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Soybean as a Feed Ingredient for Livestock and Poultry

Chapter · October 2011

DOI: 10.5772/17601 · Source: InTech

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 10

Soybean as a Feed Ingredient

for Livestock and Poultry
H.K. Dei
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
University for Development Studies, Tamale,
Ghana

1. Introduction
The need to meet animal protein demand of ever growing world population, currently at
approximately 6.8 billion (US Census Bureau, 2010), is set to increase at an even greater rate
as the economies of developing countries improve and their growing affluent populace alter
their dietary habits. This means production of soybean, which is used extensively as animal
feed, must increase beyond current production level of about 246 million metric tonnes
(FAS/USDA, 2009).
Soybean (Glycine max, L) is not only a source of high quality edible oil for humans, but also a
high quality vegetable protein in animal feed worldwide. Its universal acceptability in
animal feed has been due to favourable attributes such as relatively high protein content
and suitable amino acid profile except methionine, minimal variation in nutrient content,
ready availability year-round, and relative freedom from intractable anti-nutritive factors if
properly processed. Also, attention has been focused on soybean utilisation as an alternate
protein source in animal diets due to the changing availability or allowed uses of animal
proteins coupled with relatively low cost.
Despite soybean’s pivotal role in animal production, it cannot be fed raw because there
are a number of anti-nutritive factors (ANFs) present that exert a negative impact on the
nutritional quality of the protein. The main ANFs are protease inhibitors (trypsin
inhibitors) and lectins (Liener, 1994), which fortunately can be destroyed by heat
treatment. The trypsin inhibitors cause pancreatic hypertrophy/hyperplasia with
consequent inhibition of growth, while lectins inhibit growth by interfering with nutrient
absorption (Liener, 1994). The elimination of these ANFs and those of less significance can
be achieved through various processing methods. These methods have different impact
on the nutritional quality of the products derived such as full-fat soybeans, soybean meal
and soybean protein concentrates. Of these, soybean meal has been the major ingredient
in both poultry and livestock diets.
This chapter discusses soybean production and consumption, primary soybean products
and their nutritional value for feeding animals, anti-nutritive factors present and ways of
eliminating them, and utilisation in animal feeds as well as future challenges of using
soybeans as a major source of animal feed.
216 Recent Trends for Enhancing the Diversity and Quality of Soybean Products

2. Soybean production and consumption

Soybean (Glycine max, L) is an annual crop that belongs to the Fabaceae or Leguminosae
family. It originated from East Asia, but now grown over a wide geographical area
worldwide with United States of America, Brazil and Argentina being the leading producers
(Table 1). It is used primarily for production of vegetable oil and oilseed meal for animal
feeding. The surge in the use of soybean meal in feeding animal as replacement protein
source for animal protein feeds has been the main driving force in soybean production.
Table 1 shows the major soybean producing countries and their relative supplies. Generally,
there has been an increase of supply with a slight depression in most producing countries
between 2006 and 2008 cropping seasons. The US and China tend to consume virtually what
they produce, while Argentina and Brazil are major exporters with exports largely to the EU
(Table 2).

Major producing 2009/10

2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09
countries October
United States 83,507 87,001 72,859 80,749 88,454
Brazil 57,000 59,000 61,000 57,000 62,000
Argentina 40,500 48,800 46,200 32,000 52,500
China 16,350 15,967 14,000 15,500 14,500
India 7,000 7,690 9,470 9,100 9,000
Paraguay 3,640 5,856 6,900 3,900 6,700
Canada 3,161 3,460 2,700 3,300 3,500
Other 9,512 9,337 8,004 9,090 9,413
World Total 220,670 237,111 221,133 210,639 246,067
Source: FAS/USDA (2009)
Table 1. World soybean supply (million tonnes) and distribution.

Countries 2009/10 2010/11

Production Consumption Production Consumption
China 37.42 35.82 41.71 40.36
US 37.31 27.22 35.41 27.58
Argentina 27.13 0.70 29.95 0.60
Brazil 24.41 12.80 25.42 13.38
EU 9.85 31.49 9.77 32.30
India 4.85 2.85 6.08 3.08
Others 20.58 49.60 21.30 51.20
World Total 161.63 159.77 169.64 167.89
Source: FAS/USDA (2009)
Table 2. World soybean meal production and consumption outlooks for 2010/11 in million
tonnes.

