days
d = 23.45o sin [(360/365)(275 – 81)] =
 Solar Positions
• Latitude Angle
• Latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies
the north-south position of a point on the Earth's
surface.
▪ Lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run
east–west as circles parallel to the equator.
• Latitude is an angle which ranges from 0° at the
Equator to 90° (North or South) at the poles.
Latitude angles are measured
• The latitude angle is usually denoted by the Greek in a north-south direction.

lower-case letter phi (φ or ɸ). It is measured in

degrees, minutes and seconds or decimal degrees,
north or south of the equator.
 Solar Positions
• Hour Angle
• The hour angle is one of the coordinates used
in the equatorial coordinate system to give the
direction of a point on the celestial sphere.
• The hour angle of a point is the angle between
two planes: one containing the Earth's axis
and the zenith (the meridian plane), and the
other containing the Earth's axis and the given
point (the hour circle passing through the
point).
LHA - Local Hour Angle
LMST - Local Mean Sidereal Timw
GHA - Greenwich Hour Angle
GMST - Greenwich Mean Sidereal
Time
Hour Angle
 Hour Angle

• The Hour Angle converts the local solar time (LST) into the number
of degrees which the sun moves across the sky.
• By definition, the Hour Angle is 0° at solar noon. Since the Earth
rotates 15° per hour, each hour away from solar noon corresponds
to an angular motion of the sun in the sky of 15°. In the morning the
hour angle is negative, in the afternoon the hour angle is positive.
Hour Angle, h
h = 15O (LST – 12)
where LST is the local standard time.
 Hour Angle
Example Problem No. 2.2
• Find the hour angle on March 15, 10:00am in a city
located at 60˚N Latitude with Local Longitude of 38˚
and LST Meridian of 30˚.

• Solution:
Use the following equation
h = 15O (LST – 12)
where LST is the local standard time
h = 15O (10 – 12) = 15o (-2) = -30o
 Equation of Time
Due to factors associated with the earth’s orbit around the sun, the earth’s
orbital velocity varies throughout the year, so the apparent solar time varies
slightly from the mean time kept by a clock running at a uniform rate.
The variation is called the Equation of Time (ET). The equation of time
arises because the length of a day, that is, the time required by the earth to
complete one revolution about its own axis with respect to the sun, is not
uniform throughout the year. Over the year, the average length of a day is 24
hours; however the length of a day varies due to the eccentricity of the
earths orbit and the tilt of the earth’s axis from the normal plane of its orbit.
 Equation of Time

Due to the ellipticity of the orbit, the earth is

closer to the sun on January 3 and farthest from
the sun on July 4.
Therefore the earth’s orbiting speed is faster
than its average speed for half the year (from
about October through March) and slower than
its average speed for the remaining half of the
year (from about April through September).
 Equation of Time
The value of the equation of time as a function of the day of
the year (N or d) can be obtained approximately from the
following equations:

ET = 9.87 sin(2B) – 7.53 cos(B) – 1.5 sin(B) [min]

where, B = (d – 81) (360/365)

 Equation of Time

Example Problem No. 2.3

• Find the equation of time on October 2, 2013.
• Solution:
Use the following equation
ET = 9.87 sin(2B) – 7.53 cos(B) – 1.5 sin(B) [min]
where, B = (d – 81) (360/365)
B = (275 – 81) (360/365) =

ET = 9.87 sin(2B) – 7.53 cos(B) – 1.5 sin(B)