3. Primary soybean products for animal feeding

Figure 1 shows a schematic processing of soybeans into various high quality protein
products. The processes involved either reduce or eliminate the ANFs in the beans and
Soybean as a Feed Ingredient for Livestock and Poultry 217

improve the nutritional value substantially for all classes of animals. Several steps involved
in processing these products can have either positive or negative effect on the quality of the
protein depending on the conditions used in processing. The heat applied in processing is
identified as the single most important factor that affects soybean meal protein quality.
Proper processing conditions such as moisture content, heating time and temperature
inactivate ANFs such as trypsin inhibitors and lectins, which results in improved
performance when fed to monogastric animals (Araba, 1990). High processing temperatures
of oilseeds has deleterious effects on proteins and amino acids due to formation of Maillard
reaction products (Hurell, 1990) or denaturation (Parsons et al., 1992).

Fig. 1. Processing of soybeans into soybean products (USSEC, 2008).

218 Recent Trends for Enhancing the Diversity and Quality of Soybean Products

3.1 Full-fat soybeans

These are whole soybeans in which the oil is not extracted. These products are produced by
a variety of processes such as extruding (dry or wet), cooking/autoclaving,
roasting/toasting, micronizing and jet-sploding to inactivate the ANFs. All of these
processes have a different impact on the nutritive value of the products depending on heat
damage or degree of inactivation of ANFs. Normally, soybeans are processed into defatted
meals for feed formulation, particularly for poultry and pigs. However, the amount of full-
fat soybeans used has been increasing in the livestock industry due to development of new
varieties with limited number or levels of ANFs (Gu et al., 2010). Also, properly processed
full-fat soybeans are a valuable feed ingredient for animal feeding because of their high
energy content.

3.2 Soybean meal

Soybeans yield 18.6% of oil and 78.7% of soybean meal with the rest being waste (FEFAC,
2007). The oil can be extracted either mechanically or by solvent means. There are two main
types of soybean meal. The dehulled soybean meal and soybean meal, depending on
whether the testa (seed coat) is removed or not. Both products vary in their nutrient
composition, but are quite high in protein content with a good amino acid balance except
methionine, low in fibre, high in energy, and have little or no anti-nutritive factors when
properly processed.
The amino acid profile of soybean meal is close to that of fishmeal, except methionine
(INRA, 2004). This deficiency can easily be corrected in monogastric diets using synthetic
source of methionine. Also, soybean meal is superior to other vegetable protein sources in
terms of crude protein content and matches or exceeds them in both total and digestible
amino acid content (Table 3a). Soybean meal protein digestibility in poultry is
approximately 85% (Woodworth et al., 2001), ranging between 82% and 94% for individual
amino acid digestibility. Among the vegetable protein sources, soybean meal is used to meet
the animal’s requirement for limiting amino acids in cereal-based (e.g. maize) diets (Table
3b), because it is usually the most cost-effective source of amino acids (Kerley and Allee,
2003).
The carbohydrates in soybean meal are incompletely digested by colonic microbiota in
monogastrics (Kerley and Allee, 2003). Thus removal of raffinose and stachyose improved
metabolisable energy content by 12% (Graham et al., 2002).

3.3 Soybean protein concentrate (SPC)

SPC is produced from the defatted flakes by the removal of the soluble carbohydrates. This
can be achieved by two methods, either by ethanol extraction or enzymatic degradation
(Figure 1). SPC is valuable as milk replacer feed for calves and as piglet pre-starter feed. This
is because it contains only traces of the heat-stable oligosaccharides and the antigenic
substances (Table 5). In milk replacer feed, it has been largely substituted for dried skim
milk; whilst in pig starter feeds it can replace dried skim milk, whey powder and fishmeal.

3.4 Soybean oil

Soybean oil is produced primarily for human consumption. However, it has become a useful
source of feed-grade fat for animals due to a need to formulate high-energy diets for modern
breeds. Feed-grade soybean oil is popularly used in high energy diets, particularly for
Soybean as a Feed Ingredient for Livestock and Poultry 219

Palm
Soybean Canola Cottonseed Peanut Sunflower
kernel
Crude protein 43.0 36.2 39.6 13.2 45.2 32.8
Amino acid
Lysine 90.7 78.6 62.8 58.9 78.1 80.4
Methionine 90.6 88.6 71.9 83.7 85.6 91.2
Cystine 82.1 73.1 70.9 66.6 78.5 79.2
Threonine 84.1 77.6 67.2 69.2 83.8 83.7
Tryptophan 87.9 80.0 80.3 - 75.6 -
Arginine 91.1 90.6 85.3 88.6 89.6 93.1
Isoleucine 91.2 89.0 72.8 81.0 89.3 88.9
Leucine 90.7 94.1 74.8 85.0 89.7 88.7
Valine 88.9 87.8 76.3 80.1 88.9 85.8
Histidine 88.5 88.5 64.1 80.3 85.4 86.1
Phenylalanine 91.6 91.6 84.0 85.3 92.3 90.8
Source: Ajinomoto Heartland Lysine LLC Revision 7 (2006)
Table 3a. True digestibility (%) of essential amino acids in common oilseed meal proteins for
poultry.

Soybean meal Palm kernel meal Maize

Amino Acid1
(475.0 g/kg CP) (200.0 g/kg CP) (85.0 g/kg CP)
Arginine 73.3 135.0 44.7
Histidine 26.9 23.0 27.1
Isoleucine 44.6 32.0 34.1
Leucine 78.7 60.0 117.6
Lysine 62.3 36.0 30.6
Methionine 14.1 20.0 21.2
Cystine 15.2 15.0 21.2
Phenylalanine 49.3 39.0 44.7
Threonine 39.4 35.0 34.1
Tryptophan 15.6 10.0 7.1
Valine 46.7 57.0 47.0
1 Data are adapted from Elkin (2002).
Table 3b. Comparative amino acid composition (g/kg protein basis) of soybean meal with
palm kernel meal and maize.
poultry, because of its high digestibility and metabolisable energy content compared with
other vegetable fats/oils (Table 4a). It is used widely in rations for broiler chickens and
growing turkeys as a feed-grade fat to increase energy density of feeds and improve
efficiency of feed utilisation (Sell et al., 1978). The high energy value of soybean oil is
attributed to its high percentage of (poly) unsaturated fatty acids (Table 4b), which are well
absorbed and utilised as a source of energy by the animal (Huyghebaert et al., 1988). Also,
the high polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in soybean oil appears to have an energy
independent effect on improving reproduction in dairy cattle (Lucy et al., 1990; Kerley and
Allee, 2003), and this has been attributed to the role of linoleic acid in reproduction (Staples
et al., 1998).
220 Recent Trends for Enhancing the Diversity and Quality of Soybean Products

Digestibility (%) Metabolisable energy (MJ/kg)

Source
3-4 weeks >4 weeks 1-3 weeks 7.5 weeks
Soybean oil 96+ 96+ 38.5* 38.5*
Corn (maize) oil 84+ 95+ - 41.3#
Lard 92+ 93+ 30.8*** -
Beef tallow 70 + 76+ 30.9* 32.9*
Menhaden oil 88+ 97+ 35.9# 37.6#
Palm oil 74** - 27.7* 32.3*
Sunflower oil 85**** 88**** - 40.4#
+Leeson and Summers (2001), *Wiseman and Salvador (1991), ** Zumbado et al. (1999), ***Huyghebaert
et al. (1988), ****Ortiz et al. (1998), #NRC (1994)
Table 4a. Comparison of digestibility and metabolisable energy values of triglycerides in
broiler chickens fed soybean oil and selected dietary fats/oils.