ET =
 Longitudinal Correction
The standard clock time is reckoned from a selected meridian near the center
of a time zone or from the standard meridian, the Greenwich, which is at
longitude of 0o.
Since the sun takes 4 min to transverse 1o of longitude, a longitude correction
term of 4x (Standard longitude – Local longitude) should be either added or
subtracted to the standard clock time of the locality.
This correction is constant for a particular longitude and the following rule
must be followed with respect to sign convention. If the location is east of the
standard meridian, the correction is added to the clock time. If the location is
west, it is subtracted.
 Apparent Solar Time
Apparent Solar Time is the time that is given by the daily apparent motion
of the true, or observed, sun.
The general equation for calculating the apparent solar time (AST) is
AST = LST + ET + 4(SL - LL) - DS
where
LST = local standard time
ET = equation of time
SL = standard longitude
LL = local longitude
DS = daylight saving (it is either 0 or 60 min)
(Note: If a location is east of Greenwich, the sign of the above equation is minus(-), and if it is west, the sign is
plus (+).
 Apparent Solar Time
• Example Problem No. 2.3
• Find the equation of AST for the city of Nicosia, Cyprus.
• Solution
For the locality of Cyprus, the standard longitude (SL) is 30oE. The city of
Nicosia is at a local longitude (LL) of 33.33o east of Greenwich.
Therefore, the longitude correction is -4 x (30 – 33.33) = +13.32 min. Thus the
AST equation can be written as
AST = LST + ET + 13.32 [min]
 Mean Sun Time
• Time as calculated by the
motion of the mean sun.
• The time shown by an
ordinary clock corresponds
to mean solar time.
• A mean solar day is 24 hours.
• A sidereal day is the time it takes for
the Earth to rotate on its axis.
 Local Solar Time

• The time in any of 24 time zones, usually the mean solar time at the central
meridian of each zone.
• In the continental United States, there are four standard time zones:
• Eastern, using the 75th meridian;
• Central, using the 90th meridian;
• Mountain, using the 105th meridian; and
• Pacific, using the 120th meridian.
 Daylight Saving Time
• Daylight Saving Time (DST) is the practice of turning the clock ahead
as warmer weather approaches and back as it becomes colder again
so that people will have one more hour of daylight in the afternoon
and evening during the warmer season of the year.
• Daylight Saving Time varies somewhat from country to country.
Countries in equatorial and tropical climates do not observe Daylight
Saving Time.
• The months when the clock is set ahead and back differ between
northern and southern hemispheres.
Practice Problem Solving
 Solar Declination Angle

Sample Problem #1.

• Calculate the solar declination for the
spring and fall equinoxes and the
summer and winter solstices at 45oN
latitude and 35oE longitude.
 Solar Declination Angle

Sample Problem #1.

• Solution:
Equation for declination angle is
d = 23.45o sin [(360/365)(d – 81)]

o Spring equinox: March 21

o Fall equinox: September 22
o Summer solstice: June 21
o Winter solstice: December 22
 Equation of Time

Sample Problem #2.

• Find the equation of time for the spring
and fall equinoxes and the summer and
winter solstices at 45oN latitude and
35oE longitude.
 Equation of Time
Sample Problem #2.
• Solution:
Use the following equation
ET = 9.87 sin(2B) – 7.53 cos(B) – 1.5 sin(B) [min]
where, B = (d – 81) (360/365)
 Apparent Solar Time
Sample Problem #3.
• Find the apparent solar time on March 15,
10:00am in a city located at 60˚N Latitude with
Local Longitude of 38˚E and LST Meridian of 30˚E.
 Apparent Solar Time
Sample Problem #3.
• Solution:
Use the following equation
AST = LST + ET + 4(SL - LL)

where
LST = local standard time
ET = equation of time
SL = standard longitude (LST Meridian)
LL = local longitude
 BOARDWORK-1.1
Boardwork Problem #1.
• Given are the following data:
City Location: 30.30 degrees N Latitude; 65 o Boardwork Problem #2.
Local Longitude; 35o E LST Meridian; 38o Standard
Longitude (SL).  Calculate the solar declination for the
Date: December 11, 2012 spring and fall equinoxes and the
Local Solar Time: 6:00 AM summer and winter solstices.
Find the following:
a. Hour Angle (HRA)
b. Declination Angle (d)
c. Equation of Time (ET)
d. Apparent Solar Time (AST
 References & Material Sources
Textbook
• Energy Conversion by D. Yogi Goswami and Frank Kreith
• Solar Energy Engineering by S. A. Kalogirou

Websites
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power
• http://ocw.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/ocw/courses/SolarCells/res00026/CH2_Solar_radiation.pdf
• http://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/introduction
• http://www.astronomygcse.co.uk/AstroGCSE/Unit1/mean%20sun.htm
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_time
• http://www.greenrhinoenergy.com/solar/radiation/extraterrestrial.php