Soybean Palm Sunflower Corn Poultry

Fatty acid Tallow2 Lard5
oil2 oil2 Oil3 Oil4 oil4
Lauric acid (C12:0) 1 3 - - 2 - -
Myristic acid (C14:0) 2 14 - - 23 16 6
Palmitic acid (C16:0) 161 488 60 112 249 224 232
Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) 6 1 - - 39 21 71
Stearic acid (C18:0) 61 55 64 21 206 177 64
Oleic acid (C18:1) 251 364 284 269 405 461 430
Linoleic acid (C18:2) 452 73 581 579 66 80 179
Linolenic acid (C18:3) 66 2 1 8 10 21 6
Arachidic acid (C20:0) - - 6 5 - - 2
1Values may not total 1000 g due to trace amounts of other fatty acids not reported or rounding of

figures
2Wiseman and Salvador (1991), 3Ortiz et al. (1998), 4Waldroup et al. (1995), 5Huyghebaert et al. (1988)

Table 4b. Comparison of fatty acid composition of soybean oil with selected dietary fats/oils
(g/kg total fatty acids)1.

4. Chemical composition of commonly used soybean products in animal

diets
There are variations in the reported chemical composition of soybean products that can be
attributed to differences in processing methods (Table 5). Also, genetic variations have been
observed in the soybean biotypes of Glycine (Yen et al., 1971; Gu et al., 2010), which may vary
in their chemical compositions. The use of soybean products in non-ruminant diets can give
reasonable performance only if diets are formulated correctly or their anti-nutritive factors
removed. In this regard, nutrient levels, bioavailability, and anti-nutritive factors and their
effects on animal performance must all be considered in determining the usefulness of any
of the soybean products as a feed ingredient. Table 5 shows composition of some soybean
products commonly used in animal feed. It is clear that soybean is a source of high protein
content and quality as well as energy with little or no ANFs. It appears the quality of
soybean proteins improves when subjected to multiple processing procedures. This is
Soybean as a Feed Ingredient for Livestock and Poultry 221

shown by increases in concentrations of limiting essential amino acids such as lysine and
methionine for monogastric animals (Table 5). However, the cost of such improved products
may limit their use in animal feeds.

Full-fat Soybean Soy protein Soy protein

soybean Meal concentrate isolate
Dry matter 89.4 87.6 - 89.8 91.8 93.4
Crude protein 37.1 43.9 - 48.8 68.6 85.9
Crude fibre 5.1 3.4 - 6.3 1.7 1.3
Ether extract 18.4 1.3 - 5.7 2.0 0.6
Ash 4.9 5.7 - 6.3 5.2 3.4
NDF 13.0 10.0 - 21.4 13.5 -
ADF 7.2 5.0 - 10.2 5.4 -
ADL 4.3 0.4 - 1.2 0.4 -
Starch 4.7 3.3 - 7.0 - -
Total sugars - 9.1 - 9.3 - -
Gross energy (MJ/kg) 20.95 17.22 – 17.41 17.89 22.45
Lysine 2.34 2.85 - 3.50 4.59 5.26
Methionine 0.52 0.62 - 0.80 0.87 1.01
Cystine 0.55 0.68 - 0.77 0.89 1.19
Tryptophan 0.49 0.56 - 0.74 0.81 1.08
Calcium 0.26 0.27 - 0.31 0.24 0.15
Phosphorus 0.57 0.64 - 0.66 0.76 0.65
Linoleic acid 9.7 0.6 - 2.9 - -
Urease activity (pH-rise) 2.0 0.05 - 0.5 <0.05 <0.05
Trypsin inhibitor (mg/g) 45-50 1–8 2 <1
Glycinin (ppm) 180.000 66.000 <100 -
β-conglycinin (ppm) >60.000 16.000 <10 -
Lectins (ppm) 3.5000 10 – 200 <1 0
Oligosaccharides (%) 14 15 3 0
Saponins (%) 0.5 0.6 0 0
Data are adapted from NRC (1994), INRA (2004), Peisker (2001)
Table 5. Per cent composition of some soybean products used in animal feed.

4.1 Anti-nutritive factors

Anti-nutritive factors are natural compounds in feedstuffs that impair utilisation of
nutrients with consequent undesirable effects on animal performance. The ANFs in
soybeans exert a negative impact on the nutritional quality for animals (Table 6).
Fortunately, those ANFs with significant impact such as trypsin inhibitors and lectins are
easily destroyed by heat. Of lesser significance are the anti-nutritional effects produced by
relatively heat stable factors, such as goitrogens, tannins, phytoestrogens, oligosaccharides,
phytate, and saponins (Liener, 994). Heat stable ANFs with the exception of
oligosaccharides and the antigenic factors are low in soybeans and not quite likely to cause
problems under practical feeding conditions. The removal of the oligosaccharides and
antigens in the manufacture of soybean protein concentrates further improves the
nutritional value.
222 Recent Trends for Enhancing the Diversity and Quality of Soybean Products

Anti-nutritional factor Mode of action Method of detoxification

Combines with trypsin or
chymotrypsin to form an inactive
complex and lower protein
Heat treatment
digestibility
Protease inhibitors Germination
Causes hypertrophy of the pancreas
Fermentation
Counteracts feedback inhibition of
pancreatic enzyme secretion by
trypsin
Lectins
Agglutinates red blood cells Heat treatments
(Phytohaemagglutinins)
Anti-vitamin factors These factors render certain vitamins Cooking
(rachitogenic factor and (e.g. vitamins A, B12, D, and E) Supplementation of
anti-vitamin B12 factor) physiologically inactive vitamins
Heat treatment in some
Goitrogens Enlargement of the thyroid cases
Administration of iodide
Heat treatment
These factors decrease availability of
Metal-binding factors Addition of chelating
certain minerals (e.g. P, Cu, Fe, Mn,
(phytate) agents
Zn)
Use of enzymes
Saponins Bitter taste, hemolyze red blood cells Fermentation
Cause an enlargement of the
Estrogens
reproductive tract
Cause toxicity through the poisonous
Cyanogens Cooking
hydrogen cyanide
Impair digestion (e.g. intestinal
Oligosaccharides Ethanol/water extraction
cramps, diarrhoea, and flatulence)
Cause the formation of antibodies in
Antigens
the serum of calves and piglets.
(glycinin and β- Ethanol/water extraction
Prevent proliferation of beneficial
conglycinin)
bacteria in the GIT
Sources: Liener (1977), Ensminger and Olentine Jr (1978), Peisker (2001)
Table 6. Anti-nutritive factors in soybeans.
Soybean meal contains high levels of phosphorus, but much of it is present in a complex
form due to the presence of phytic acid. However, the use of phytase can increase
phosphorus retention by 50% and reduction in excretion by 42% (Lei et al., 1993).

5. Utilisation of soybean in animal production

The major farmed animal species diets containing soybean include poultry, pigs, cattle and
aquatic. The global animal feed production by species a decade ago included pigs (31%),
broiler (27%), dairy cattle (17%), beef cattle (9%), layer (8%), aquatic (5%) and 3% of others
(Hoffman, 1999). Thus soybean meal is used relatively more in some types of animal feed
than in others. The major aim is to provide high quality protein to poultry and pigs.
Of all plant protein sources, soybean cultivation alone occupies most land needed for
production of animal products. For example, soybean meal is used extensively in animal
Soybean as a Feed Ingredient for Livestock and Poultry 223

compound feed in the United States (Table 7a) and European Union (Table 7b). The annual
EU livestock consumption alone demands soybean acreage of 5.0 million hectares in Brazil
and 4.2 million hectares in Argentina (Table 7c).

Species Million metric tons Percent of total

Poultry – broilers 12.36 44
Poultry – layers 1.88 7
Swine 6.69 24
Cattle – beef 3.45 13
Cattle – dairy 1.61 6
Pet animals 0.74 3
Aquaculture 0.18 1
Other 0.65 2
Total 27.56 100
Source: United Soybean Board (1999/2000)
Table 7a. Utilisation of soybean meal by livestock in the United States

Production Estimated soy Volume of soybean

Type of animal
volume (1,000 bean meal meal in compound
compound feed
tonnes) content (%) feed (1,000 tonnes)
Cattle – meat 12,148 13.9 1,683
Cattle – dairy 27,852 10.4 2,893
Pigs 51,440 28.8 14,815
Poultry – broilers 30,929 36.8 11,389
Poultry – layers 15,532 22.4 3,477
Other animals (e.g. sheep,
9,522 16.6 1,577
goats, ducks, etc)
Total 147,423 24.3 35,834
Source: PROFUNDO (2008)
Table 7b. Soybean meal used in types of animal compound feed in the European Union-27.

Soybean Soybean
Livestock Acreage Country of Acreage
Equivalent1 Equivalent
product (ha) origin (ha)
(1,000 tonnes) (1,000 tonnes)1
Beef and veal 1,557 595,519 United States 2,102 781,256
Milk 621 237,642 Canada 463 182,290
Pork 10,341 3,956,061 Argentina 11,450 4,240,559
Poultry meat 7,934 3,035,314 Brazil 12,789 4,995,608
Eggs 3,247 1,242,109 Paraguay 585 263,553
Cheese 1,156 442,402 Uruguay 53 26,319
Other
Other products 2,764 1,057,330 180 76,791
countries
Total 27,620 10,566,377 Total 27,621 10,566,377
Source: PROFUNDO (2008) 1,000 tonnes of soybean meal = 771 tonnes of soybeans.
Table 7c. Soybean acreage needed for livestock consumption in the European Union-27 and
by country of origin.
224 Recent Trends for Enhancing the Diversity and Quality of Soybean Products

6. Future challenges of soybean utilisation in animal diets

Future challenges confronting soybean utilisation in animal diets have been discussed by
Kerley and Allee (2003). The major challenges include the following:
 Increased demand for vegetable oil for biodiesel production may in turn reduce overall
production of soybean in favour of other oilseed crops that produce more oil per acre.
For instance, soybean produces about 36 litres of oil per acre compared to 72 litres of
safflower, 84 litres of sunflower and 108 litres of canola (United Soybean Board, 2011).
Even though the nutritional values of meals from these oilseeds are lower than that of
soybean, the increased value of the oil may shift production to these crops at the
expense of soybean.
 Competition between the bio-fuel industry and animal agriculture has increased the
prices of feed ingredients with consequent increase in feeding cost. Also, by-products
from ethanol and biodiesel production (e.g. distillers dried grains with soluble) are now
competing with maize and soybean meal for their place in animal diets.
 Demands on animal production exerted by environmental regulations as a result of
nitrogen waste, malodour and excretion of phosphorus into the environment by the use
of soybean in diets.
 Pressures to improve nutritional value of soybean through breeding to modify aspects
such as anti-nutritive factors, fatty acid profile, and oligosaccharide or protein synthesis
in order to allow greater levels of soybean meal in animal diets.

7. Conclusion
Soybean is the major vegetable protein source in the animal feed industry. Its universal
acceptability in animal feed is as a result of important attributes such as relatively high
protein content and suitable amino acid profile except methionine, minimal variation in
nutrient content, ready availability year-round, and relative freedom from intractable anti-
nutritive factors if properly processed, limited allowable uses of animal proteins in feed and
its relatively low cost. Therefore, its production and consumption will continue to grow as a
preferred source of alternate high quality protein in animal diets.
Commonly used soybean products as protein source in animal feed are soybean meal, full-
fat soybean and soybean protein concentrates, which are obtained through various heat
processing methods that reduce anti-nutritive factors present such as trypsin inhibitors and
lectins. Of these products, soybean meal is most preferred due to its relatively low cost. It is
used extensively in feeds for poultry, pigs and cattle.
Soybean is also a major source of vegetable fat in animal feed. Feed-grade soybean oil is
popularly used in high energy diets, particularly for poultry, because of its high digestibility
and metabolisable energy content compared with other vegetable fats/oils.
Soybean production and utilization for animal feed is bound to face future challenges as a
result of increased demand of vegetable oil for biofuel production; of which soybean is less
competitive. There is also increased research to use co-products from biofuel production as
substitutes for soybean meal in animal diets. Thus, there is a need to overcome these and
other challenges in order not to jeopardise cheap meat production for ever increasing world
population.
Soybean as a Feed Ingredient for Livestock and Poultry 225

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